Chapter 15
Successful and Unsuccessful Paths to Power
(1668-1740)
Changes in Power
In the 16th and 17th centuries, Spain and the
Netherlands were the most powerful
countries with the most influence.
At the end of the 17th century, Britain and
France became more dominant and spain
and the Netherlands began to decline.
The Netherlands:
Golden Age to Decline
The political influence of the Netherlands,
which had been powerful during the 16th
and 17th centuries, began to decline due to
Economic troubles
A loss of leadership
Failure to maintain technological superiority in
shipbuilding.
The Netherlands
The Netherlands emerged as a nation after revolting against
Spain in 1572.
Won formal independence from Spain in the Treaty of
Westphalia, 1648
These 80 years of intermittent warfare forged much of the
national identity of the Netherlands.
The Netherlands was formally a republic. The States General,
the national assembly, met in the Hague.
The Dutch deeply distrusted monarchy and the ambitions of the
House of Orange.
Religious toleration: Calvinist Reformed Church official
church, though not established; Haven for Jews
Urban Prosperity
Economic prosperity
Built on urbanization, transformed agriculture, extensive
trade and finance, and an overseas commercial empire
Over 60% of population was urban, highest in Europe
Diverse agriculture enabled cash crops; tulip bulbs
Amsterdam bourse financed economic life
Seaborne empire
Dutch East Indies Company
East Asia: Java, Moluccas, Sri Lanka
Economic decline
Decline in 18th century
Local provinces prevented emergence of another
stadtholder
Dutch lost naval supremacy to British
Stagnation overtook domestic industries
Continued financial dominance kept Dutch
meaningful in European affairs
France after Louis XIV
France has largest population in Europe (1715)
Five-year-old Louis XV (great-grandson of Louis
XIV) assumed the throne in 1715
Uncle, Duke of Orléans, became regent until 1720
John Law and Mississippi Bubble
Duke of Orléans and John Law: fellow gamblers
Believed an increase in paper money supply would
stimulate France’s economic recovery
Created bank to issue paper money
Organized Mississippi Company—monopoly over
French trade in America
Issued shares of stock in exchange for government bonds
Price of stock rose, investors exchanged for gold—bank
didn’t have enough gold, market crashed
Resulted in fear of paper money and chaotic financial
situation in France
Renewed authority of Parlements
Duke attempted to draw French nobility into
decision-making processes of government again
It failed – they lacked both talent and desire
Power of parliaments and nobles rose, reversing the
legacy of Louis XIV
Chief feature of 18th century French political life was the
attempt of nobility to limit power of monarchy
Parlements and courts were instruments of this process
Could not legislate, but had power to recognize or not
recognize legality of royal law
Duke has formally approved this power – blunder
Administration of Cardinal Fleury
Chief minister of French court
Realist, like predecessors
Determined to solve financial crisis, but failed since he
couldn’t draw enough revenues from the nobles and
church
War between Austria and Prussia undid financial gains
Louis XV ineffective; many vices, few virtues
Not lack of resources or military strength that
plagued France, rather it was the absence of political
leadership to organize, direct, and inspire the people
Great Britain: The Age of Walpole
In 1713 British monarchy’s stability was uncertain
In 1701, as George I took the throne as the first of
the Hanoverian Dynasty, he was unsuccessfully
challenged by the Stuart pretender, James Edward
1707 Act of Union: England + Scotland = Great
Britain
Whigs and Tories
George I favored the Whigs, since the Tories leaned
towards supporting the Stuart pretender
Tories supported a strong monarchy, low taxes for
landowners, and firm support for the Anglican church
Whigs supported monarchy, but wanted Parliament to
retain final sovereignty; urban commercial interests;
prosperity of landowners; and religious toleration
Both groups supported the status quo socially
Whigs and Tories
Neither group was organized like modern political
parties
Political networks based on local connections and
economic influence
Had a few national spokesmen, but no “leaders”
Only the Whigs had access to public office and
patronage
Leadership of Robert Walpole
A British financial scandal launched Walpole into
political prominence
South Sea Bubble
South Sea Co. took over National debt, exchanged
government bonds for co. stock
Price of stock rose, people exchanged bonds for gold,
market crashed
Parliament, under the leadership of Robert Walpole took
measures to honor the national debt
England’s debt was paid off, and they were financially
stable after this—a major reason why they were so
powerful over the next century
Robert Walpole
To many, Walpole had saved the financial integrity of
the country and had proved himself
George I gave Walpole his full confidence, thus he is
regarded as Great Britain’s first prime minister and
originator of the cabinet system of government
Unlike modern prime ministers, he was not chosen by the
majority of the house of Commons
His real sources of power were the support of the kings
(George I and George II), his ability to handle the House of
Commons, and his ironfisted control of government patronage
“Let sleeping dogs lie” – Peace abroad and status quo at
home
Structure of Parliament
Neither democratic nor representative
Each county in Britain elected two members
Powerful families in counties controlled candidates
Most members were elected from boroughs
Units which could be corporations, councils, or families
Easily monopolized
House of Commons could be controlled through
proper electoral management involving favors to
electors
Who ran the British government?
Owners of property, especially wealthy nobles,
dominated government
They did not represent the people or districts, nor
were they responsive to public opinion
They regarded themselves as responsive to various
economic and social interests, such as West Indian,
merchant, landed interests
The supremacy of Parliament gave Britain unity
because the nobility and large landowners supported
it and governed the nation
Sound British financial system
All Britons paid taxes
British credit market was secure through the
regulation of the Bank of England
Strong system of finance and tax collecting
was one of the cornerstones of 18th century
British power
Freedom of political life
Britons were more free than their continental peers
Parliament could not wholly ignore popular political
pressure
Independent newspapers flourished
Freedom of speech and association
No large standing army
Members of Parliament held independent views and their
was viable opposition (Tories and Whig opponents)
What the British regarded as their traditional political
rights raised a real and potent barrier to the power of
government
Central and Eastern Europe and the
Ottoman Empire
KAGAN, PP. 490-501
Maritime Powers
The major factor for the shift of political influence
among the maritime nations were naval strength,
economic progress, foreign trade, and sound
domestic administration.
Conflicts were mainly on the high seas and in overseas
colonies
Nations existed in well-defined geographic areas with
established borders
Populations generally accepted government authority
Central and Eastern Land Powers
Central and eastern Europe was much less advanced
economically than western Europe.
The economy was largely agrarian.
Fewer cities and more large estates with serfs
Limited overseas empires and trade
Habit of temporary and shifting loyalties
Borders ill-defined
Conflict at home rather than overseas
Political structure soft
Constant warfare
Local rulers were unwilling to submit to central authority
Out with the old, in with the new
Russia, Austria, and Prussia (RAP)
achieved their status as a result of the political
decay or military defeat of
Sweden, Ottoman Empire, and Poland
(SOEP)
Sweden: the ambitions of Charles XII
After the Thirty years’ War Sweden consolidated
its control of the Baltic
Prevented Russian control
Permitted Polish and German access only with Swedish
permission
Swedish economy was based on the export of iron
Economy was not strong enough to sustain
political ambitions
Charles XII was headstrong, and perhaps insane.
Great Northern War (1700-1721)
Russia attacked Sweden with the goal of gaining a
foothold on the Baltic.
Charles fought vigorously and brilliantly, but Sweden
lost
Sweden defeated Russia at Narva (1701) and invaded Poland
Sweden invaded Russia (1708) but was defeated decisively at
Poltava in 1709.
Charles fled to Turkey, returned in 1714 and was killed
fighting the Danes.
Sweden lost its monopoly on the Baltic coast and
played only a minor role in European affairs afterwards
Russia conquered much of the eastern Baltic
Prussia gained part of Pomerania
The Great Northern War (1700-1721)
Ottoman Empire
After conquering Constantinople in 1453, the Ottoman
Empire became the largest and most stable political
entity near Europe
Expansion opposed to the east by Persia, to the north
by Russia, and to the west by Poland and Austria
Dominant political power in the Muslim world
Extremely diverse → religiously tolerant, though
Islam was the established religion and their was no
separation of church and state in the western sense.
Ottoman Empire
Ottoman rule and expansion
Ottoman sultans governed the empire through
officially recognized religious communities called
millets.
Non-Muslims, called dhimmis (zimmis), were
second class citizens, excluded from government
offices and the military, required to pay special
taxes, and had other restrictions
Ottomans made their deepest military invasion
into Europe in 1683 when they were decisively
defeated before Vienna (Austria)
Effectiveness to weaknesses
Government effectiveness
Dynasty kept powerful families from government
Major positions filled by loyal (dependent) outsiders
Religious leaders part of government and protected Islamic
law (Shari’a)
Beginning in 17th century, central government weakened
Authority was more centralized leading to internal rivalries
Extremes of empire gained more independence
Europeans surrounded and contained Islamic expansion
Europeans advanced while Ottomans looked inward and stagnated
The Beginning of the End
Economically less advanced than western Europe
no overseas empires or trade
sense of superiority and religious reasons kept them
from advancing
due to this, they did not have the financial or
intellectual foundations for Enlightenment, Industrial
Revolution, etc..
Lost land (Hungary) in the Treaty of Carlowitz
Europe began to see the Ottoman Empire as backwards,
declining in power
Legacy
Ottomans looked inward, viewed selves as
superior, and shut out advancing Europe
Missed intellectual, economic, political, and
technological advances from 17th-19th centuries
Eventually imported Western advisors and
technology rather than build their own
infrastructure
Declined, backward, left behind
Poland
King John III Sobieski, last great Polish leader,
rescued Austria from the Turks (1683)
After that, Poland was the ‘poster child’ for the
dangers of aristocratic independence
King was chosen by the Polish nobility, but the
Polish nobility was deeply divided—they
mistrusted each other
Most monarchs were foreign and the tools of
foreign powers
Nobles’ Democracy (Golden or
Polish) Liberties
Sejm (diet) was the legislative body made up of only
nobles, no representatives
Liberum veto
It required unanimity for all votes in the diet.
One person could oppose and “explode the diet” (require the body
to disband)
Independent mindedness of nobles was known as “Polish
liberties”
It was an exception to government elsewhere, characterized
by a strong aristocracy and a feeble king
Very anti-centralized authority
Without political stability and effective government, it’s no
Habsburg Empire
(Land of Chaos and Disunity)
(1648) Made up of 300 political units
Hapsburgs felt their dynasty might fall prey to
surrounding powers and sought to prevent this and
provide their domains with semblance of legal unity
Charles VI passed the Pragmatic Sanction (1713),
which established a direct Habsburg line (allowed
his daughter to rule after his death) – maintained
control of HRE
However, he left his daughter without a strong army
or enough $ to defend the empire
Consolidation of Austrian Power
Austrian Hapsburg possessions (map 15.2) also included
the kingdom of Bohemia; the duchies of Moravia and
Silesia; and Hungary, Croatia, and Transylvania
Early 18th century added Netherlands, Lombardy in
northern Italy, and briefly the kingdom of Naples
Most difficult province to rule was Hungary – opposed
by Calvinist Magyars and Muslim Ottomans
Leopold I halted the advances of both the Ottomans and
Louis XIV, conquered much of the Balkan peninsula and
western Romania, and established Mediterranean trade
Growth of Prussia
Hohenzollerns acquired titled holdings similar to the
Hapsburgs and forged them into a centrally
administered unit
Prussian = administrative rigor and military discipline
Brandenburg (part of HRE) inherited duchy of Prussia in
1618, and other land as time goes on.
Because their kingdom was in three disconnected
masses, it became the Hohenzollern’s goal to take over
land that belonged to HRE—this would solidify their
kingdom
Prussia
During 30 Years War, Frederick the Great Elector takes
over Brandenburg/Prussia, names himself King
He established himself and his successors by breaking
the local nobles, organizing a royal bureaucracy, and
building a strong army
When refused new taxes he used military force to
collect them
In exchange for their obedience to the Hohenzollerns,
Frederick gave the Junkers the right to demand
obedience from their serfs
Official and army officers pledged allegiance to the
state and monarch
Frederick William I, King of Prussia
Frederick I built palaces, founded universities,
patronized the arts, and lived luxuriously, all very unPrussian
In exchange for supporting the Hapsburg HRE in the
War of Spanish Succession (1701), the emperor
permitted Frederick to assume the title of “King of
Prussia”
Frederick William I (Frederick I’s son) became king
in 1713. His political aims were the consolidation of
an obedient, compliant bureaucracy and the
establishment of a bigger army.
Frederick William I’s Government
Kabinett government: central; lower officials
submitted all relevant documents to him for review and
decisions
General Directory: united all government departments;
government was organized along military lines
He imposed taxes on the nobility and changed most
remaining feudal dues into monetary payments (taxes).
Prussian service to the state and monarch was expected
to be impersonal, mechanical, unquestioning
The Prussian Army
The Prussian army was built on iron discipline.
Frederick William I doubled the size of the army.
Rather than use recruiters, each canton or local district
had to supply a quota of soldiers.
The officer corps was the highest social class in Prussia.
Although Frederick William I built the best army in
Europe, he avoided conflict. The army, for him, was a
symbol of Prussian power and unity, not an instrument
of aggression.
Frederic II (The Great) had no such reservations: he
immediately used his army to expand Prussia vs Austria.
Russia enters the European
political arena
Russia did not become considered part of Europe until
the 1670’s when it began sending permanent
ambassadors to Europe
The Romanov Dynasty followed the rule of Ivan the
Terrible and began in 1613 when the nobles elected
Michael Romanov as tsar. It ruled Russia until 1917.
The early Romanovs brought stability and modest
bureaucratic centralization to Russia. However,
The boyars, the old nobility, controlled the bureaucracy.
The Cossacks, steppe horseman, revolted on the frontier.
The streltsy, guards of the Moscow garrison, threatened mutiny.
Peter the Great
Became tsar in 1682 at age ten
He and his brother, Ivan, co-rulers, came to power
with the support of the streltsy, who in turn expected
to be rewarded.
Their sister, Sophia, was named regent, but she was
overthrown by Peter’s followers in 1689 and he
became sole ruler.
The dangers of his youth and the lessons of Louis
XIV’s young rule convinced Peter
The power of the tsar must be made secure against the
boyars and streltsy
Russia’s military power must be increased
Peter the Great
Peter traveled extensively in Europe, determined to
make Russia western but he has to gain control over
the nobles first
He traveled to England and the Netherlands and
learned about shipyards, docks, and the manufacture
of military hardware.
His goals (2, not 5, it got flipped)
Copy what he’d seen abroad
This required confronting the power and traditions of the
nobles
Taming the Boyars and Streltsy
While Peter was gone the streltsy revolted; he _____
suppressed the revolt.
He introduced ruthless, but effective, conscription.
To subdue the boyars, he personally shaved the long
beards of those in court to humiliate them; then he
stopped granting new boyar titles.
Table of Ranks: equated a person’s social position with
his rank in the bureaucracy/military instead of noble
lineage
All these actions resulted in significant opposition, which
Peter controlled by balancing groups against each other.
Achieving secular control of the
Church
In the middle of the 17th century, a reformist movement
advocated both popular preaching and a more Western
form of clerical education.
This was opposed by a group of Orthodox Christians
known as the Old Believers.
Peter wanted to modernize the church more quickly and
began appointing his own bishops.
Both sides objected to Peter’s interference.
Peter abolished the position of patriarch, the bishop who had
been head of the church, and replaced it with a government
department called the Holy Synod
Peter also wanted to provide for a clear line of
succession; in this he failed
Developing the Navy
“Peter the Great’s most revolutionary innovation”
Part of Peter’s strategy to secure warm water ports
to facilitate Russian trade with the West and to
influence European affairs
Ottoman war: took port of Azov on the Black Sea
Great Northern War (1700-1721) with Sweden
• Peace of Nystad, 1721 (Russia won)
• Russia gained Estonia, Livonia, and part of Finland
Warm water ports and a permanent influence
on European affairs  !
St. Petersburg
Peter founded a new capital city of St. Petersburg
on the Gulf of Finland
Symbolized a new Western orientation for Russia
and Peter’s determination to hold the Baltic coast
Many Russians saw St. Petersburg as a symbol of
Peter’s autocracy and a rejection of Russia
traditions
Reorganizing Domestic
Administration
Colleges
Swedish institution for government
Bureaus of several persons operating according to written
instructions and advised by foreigners, rather than
departments headed by a single minister
Balanced the influence of the nobles
Senate created to replace the Privy Chancellery,
which directed the government while the Tsar was
away with the army
Nine members
Intended to represent the tsar, but in time it also engaged
in intrigue
Westernization of Russia Summary
Built navy
Gained land (Estonia, Livonia, part of Finland)
which gave them ice-free ports
Founded St. Petersburg
Tried to bring Russian Orthodox Church under his
control
Died with no heir