Performing Common Immunization Skills
OVERVIEW
INSTRUCTOR:
UNIT: Recognition of Livestock Management Techniques
LESSON:
Performing Common Immunization Skills
IMS REFERENCE: #8645-E
TOPIC NOTES
PERFORMING COMMON IMMUNIZATION SKILLS
Producers commonly administer vaccines and other medications to their livestock. This is
done to ensure animal health by controlling diseases, infections, and other illnesses.
Proper administration of vaccines and medications is essential to maintain a productive
and profitable livestock enterprise.
To recognize the importance and value of vaccines, the livestock producer must know the
disease-producing organisms. When an animal becomes sick because of interference of
proper body and cell functions, microorganisms invade the animal’s body and overcome
natural defenses. Pathogenic microorganisms cause diseases, and they vary in size and
number.
After the microorganisms enter an animal’s body, they consume body cells and fluids and
cause a poison (toxin) to develop in the body. The increase in the number of
microorganisms in the body varies with the kind and strength of the disease and the
animal’s resistance. Microorganisms also are able to multiply and increase rapidly
because of their high rates of metabolism. High metabolic rates allow them to consume
many times their size in food, body cells, and fluid.
As the microorganism enters the body, several body forces (antibodies) combine in an
attempt to kill the invaders and neutralize the toxins. These antibodies are made from
body cells and tissues. The animal is immune to a disease from which it has recovered if
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its cells continue to make antibodies. Scientists reason that if antibodies protect an animal
against disease, the injection of antibodies into a susceptible animal will provide
immunity to the animal. This idea has saved millions of animals, including humans.
Vaccines, bacterins, and serums produce immunities. Vaccines contain modified (live) or
inactivated (killed) organisms or toxins known to cause a specific disease. Vaccines work
by introducing antigens into an animal’s body; thus antibodies are produced and
immunity is obtained. Bacterins, similar to vaccines, are made from dead bacteria, and
are stored in oil or water containing the same amount of salt as the body fluids.
Bacterins also cause the body to produce antibodies. Serums are produced when plasma
and fibrinogen are removed from blood. Serums provide only temporary immunity to the
animal because injecting them does not cause the body forces in the animal to produce
antibodies.
TYPES OF IMMUNITIES
Immunity is either natural or acquired. Natural immunity is the protection an animal
inherits at the time of birth. It is not associated with antibodies from previous infections
or vaccinations. Acquired immunity is obtained after birth and comes from another
immune animal or exposure to a disease. The two different immunities can be further
divided.
Natural Immunities
Species resistance – Some disease organisms only occur in a certain species.
Breed resistance – Some breeds within a species are more immune to particular diseases
than are other breeds.
Individual resistance – Some individuals show little or no sign of a disease infecting an
entire herd.
Acquired Immunities
Active immunity is acquired by contact with the disease itself when contracting the
disease or having been vaccinated for it. This is usually lifetime immunity.
Passive immunity is acquired when antibodies from an immune animal are transferred to
another animal that is not immune. This immunity lasts only a few weeks or as long as
the antibodies stay in the body. Newborn animals acquire this immunity by drinking
colostrum produced by the mother. A serum can also be injected to provide this
immunity.
Bacteria are another form of microscopic life causing disease in livestock. Bacteria are
extremely small, prokaryotic, unicellular microorganisms that multiply by cell division.
The three classifications of bacteria are bacilli, cocci, and spirilla.
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Viruses are also responsible for many livestock diseases. Vaccines control many animal
diseases caused by viruses.
An animal’s health is a strong influence on the degree of immunization the animal
actually receives. Animals in poor condition are considered bad vaccination risks. These
animals can contract the disease they are being vaccinated for because of the added stress
of being in poor condition.
INJECTIONS – HANDLING AND TYPES
Factors to Consider When Handling Biological Products
Biological products should be properly stored and handled to be effective and efficient.
To acquire better immunization, consider the following factors when using biological
products:

Protect the biological product from heat and light.

Store the biological product under refrigeration (if label so indicates) at 35°F to 45°F.
Do not freeze vaccine.

With a vacuum-dried vaccine, administer immediately after mixing it with the sterile
diluent.

Properly restrain animals to prevent injury to the animal or handler.

Use the biological product when it is first opened. Unused vaccine becomes
contaminated and should be disposed of properly.

Store the biological product in a sanitary manner.

Sterilize instruments before use to prevent contamination.

Shake the container of biological product before each use to obtain a uniform
suspension.

Always provide the recommended dosage.

Be attentive of the expiration date of the biological product.

Refrain from immunizing diseased or unhealthy animals.

Heed label warnings and special instructions.

Note if the biological product is approved for gestating and very young animals.

Carefully read all instructions provided with the biological product.
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Most livestock producers handle and store antibiotics and other drugs used for disease
control. Although producers have a basic knowledge of biological products, local
veterinarians are the best source of information for types and uses of drugs. Federal
regulations require licensed manufacturers of all veterinary products to label containers
or supply the buyers of the products with information on the proper methods of handling
and storing the products. Producers should follow instructions carefully.
Routes for Administration of Vaccines and Other Drugs
The route of administration of a vaccine or other drug influences the rate or manner in
which the product affects the animal. Several routes of administration exist for vaccines
and other drugs. Among these, injections are popular for use to prevent disease and
produce immunity in animals. The livestock producer should be familiar with various
types of injections, other routes of administration, and the terminology used for each.

Paraexternal methods of injection – Applies to any procedure other than through
intestinal tract.

Cutaneous – The material is applied to the skin surface or rubbed into the skin.

Intracutaneous or intradermal – The material is injected into the skin.

Subcutaneous – The material is injected just under the skin.

Intravenous – The material is injected into a vein for fast action.

Intramuscular – The material is injected into large muscles, especially in the neck
area.

Intracardial – The material is injected directly into the heart.

Intrathoracic – The material is injected into the thorax; this procedure is not
commonly used.

Intraocular – The material is placed under the eyelid, on the cornea, or on the anterior
chamber of the eye.

Epidural – The material is injected directly into the spinal canal.

Intrapulmonary – The material is injected into the lung.

Intranasal – The material is inhaled in a dust or vapor form.

Oral – The material is administered through the mouth or injected through a stomach
tube.

Rectal (enema) – The material is injected into the rectum.
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Intramammary – The material is injected into a mammary gland (teat).

Syringe – An instrument used to perform injections, and consisting of plunger, barrel,
and various types and sizes of needles.

Stomach tube – A tube used to pass materials directly into the stomach, and usually
inserted through the mouth or a nostril.
Most dosages of liquid materials for immunizations are measured in cubic centimeters,
commonly referred to as “cc.” One cc is equivalent to one milliliter (ml). The temperature
of materials injected and the syringes and needles used should be near, but not higher
than, body temperature. Some injections, such as for serums, may be administered at
body temperature or at a colder temperature.
INSTRUMENTS USED FOR ADMINISTRATION OF VACCINES AND OTHER
DRUGS
Syringes
Syringes are the most common instrument used to inject liquid products into the body
(other than orally and rectally). Several different syringes are available. The sizes of
syringes range from those that hold a few cc to those that hold several cc. Syringes are
either metal, plastic, or glass. The most popular syringe is the plastic disposable type. For
use on large numbers of animals at one time, the glass-barreled syringe with a pistol grip
and dose-metering device is usually chosen. This type is not disposable and must be
thoroughly cleaned and sterilized before and after use.
Needles
Hypodermic needles are either disposable or reusable. A reusable needle is cleaned and
sterilized before next use. Hypodermic needles are also available in several sizes. The
gauge and length of the needle determine its size. The smaller the gauge number, the
larger is the needle’s size. The length of a hypodermic needle is specified in inches.
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Balling Gun
A balling gun is used to administer pills or boluses to the animal through the mouth and
down the throat. The gun is either aluminum or soft plastic to protect the mouth from
injury, but should be used carefully to avoid puncturing the soft palate. The pill or bolus
is placed in the tubular portion of the instrument and ejected into the throat by a plunger
controlled by the handler. A balling gun is cleaned and disinfected after use.
Dose Syringe
The dose syringe is made of metal and designed to hold liquid to be administered through
the mouth into the throat. Most deworming products are administered by using a dose
syringe. Again, the handler must take care to prevent damaging the soft palate. Also,
proper use is important to keep the liquid from entering the lungs. The dose syringe
requires cleaning and disinfecting after use, similar to all reusable instruments.
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Stomach Tube
Liquid products are placed directly into the stomach by use of a stomach tube. The tube is
placed either through the nose or the mouth and then maneuvered into the esophagus.
Practice is needed to become effective with the stomach tube. Care must be taken to not
damage any soft tissue in the nose, throat, or esophagus during insertion and
maneuvering.
Specialty Needles
Several types of needles are used in special circumstances.
The plastic cannula used to inject vaccines into nasal passages is an example. The
cannula usually fits on a typical syringe. Another special needle is the milk needle or
mammary cannula. It is inserted into the teat canal to inject medicine into the udder.
PREPARING FOR THE INJECTION
A sharp needle of the proper size is selected, as determined by the method of injection
and the species of animal. All instruments are sterilized by boiling in water for fifteen
minutes or soaking them in a special disinfectant (commonly a 70% alcohol solution,
depending on the vaccine or product administered). If injections are made in several
animals, the needle or instrument should be sterilized before injecting each animal. Never
use a contaminated, bent, or broken needle as it usually causes injury or infection at the
injection site. The working pen, restraint device, table surface, and other equipment used
during the injection procedure should be kept clean to reduce the chance of infection. To
eliminate the possibility of forcing unwanted microorganisms into the animal’s body, clip
or shave the hair and then clean the injection site with an antiseptic solution.
ADMINISTERING THE INJECTIONS
Producers commonly administer injections of various products. Such injections are
convenient and accurate means of treating sick animals or administering vaccines,
serums, and bacterins.
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Subcutaneous (Sub Q)
Subcutaneous injections are administered just under the skin. Subcutaneous injections
may be made in any area over which the skin fits loosely, such as the neck, chest wall,
arm pit, or flank. The loose skin at the injection site is cleansed with alcohol, then
gathered and “tented.” The tented skin is where the needle is inserted and the syringe
contents discharged. Following the injection, the area may be massaged to distribute the
material. The Sub Q injection has a slow but sustained absorption rate. A 1/2-inch to 3/4inch long needle is used for cattle. Some product labels indicate that a product can be
administered by intramuscular or subcutaneous injection. If this option is available, it is
recommended to use the subcutaneous method to minimize risk of injection site lesions in
the muscle.
Intramuscular (IM)
Intramuscular injections are made deeply into a large muscle (in the shoulder and neck).
Cleanse the injection site and insert the needle deeply into the muscle. Use a needle at
least 1½ inches long for cattle and inject no more than 10 cc of product at the injection
site. To ensure the needle injected into a muscle and not a vein, pull the syringe’s plunger
just enough to verify that no blood flows into the syringe. Absorption of an IM injection
is quick because of good blood supply at the injection site.
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Intravenous (IV)
An intravenous injection is made into a vein. Absorption of an IV injection is very quick.
The jugular vein is a common site for intravenous injections. The jugular vein’s position
is in a groove located from the back point of the jawbone at an angle to the point of the
shoulder on either side of the neck. Applying pressure to this area with the thumb
temporarily restricts the blood flow, and thus enlarges the vein to visible size. After
cleaning the injection site with alcohol, insert the needle through the skin (at about a 30degree angle) into the vein. After insertion of the needle, withdraw the plunger enough to
apply suction to inspect for blood flow before allowing medication to enter the
bloodstream. The administration of IV medication is at a slow rate.
Intramammary (IMM)
An intramammary injection is accomplished by disinfecting the teat, depressing it to open
the sphincter muscle, inserting the sterile cannula, and then forcing the medication into
the teat canal from the syringe or tube. The teat should be disinfected again after the
IMM injection.
Intraperitoneal (IP)
The intraperitoneal injection is used mainly for administering large quantities of fluid,
such as calcium gluconate, dextrose, and triple sulfa. Use a long needle (16 gauge x 2?, or
14 gauge x 3?). Warm the solution to body temperature before administration. Insert the
needle into the right flank (at a point in the center of the triangle formed by the loin, last
rib, and a line from the top of the last rib to the hipbone). With a sharp thrust, drive the
needle through the skin, muscle, and peritoneal lining. Large volumes of fluid can be
administered by using an IV unit.
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Intrarumen (IR)
An intrarumen injection is used to administer medication promptly in case of bloat by a
ruminant animal. Always insert the needle through the left flank. Use a 14 gauge x 3?
needle. Proper positioning of the needle is indicated by the return of gas or liquid from
the stomach. Medication can also be given with a stomach tube.
Intradermal (ID)
The intradermal injection is made with a 20- to 16-gauge needle into the skin (and
between two layers of skin). Evidence of an intradermal injection is a raised blister
consisting of the injected material. The hair at the injection site is shaved before
administering an intradermal injection.
SELECTED WEB SITES FOR INFORMATION RELATED TO
IMMUNIZATION SKILLS
www.ca.uky.edu/agc/pubs/id/id140/id140.htm
www.ianr.unl.edu/pubs/animaldisease/g797.htm
www.ca.uky.edu/agripedia/classes/asc106/healprev.htm
www.saanendoah.com/basicme3b.html
www.ianr.unl.edu/pubs/animaldisease/g797.htm
www.ibc.iastate.edu/PDFs/BCH/Bch03001.pdf
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Holly Hutton, Graduate Assistant, Department of Agricultural Education,
Texas A&M University, revised this topic.
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Larry Ermis, Curriculum Specialist, Instructional Materials Service,
Texas A&M University, reviewed and edited this topic.
Vickie Marriott, Office Software Associate, Instructional Materials Service,
Texas A&M University, prepared the layout and design for this topic.
Christine Stetter, Artist, Instructional Materials Service,
Texas A&M University, prepared the illustrations for this topic.
REFERENCES
“Administration of Medicine and Vaccines to Cattle.” Cooperative Extension Service.
Texas A&M University System, College Station, TX.
Baker, J., W. Greer, and N. Jackson. Animal Health. New York, NY: Prentice Hall, Inc.,
2002.
Campbell, J. R. and J. F. Lasley. The Science of Animals That Serve Mankind. New York,
NY:McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1989.
Fard-Sarhangi, E. Sheep Production. Ames, IA: Iowa Curriculum Assistance System,
1982.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Colostrum – Milk secreted for the first few days after birth and essential for the newborn;
contains high levels of vitamins, promotes antibodies for disease protection, and provides
a laxative effect.
Fibrinogen – A protein in blood that causes clotting.
Gauge – Measurement of the diameter of a needle.
Hypodermic – referring to a disposable or reusable needle for injecting a suspension
under the skin.
Immune – Protected from a disease.
Metabolism – Transformation by which energy is made available for body uses.
Pathogenic microorganisms – Small, living forms of organisms capable of causing
diseases in animals.
Plasma – Liquid part of blood.
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Prokaryotic – Lacking nuclei.
Toxin – Waste product of organisms known to cause disease.
Viruses – Living, submicroscopic agents that cause diseases in living cells.
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