General Article
Natural Product Radiance, Vol. 7(2), 2008, pp.139-145
Marine organisms in Indian medicine
and their future prospects
Radhika Gopal, M Vijayakumaran, R Venkatesan* and S Kathiroli
National Institute of Ocean Technology
Velachery-Tambaram Road, Pallikaranai
Chennai-601302, Tamil Nadu, India
*Correspondent author, E-mail: [email protected]; Phone: +91-04466 783 422
Received 22 March 2007; Accepted 7 September 2007
Abstract
The marine ecosystem is a rich source of both biological and chemical diversity which
has been explored in the discovery of unique chemicals, having potential for industrial development
as pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, nutritional supplements, molecular probes, fine chemicals and
agrochemicals. In recent years, a significant number of novel metabolites with potent pharmacological
properties have been discovered from marine organisms. In the present paper various research
reports on some marine organisms used in different Indian systems of medicine have been discussed
for further developments.
Keywords: Marine resources, Medicine, Sponges, Corals, Crustaceans, Pearl Oyster, Edible Oyster,
Conch, Cowries, Cephalopods, Fishes, Turtle, Sea Mammals, Indian System of Medicine.
IPC code; Int. cl.8— A61K 38/57, A61K 45/00.
Introduction
Natural products constitute the
best possible library with maximum
possible diversity of chemical structural
types. With the advent of modern tools
they have been eminently screened. Based
on traditional use or modern studies
natural products contribute 85% of the
treatment regimes of 80% of the World’s
population. The chemical complexity of
the complex natural products till now
thought to be a disadvantage for drug
discovery can now be considered as an
advantage for the drug development.
The oceans are full of living
organisms and contain more flora and
fauna compared to the land1. In the course
of evolution, marine organisms have
adapted excellently to the marine
environment, such as high salt
Vol 7(2) March-April 2008
concentration, low temperature, high
pressure and low nutrient availability.
These extreme conditions require unique
adaptation strategies leading to the
development of new natural products,
which differ from known structures of
terrestrial organisms2. About 7000 marine
natural products have been isolated so far,
25% of which are from algae, 33% from
sponges, 18% from coelenterates (sea
whips, sea fans and soft corals), and
24% from representatives of other
invertebrate phyla such as ascidians (also
called tunicates), opisthobranch molluscs
(nudibranchs, sea hares, etc.),
echinoderms (starfish, sea cucumbers and
others) and bryozoans (moss animals)3.
Although research on marine
natural products started only about 50
years ago, marine organisms have been
used in traditional system of medicine
much before that. In most countries with
ancient civilizations, such as India, a
system of medicine, indigenous to the
country concerned, exists. In spite of all
recent advances in medicine, indigenous
medicine still caters to the needs of a large
section of the population4. Knowledge
gained over trial and error over thousands
of years in India has been systematized as
different systems in Indian Medicine5.
These drugs are used singly or in simple
combinations or as compounds referred
as polypharmaceuticals. The forms in
which these are used are varied like
extracted juices, decoctions, infusions,
distillates, powders, tablets, pills,
confections, syrups, fermented liquids,
medicated oil, bhasmas (ash) and many
more5, 6.
Drug discovery and development
from the Ocean was initiated about 50
years ago with the discovery of the spongederived nucleosides spongothymidine and
spongouridine7. Since then well over
14,000 different natural products from
marine organisms have been described8
and hundreds of patents describing new
bioactive marine natural products have
been filed9. Approximately 10-15 different
marine natural products are currently in
clinical trials mostly in the areas of cancer,
pain or inflammatory diseases10.
139
General Article
Medicinal Marine Organisms
1. Sponges, Spongia officinalis
Sponges occur as a light lump of
porous nature and they are yellowishbrown, soft, elastic and irregularly shaped.
Divers collect them from submerged rocks
to which they adhere. When fresh, they
are covered with a gelatinous substance
that must be removed to prevent
putrefaction. Dry sponge consists of
gelatine, albumin and iodine. Its ash is
obtained by burning the sponge in a closed
vessel and used as deobstruent and
astringent. Mixed with oil it is applied to
swollen glands (goitre). It is also given
internally in treating dysentery, diarrhoea
and other bowel complaints. Sponge is
generally used for absorbing liquids,
cleaning and washing, dilating cavities and
for supporting prolapsed parts11.
2. Corals
Corals are of varied types and are
exclusively marine. Two types are used
commonly in medicine. One is a porous
lumpy variety and the other is a slender
precious variety. Both are red in colour
due to a pigment. Corals contain mostly
calcium and small amounts of
magnesium, iron and phosphorous.
Calcined corals are used in treating piles,
coughs and tuberculosis12. The lumpy
variety is cheaper while the slender variety
is expensive. Lumpy porous variety is
called coral root and the slender variety,
coral branch in English13. In the Ayurvedic
system, the ash form of corals, popularly
known as Pravala Bhasma has been
used in treating cough, phthisis,
pulmonary tuberculosis, asthma, chronic
bronchitis, fever, urinary diseases,
spermatorrhoea, gleet and gonorrhoea,
carbuncle, scrofulous affections and as a
140
tonic against headache, giddiness and
vertigo11. Coral ash is also used as a local
astringent in the preparation of tooth
powders, in preparations for the treatment
of cancer of breast, lungs, stomach and
uterus 14 , anaemia, and haemolytic
jaundice 15. It is used in reducing
inflammation, dysuria and oligouria16.
In Siddha system of medicine,
coral is mentioned as Pavalam and
Pavalam based drugs have been claimed
to cure loss of appetite, polyphagia,
delirium, oligospermia, eye diseases,
rickets, diabetes mellitus, skin diseases,
ulcers, puerperal sepsis and many diseases
for which it is used in Ayurveda17, 18.
In Unani system of medicine,
coral is a valuable drug with multifarious
uses. Root (Bikhe Marjan/Bussud) and
branch of coral (Shakh-e-Marjan) are
used separately for different medicinal
purposes. Internally it is constipatory,
astringent, styptic, antidiarrhoeic,
diuretic, urinary antiseptic, detoxicant and
general tonic. It is useful in treating
melancholia, epilepsy, insanity,
palpitation, enlargement of spleen, gastric
disorders, renal calculi and piles. It is
recommended in treating stomatitis,
haemoptysis, cough, phthisis and asthma.
The ash is used as a tooth powder for
strengthening gums and teeth, as surma
for treatment of eye diseases, as eardrops
with oil for alleviating ear ache and as an
aqueous lotion in leprosy19. It is also used
for treating anaemia, high fever and
haemolytic jaundice20.
Otitismedia and ear troubles in Siddha
medicine18. The crab, Scylla serrata has
antibilious, diuretic, laxative and
haematinic properties and is a cardiac
stimulant21. The Santal tribals of Andaman
and Nicobar Islands in India use crabs to
cure vomiting in infants and puerperal
fever22.
Crab fossil
This consists of fossilized
remains of crabs available in some South
Indian localities. A calcinated residual fine
powder of crab fossils is given as a specific
medicine in urinary obstructions and
lithiasis12.
4. Molluscs
Pearl oyster
Pearls are calcareous concretions
formed as protection against irritation
caused by foreign objects, which lodge
inside between the mantle and shell of
pearl oysters. Pearls have been used in
medicine by the Ayurveda and Unani
physicians from ancient times. Pearl
oysters of marine origin belong to a single
genus, Pinctada. In general, pearls are
considered to possess antacid and tonic
properties and are mostly used in the form
of pearl ash (Mukta bhasma), obtained
as a result of powdering or calcining the
pearls 22 . In combination with other
medicines, they are prescribed in treating
tuberculosis, jaundice, dyspepsia and
urinary complaints 23. The calx is a
stimulant, tonic, antacid and
aphrodisiac12. The shell of Mother-of-pearl
3. Crustaceans
is used in medicine. Medicinally its flesh
Crabs
is acrid, demulcent, palatable and
Oil extracted from crab’s flesh is beneficial in phthisis and heart diseases.
used as one of the ingredients in The ash (Sukti bhasma) of the Muktapreparations used in treating Otorrhea, Sukti (pearl oyster) a kind of shell is
Natural Product Radiance
General Article
beneficial in treating dyspepsia, abdominal
tumours, liver and spleen enlargements
and loss of appetite. The lime obtained
by burning hard cover has the same
properties as that of Sukti-bhasma11.
Pearls from the back lip oyster,
Pinctada margaritifera are purified by
boiling in the juices of Sesbania
cannabina (Retz.) Pers. leaves or
flowers of S. grandiflora (Linn.) Poir.
It is then calcined in covered crucible and
finely powdered for medicinal use. This
powder is cleaned by rubbing it with the
juice of Rumex vesicarius Linn. and
then transferred to a lemon and stowed
in a mass of paddy. After one week, it is
heated in a crucible and ashed. The
powdered ash is a stimulant and tonic and
acts as an aphrodisiac. Pearl ash is chiefly
carbonated oxide of lime and acts also as
an antacid. The ash (Mukta bhasma)
is used in treating heart-burn and bilious
affections. Mukta bhasma given twice
a day with honey is useful in treating
cough, phthisis and asthma. Its chief use
is in low fevers giving rise to burning
sensation in the eyes, palms and soles. It
reduces the yellowish tinge in the
conjunctivae and in urine due to low fever
and reduces the burning during
micturition. It is also used as a cerebral
tonic in nervous diseases such as chronic
headache, epilepsy and other convulsive
attacks. It is used to treat piles,
leucorrhoea and spermatorrhoea and
impotence. The powder is one of the
ingredients in numerous Indian
preparations used for treating impotence,
heart disease, consumption (pulmonary
tuberculosis), etc. Pittantaka rasa (a
preparation) made from pearl ash
together with several other substances is
useful in controlling diseases caused by
Vol 7(2) March-April 2008
deranged bile (pitta) such as dyspepsia,
jaundice, biliousness, vomiting of bile,
etc. Another preparation containing pearls
known as Vasantakusumakara rasa
given with sugar, honey and ghee is used
in treating urinary diseases, impotence,
gleets, diabetes and general debility. This
medicine is a valuable alterative tonic in
chronic gonorrhoea and spermatorrhoea
and is prescribed in these complaints in
combination with an extract called
Kusavaleha. For seminal weakness, a
pill made up of Mukta bhasma and red
coral bhasma is used. A concoction
made up of 29 ingredients among which
pearl is one is used as a tonic to strengthen
cardiac muscles and the central nervous
system. A powder prepared with pearl ash
as one of its ingredients is used in treating
general debility, leucorrhoea, diabetes,
etc11. Pinctada margaritifera alkaline
ash in calcined state also serves as an
antacid in heart burn and bilious
affections24.
Pearls found on the southern sea
coasts of India are said to be more useful
in medicinal purposes25. Pearls have also
been used in the Siddha system as a
treatment in all kinds of fevers, brain or
nervous symptoms, opacity of cornea,
cataract, keratitis, iritis and in all kinds
of eye diseases including night blindness
and colour blindness18. The pearl powder
is used generally in treating urinary
diseases, constipation and to increase
strength, nutrition and energy24. Pearls
have also been used in several Ayurvedic
preparations for the treatment of cough,
phthisis, dentitional fever, weakness of
heart and mental disorders16. It is also
known to promote strength and intellect
and enhance semen production. It
alleviates burning sensation in eyes, eye
diseases, bronchial asthma and cough26.
Pearls are one of the ingredients of
Ayurvedic preparations in the treatment
of throat cancer14. In Siddha medicine,
preparations in the form of calx/bhasmam
are used in treating of glycaemia and
glycosurea, and diabetic neuropathy27. In
the Unani system of medicine, pearl,
known as Mervareed, is used in treating
heart
weakness,
myocardial
degenerations, anaemia, neurosis,
palpitations, tuberculosis and habitual
abortions20.
Edible oyster
Ostrea gryphoides (Saccostrea
gryphoides Schl.) is a shell fish found
in the Atlantic and Indian Ocean coasts.
It has a small, hollow, ovate excavation in
which the animal with a soft, fleshy sub
orbicular body is enclosed. The shell has
a hinge at one end and opens into two
valves; one shallow and the other deep,
which is found adhering to the rock. The
shell is hard, externally grey or darkbrown, rough and marked with lateral
undulated streaks; internally it is white,
smooth and shining. It contains calcium
carbonate (85 to 95%), phosphate and
sulphate of calcium and magnesium, iron
oxide, alumina and silica. The inner layer
is chiefly used in preparing the ash, called
Kalu bhasma. The ash is antacid and
alterative and is used in treating cases of
diarrhoea and chronic intestinal disorders.
This animal is supposed to possess
aphrodisiac properties and is therefore,
eaten raw or cooked. A paste of the shell
is used as an absorbent for the same
purposes as the other shells.
Oyster shells are used in Siddha
preparations for treating Otorrhoea,
Otitismedia and ear troubles18. The Ayurvedic
141
General Article
text Sushruta Samhita mentions the use is also used to treat catarrh, sore throat,
of shells of marine oysters and pearls in cough and asthma11.
Conch shells are used to prepare
eye-salves in ophthalmic and other ocular
sticks used for various ocular problems
infections28.
namely, opacity of cornea, cataract,
ophthalmic, keratitis, iritic and granular
5. Gastropods
lids. In Siddha medicines, it is also used
Conch
Conch is the empty shell of in all kinds of eye diseases including night
Turbinella rapa or Xanchus pyrum, blindness and colour blindness18. Conch
a marine gastropod. It is a source of shell is also useful in treating itching of
calcium salts 12. Conch is known as eyelids and chronic conjunctivitis with
Sankha in Indian medicine and Sankha mucous discharge, especially in
bhasma prepared by incinerating the children29. Sankha is a good antacid and
conch shell is used in treating dyspepsia, as such is used in gastritis and peptic
digestive impairment, malabsorption ulcer26. Shankha bhasma is used for
syndrome, enlargement of liver- treatment of hyperpyrexia-high fever. Eyehepatomegaly, hyperacidity and duodenal salves and pastes prepared using burnt
ulcer16. The flesh of this animal, used as conch shells are used in ophthalmic and
an anodyne, is nutritious and is a cardiac other ocular infections in Ayurveda15.
stimulant. It is also used in asthma,
phthisis and tumours. Sankha bhasma Cowries
(Conch shell ash) is used for earache,
Cowry is the name given to small,
ulcers, and eye troubles and is indicated convolute glossy shells of variegated
internally in case of dyspepsia, colours of oblong, oval shape varying in
gonorrhoea, colic, dysentery, jaundice, size. Three varieties of cowries — white,
tympanitis and flatulence. A pill called red and yellow are used in medicine. The
Sankhavati made from conch shell is ash form of Cypraea moneta known
used in dyspepsia, acid urine, diarrhoea as Cowrie bhasma contains phosphate,
and chronic dysentery. Sankha bhasma fluoride and carbonate of calcium,
magnesium, phosphate and manganese.
It is used in the treatment of dyspepsia,
jaundice, enlarged spleen and liver, asthma
and cough. It is externally used as caustic
in various forms of ointments11.
6. Cephalopods
The internal shell of Sepia
officinalis is often found floating in sea
water. The shell (cuttle fish bone) is an
oblong, elliptical or oval, flat substance
of whitish colour, porous and brittle. It is
an antacid like chalk, used as astringent
and a local sedative. When powdered, it
is used as a dusting powder to relieve the
ear pain or in otorrhoea and medicated
oil prepared by boiling fine scraping of
the bone in sweet or sesame oil is used as
drops for same purpose. Its paste made
with lime-juice is used in treating itches
and other skin diseases. It is also used
with rose water to control prickly heat.
The powder is an ingredient of various
tooth-powders. A thin paste made of
cuttle-fish bone and rock salt in rose water
is used to control conjunctivitis11. The
powder is also given internally to control
sprue and dysentry12.
Marine corals and sponges used in traditional medicine
142
Natural Product Radiance
General Article
Commonly used marine crustaceans and molluscs in traditional medicine
7. Fishes
In Ayurveda, different properties
have been ascribed not only to different
fishes, but also to same fish living and
growing in different waters. Fish from
different sources are also recommended
to be taken in different seasons11. The
Materia Medica of Ayurveda mentions
that a sea fish is heavy, unctuous and sweet.
The fish and its eggs are sweet and have
aphrodisiac properties30. It increases stool
and semen and is an excellent promoter
of strength because the sea fish are mostly
carnivorous. Fish liver oil derived from
liver of shark, skate and sand fishes are
beneficial in debilitating diseases and in
malnutrition. Clarias batrachus Linn.
is used in the treatment of diarrhoea. The
flesh of Saccobranchus fossilis is a
demulcent, a cardiac stimulant,
aphrodisiac, galactagogue and also used
in treating jaundice. Oil of
Scomberomorus commersoni Lacep.
(Seer Fish) is used as a substitute for cod
liver oil. The flesh of Trichogaster
fasciatus has astringent and constipating
properties21.
Squalus carcharius (White
Shark) is found along the Indian coasts.
The oil extracted from its liver is called
Oleum Squalae which is extracted by
boiling fresh liver in water. It is an amber
Vol 7(2) March-April 2008
coloured oily liquid with a fish odour and
taste like cod liver oil but more strongly
marked and more disagreeable when left
for some times. It deposits a white granular
substance stearin which is called Squalin.
It is richer in iodine and phosphorous
than cod liver oil but contains less
bromine and sulphur. As an emulsion it
is used daily as a nutrient, demulcent and
alterative. It is given to treat cachexia,
pulmonary consumption, atrophy,
scrofulous affections of the joints and
bones especially rickets, scrofulous
ophthalmic and scrofulous abscesses,
suppurating glands, ulcerations and
discharges from the nose or ears and skin
diseases. It is also used in treating
mesenteric affections of children with
tumefied belly with loose and clayey stools,
in their obstinate constipations and in
stricture of the rectum, chronic
hydrocephalus, the advanced stages of
spasmodic coughs such as whooping
cough and other lung affections and
cholera, epilepsy, neuralgia especially Tio
Doulouroux, chronic rheumatism causing
atrophy, some form of paralysis and
leprosy11.
Live fish
In the Indian city, Hyderabad, live
fish is used as a cure for asthma. The
success of this 156 year old traditional
medicine is a closely-guarded secret by
one family. A yellow-paste (the ingredients
of which are kept secret by the family) is
stuffed into the mouth of a two-to-threeinch long "murrel" fish and this is then
forced down the gullet of the patient. It is
claimed that the movement of the fish
clears the phlegm in the patients windpipe
as it makes its way down to the stomach,
where the medicine is digested31.
8. Turtles
Oil extracted from the turtle,
Chelonia mydas is nutritious and
used as an alterative and demulcent. The
turtle fat is given to control scrofula,
rickets, anaemia and pulmonary
infections19. Turtles shell is used in Siddha
preparations to treat opacity of cornea,
cataract, ophthalmic, keratitis, iritis,
granular lids and in all kinds of eye
diseases including night blindness and
colour blindness18.
9. Sea mammals
Sea Cow, Halicore dugong
(Dugong dugon) Erxleben.
The oil of the sea cow, Halicore
dugong Erxleben. known as Dugong oil
or oil of Sen Hog is used as a substitute
for cod liver oil21.
143
General Article
Future prospects of marine
products in drug
development
The Indian Ocean is the repository
of a diverse and rich source of flora and
fauna that have not been explored
systematically for their commercial use.
The use of marine organisms in Indian
medicinal systems mentioned in ancient
Indian texts clearly indicates their
indispensability. The calcium and carbon
found in corals, shells and pearls are not
in the form of calcium carbonate and
hence are considered as different calcium
salts which are used in a wide range of
ailments. Chemistry of marine natural
products is a relatively newer area of
potential resource to chemists and
pharmacologists for discovering new
therapeutic targets or developing new
leads. In the 1980s, researchers discovered
that horseshoe crabs' blood could be used
to detect dangerous endotoxins in drugs,
medical devices and in water. Bryostatin
1, a compound isolated from the bryozoan
Bugula neritina is on a Phase I trial for
use as a treatment of melanoma, nonHodgkin's lymphoma and renal cancer32.
Conotoxins are useful tools for examining
the molecular nature of diseases in which
the function of nicotinic receptors in the
brain is impaired, such as Alzheimer's
disease, Parkinsons's disease and
epilepsy33.
Several sponge species e.g.
Sigmosceptrella and Prianos produce
compounds which have shown great
promise as drugs to combat malaria,
tuberculosis and other infectious
diseases32. Many compounds extracted
from sponges have also anti-viral, antineoplastic and anti-cancer properties34.
144
Halichondrin B, first isolated from the
Japanese sponge Halichondria okadai,
has shown potential in vivo treatment
for melanoma and leukemia and is
currently in preclinical trials.
Debromohymenialdisine (DBH), one of
several constituents of the common
Palauan shallow-water sponge Stylotella
aurantium is an interesting drug like
molecule that is easily synthesized and is
being developed for the treatment of
osteoarthritis32. Marine resources are
sustainable sources of various natural
products hence have great potential in drug
development35.
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Acknowledgements
We thank the Ministry of Earth
Sciences, Government of India for the
funding support under the project Ocean
Science and Technology for Islands and
express our gratitude to Dr. V. R. Seshadri
(Indian Medical Practitioners Cooperative Pharmacy and Stores, Chennai),
Dr. N. Athiyaman and Saraswati Mahal
(Librarian, Tamil University, Tanjavur) for
providing library access and in reference
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of Archives and Historical Research,
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permission to access the library. Support
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Natural Product Radiance
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