Spatial Heterogeneity and the Wage Curve Revisited

TI 2004-054/3
Tinbergen Institute Discussion Paper
Spatial Heterogeneity and the Wage
Curve Revisited
Simonetta Longhi1
Peter Nijkamp1
Jacques Poot2
12 Faculty
Institute,
of Economics and Business Administration, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, and Tinbergen
2 University
of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand.
Tinbergen Institute
The Tinbergen Institute is the institute for
economic research of the Erasmus Universiteit
Rotterdam, Universiteit van Amsterdam, and Vrije
Universiteit Amsterdam.
Tinbergen Institute Amsterdam
Roetersstraat 31
1018 WB Amsterdam
The Netherlands
Tel.:
Fax:
+31(0)20 551 3500
+31(0)20 551 3555
Tinbergen Institute Rotterdam
Burg. Oudlaan 50
3062 PA Rotterdam
The Netherlands
Tel.:
Fax:
+31(0)10 408 8900
+31(0)10 408 9031
Please send questions and/or remarks of nonscientific nature to [email protected].
Most TI discussion papers can be downloaded at
http://www.tinbergen.nl.
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