The Nature and Measurement of Individual Differences in
Epistemic Curiosity
Epistemic Curiosity (EC): An innate motive that underlies knowledge-seeking, problem-solving and
intellectual development. Research on individual differences in EC suggest that the construct reflects
approaching and using new information in order to either...
Stimulate affectively positive states of
intellectual interest (I-type)
or
Relieve negative affective states of
feeling deprived of knowledge (D-type).
These two expressions of
intellectual curiosity overlap
quite a bit, but are found to
correspond to meaningfully
distinct experiences and
expressions relevant to
learning over the lifespan.
The Measurement of Individual Differences in I- and D-type EC Over the Life Span
The I/D Distinction:
Correlated but meaningfully different Dimensions of EC
Basic Diagram of the I/D EC Model [1.2.3]
The I- and D-type EC traits are assessed by two 5-item self- or other-report
scales for children and adults (Alpha range .75 to.85).
Generally excellent model fit in CFA’s (CFI, NNFI >.95.); fit always much
poorer for 1-factor models. Validated in large samples cross-culturally and
across the lifespan.
Inter-factor/scale r’s are strong (M r =.52) as are loadings (range .50 to .80)
Age Cohort
[1]
Young
Children
(3-7)
I-type EC sample items
“My child is attracted to new
things in his/her environment.”
“My child shows visible
enjoyment when discovering
something new”
[2]
Early to
Middle
Adolescents
(8-12)
“I have fun learning about a
new topic or subject”
[3]
Young,
Middle, &
Older Adults
(18-70)
“I enjoy exploring new ideas”
“I enjoy talking about topics that
are new to me”
“When I learn something new, I
would like to find out more
about it”
D-type EC sample items
"My child will work for a long time to
solve a problem because s/he wants
to know the answer"
Both scales positively correlated (M r = .50) with
NFC, TIE, and other related scales (convergence)
"My child carefully examines things
by turning them around or looking at
them from all sides"
Both only weakly related or uncorrelated to other
constructs (divergence).
“It bothers me when I don't
understand something, so I try hard
to understand it”
“When presented with a tough
problem, I focus all of my attention on
how to solve it.”
“I can spend hours on a single
problem because I just can’t rest
without knowing the answer”
“I work like a fiend at problems that I
feel must be solved”
Although I- and D-type EC overlap, they show
very different relationships to Openness and to
Conscientiousness and each scale predicts very
different kinds of self-directed learning activities
over the lifespan…
Notes:
1. Piotrowski et al (2014)
2. Litman & Zettler (in development)
3. Litman (2008); Litman et al (2010); Litman & Mussel (2013)
The I/D EC Distinction:
A summary of findings that suggest each may guide self-directed learning in different ways
that map onto the higher order constructs of Openness and Conscientiousness
I-type EC
(Novelty- and Fun-seeking : Openness Oriented)
Positively related measures of Openness (M r = .40);
uncorrelated to Conscientiousness [1]
D-type EC
(Intense & Persistent: Conscientiousness Oriented)
Positively related to measures of Conscientiousness (M r = .32);
weakly related to Openness (M r = .10) [1]
Predicts levels of state-curiosity to learn when individuals
report they “Don’t Know” something (i.e., totally novel; B =
.24). Also, levels of state-curiosity and knowledge-seeking are
significantly lower as compared to D-type EC. [2]
Predicts levels of state-curiosity to learn something when
individuals report it is on the “TOT” (i.e., have some prior
knowledge; B = .33). Levels of state curiosity and knowledgeseeking are significantly higher as compared to I-type EC [2]
Positively related to positive affect (r = .30); negatively related
to negative affect (M r = -.15). [1, 3]
Positively related to negative affect (M r = .20); essentially
uncorrelated to measures of positive affect. [1, 3]
Positively correlated with setting learning goals aimed at
mastering new interests (r = .45); essentially unrelated to other
learning goals. [1, 4, 5]
Positively correlated with setting performance-approach and
failure avoidant learning goals (M r = .28); less related to
mastery/interest related goals (r = .17). [1]
Positively related to IM (M r = .40); unrelated to EM and
desires for tangible rewards. [1]
Positively related to both IM (M r = .25) and EM (M r= .23), but
unrelated to desires for tangible rewards. [1, 4, 5]
Positively related to ambiguity tolerance (r = .36). [3]
Negatively related to ambiguity tolerance (r = -.15). [3]
Significantly predicts developing study strategies aimed at
intrinsic interest and personal satisfaction (B = .31). [6]
Significantly predicts developing study strategies aimed at
devoting time and effort to fully understand material (B = .37). [6]
Notes: All reported coefficients significant p< .05; M = Mean; r = partial correlation, holding other EC scale constant; B = std. path/regression coefficient.
1. Litman & Mussel (2013)
2. Litman et al (2005)
3. Litman (2010)
4. Litman (2008)
5. Litman et al (2010)
6. Richards et al (2013)
New and Ongoing Research on the I/D EC Model and Differences in the
Self-Regulation of Learning Across the Lifespan
A summary of the latest research findings on studies examining the relationships between I and D-type EC and measures
of Shyness and Inhibitory Control in children and Outcome Evaluation, Risk Taking/Assessment, and BAS/BIS in Adults
Age Cohort
[1] Young
Children
(3-7)
I- type EC: Novelty- and Fun-Seeking
(More Openness Oriented)
D-type EC: Intense & Persistent
(More Conscientiousness Oriented)
Correlated negatively with shyness (r = -.30)
Correlated negatively with impulsivity and hyperactivity
(M r = - .17).
[2] Early to
Middle
Adolescents
(8-12)
Correlated positively with Risk taking (r = .12) and with
hyperactivity (r = .23).
Correlated negatively with hyperactivity (r = - .27);
unrelated to risk-taking.
[3] Young,&
Middle Adults
(18-35)
Correlated positively with optimistic expectations about
exploring (r = .32).
Correlated positively with pessimistic concerns about
exploring (r = .27)
Correlated negatively with pessimistic expectations about
exploring (r = -.22)
Correlated positively with concerns over negative
outcomes (r = .32).
Associated with careful deliberation and evaluation
before acting and assessing the potential risks of failing
(M r = .20)
Associated with a greater focus on rewards, pleasure and Negatively associated with fun-seeking or willingness to
fun-seeking with willingness to take risks (r = .30)
take risks without careful assessment (M r = .19)
Correlated positively with willingness to take risks (M r =
.38)
Notes: All reported coefficients significant p< .05; M = Mean; r = partial correlation, holding other EC scale constant; B = std. path/regression coefficient.
1. Piotrowski et al (2014)
2. Litman & Zettler (in development)
3. Lauriola et al (in development)
Conclusions about I- and D-type EC:
What Does Research on the I/D Model Suggest about the Different Roles
each aspect of EC plays in Learning Over the Life-Span
I-type EC
Novelty- and Fun-Seeking:
(More Openness Oriented)
D-type EC
Intense & Persistent:
(More Conscientiousness Oriented)
.
When individuals have some prior knowledge
or feel close to solving a problem (persistent,
determined to obtain or arrive at precise and
correct answers).
Optimally
Activated
When individuals have little or no prior
knowledge (gather/generate information by
novelty seeking, brainstorming).
Subjective
Experience
Qualitatively Less intense, “learning is fun.”
Lower intensity, but pure positive affect
(“warm fuzzies”).
Qualitatively uncomfortably intense “need to
know”. Stronger, but involves some initial
negative affect (an “itch to be scratched”).
Self-Directed
Learning
Goals
To simply try out/enjoy new discoveries and
stimulate positive affect through intellectual
engagement.
To have relief from dispelling an unknown by
accurately solving problems and improving
one’s understanding of something.
SelfRegulation of
Learning
Associated with having optimistic
expectations about taking risks/chances
when gathering new knowledge; a desire to
have fun when learning.
Associated with careful deliberation and
evaluation of new knowledge before acting
on it; assessing the potential risks of failing
to get the correct answer.
A Potentially Important Future Direction in the Study of Intellectual Development:
Evidence of Expressions of I- and D–type EC in Infants
Research on infants as young as 1 – 2 months suggest that
there are two very different facial expressions associated with
“interest” in examining various stimuli.
The first is an “open” expression: raised brows, wide eyes,
relaxed mouth (sometimes closed), but always displays no
evidence of tension – they are engaged, but relaxed and
happy.
“Open” expressions occur when there is low-intensity,
nonthreatening stimuli.
Notes: See Bronson, 1972;
Camras, 1992; Sullivan &
Lewis, 1989; 2003; Sullivan,
Lewis,& Alessandri, 1992;
Lewis & Michalson, 1983 for
more details on these facial
expressions.
Infants with showing “open “expression will broadly (visually)
explore the environment.
Commonly this expression is described “curiosity” and “wideeyed wonder” (an early expression of I-type EC?).
The second “interested” face occurs in situations that may present infants with
challenges and/or require them to engage in some form of problem-solving.
This facial expression involves furrowing of the brows (sometimes very tightly),
narrowed eyes, wariness, increased tension, and heightened vigilance.
Sometimes called “excited interest” or “knit-brow interest”, infants showing this
expression appear to be intensely and deeply engaged and appear to be acutely
studying a stimulus in detail.
“Knit-brow interest” is found in response to novel stimuli and occurs in the absence of
any threatening or unpleasant stimuli (i.e., this is not due to fear or disgust).
Consensus view by researchers in this area is that “knit brow interest” reflects very
focused attention and the exertion of cognitive effort to process new information (an
early expression of D-type EC?)
Want more information about the I/D Model of EC?
Whether broadly interested and wish to explore further…
or
Quite intrigued with specific questions you need answered…
Please email [email protected] or go to drjlitman.net for reprints of cited papers,
more details on studies/papers in development, freely available psychometric
instruments, interest in collaboration, etc.
Thank you for your time!