Marine Geology, 92 (1990) 105-113
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam - - Printed in The Netherlands
105
Interrelationships Between Porosity and other
Geotechnical Properties of Slowly Deposited, FineGrained Marine Surface Sediments
ANDREAS WETZEL
Geologisch-Pal~iontologisches
Institut der Universitdt, Bernoullistrasse 32, CH 4056 Basel (Switzerland)
(Received by publisher November 1, 1989)
Abstract
Wetzel, A., 1990. Interrelationships between porosity and other geotechnical properties of slowly deposited, finegrained marine surface sediments. Mar. Geol., 92: 105-113.
The pore volume, expressed as porosity or void ratio, of fine-grained marine deposits at the sediment surface
(0-2 cm) is closely related to other geotechnical properties such as liquid limit, plastic limit, compression index, and
specific surface area. Equations have been formulated for the interdependencies between (1) average porosity at the
sediment surface (n.) and liquid limit (LL) In. = 100 (0.0378LL + 0.43)/(0.0378LL + 1.43)], (2) liquid limit (LL) and specific
surface area (Sg) [LL = 1.01 88 + 46.5 if LL > 50], and (3) compression index (C¢) and void ratio at a stress of 0.01 MPa
(eo) [e'o= 3.352 exp Col.
From the relationship between geotechnical properties and initial porosity, the state of consolidation of surface
sediments and the influence of bioturbation often lead to an increase in porosity (5-10%) and compressibility (up to
10%), and a decrease in the overconsolidation ratio (from 2-3 to about 1) at the sediment surface.
The interrelationship between initial porosity and physical properties can be explained by the dependence of the
geotechnical properties on the electrostatic forces between the particles and the adsorbed water around them.
Introduction
The depositional interface has been a subject
of investigation for a long time, because it is
there that sediment, water and organisms
interact (e.g., McCave, 1984; Nowell and Hollister, 1985). The sediments are subjected to
permanent changes under the influence of
organisms and water movement. This leads to
the question of whether under such circumstances defined relationships can exist between
sediment
composition
and
geotechnical
properties such as porosity, compressibility
and sonic velocity.
Many investigators have suggested that the
0025-3227/90/$03.50
porosity of fine-grained surface sediments correlates with other geotechnical parameters, a
correlation which may reflect the composition
and depositional environment of the sediments
(e.g., Skempton, 1944; Parasnis, 1960; Meade,
1964; Bryant et al., 1981). However, most of
these relationships are restricted in their
validity because they are often subject to a
large degree of error or were deduced from only
a small number of observations. Generally
applicable equations have therefore not yet
been formulated. With the use of a large data
base it is the purpose of this paper to quantify
some of the relationships between the geotechnical properties of surface sediments.
© 1990 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.
106
A.WETZEL
Materials and m e t h o d s
Sediment composition
Fine-grained, slowly deposited marine sediments of various compositions were investigated (Table 1). The selection of samples with
respect to these criteria has some implications
regarding their physical properties:
(i) "Fine-grained" means that the samples
contain at least 35% clay minerals, so that
theoretically all coarser grains can be surrounded by argillaceous particles and the cohesive components therefore dominantly affect
the behavior of the deposits (Mitchell, 1976).
(ii) Only marine sediments were considered,
so effects resulting from varying ionic composition of the pore water and its influence on the
exchangeable cations can be excluded.
(iii) Slow deposition of the samples excludes
the effects of sedimentation rate on the initial
porosity, although this parameter has not yet
been quantified.
Sampling interval
The sediment surface is not always sharply
developed, and the transition from water
through an increasingly concentrated suspension to cohesive sediment may be gradual (e.g.,
McCave, 1984; Nowell and Hollister, 1985).
Normally, only the cohesive sediment is usually at rest, as indicated by its colonization by
TABLE 1
Composition of the investigated sediments (in percent)
Clay
Sand
Silt
Diatoms
Radiolaria
Foraminifera
Calcareous nannofossils
Corg
4 100
0 40 ~~ <602 }
0-60
0 10 :
0 10
< 403
0 20
0-40
0-5
> 401
< 602
~Minimum value for clay-sized material; 2Maximum value
for coarse-grained components; ~Maximum value for all
biogenic components.
more-or-less immobile organisms (e.g., foraminifera, bacteria, etc. Thiel, 1983). Although the
boundary between sediment and water is
known in theory (when the biologic definition
is accepted), the sediment is sometimes too soft
for undisturbed samples to be taken from the
surface sediment layer. In order to obtain
reproducible geotechnical data the interval
between the cohesive surface and the 2 cm
depth was sampled as one unit. It is probable
that sampling this interval would provide
representative samples, because bioturbation
homogenizes a layer at least as thick as this
(e.g., Seibold and Berger, 1982).
Strategy
The geotechnical parameters were determined on the same sample eleven times.
Obviously, this number is too low to evaluate
whether important relationships exist. Consequently, additional data were taken from the
literature to enlarge the data base. Data from
the literature were utilized on sediments that
are (i) of similar composition (Table 1), and (ii)
sampled from the same interval (0-2 cm). The
locations of these samples are given in the
figure captions.
Methods
To quantify the interdependencies between
various geotechnical properties of finegrained, clayey sediments at the depositional
interface, parameters are required that reflect
(i) the sediment composition, which determines
the electrostatic properties of the particles,
and (ii) the ionic composition of the water,
which influences the thickness of the adsorbed
water and the exchangeable cations (when
stress at the sediment surface is ignored). With
a given sea water composition, and hence,
constant chemical conditions, sediment composition is closely related to porosity, liquid limit
and compressibility (expressed as the compression index). Additionally, the specific surface
GEOTECHNICALPROPERTIESOF FINE-GRAINEDSEDIMENTS
107
area w a s also determined. These parameters
were used in this study.
Porosity
The porosity (n) was calculated from the
grain density and water content (corrected for
salt content) of a sample with a known volume,
with the formula:
n = (w'ps/w'ps + 1) 100
(%)
(1)
where w is water content and ps is grain
density.
In some geotechnical studies the void ratio is
used in place of porosity. Porosity (n) and void
ratio (e) are related to each other by the
equations:
e
=
(n/lO0)/(1
-
n/100)
n = (e/1 + e) 100
(%)
(2)
(3)
Atterberg limits
Atterberg (1911) introduced the liquid and
plastic limit to provide an empirical but
quantitative measure for describing the plasticity of clays. The tests became internationally
standardized.
Briefly, the liquid limit of fine-grained sediment is the water content at which, in the
remolded state (i.e., artificially completely
homogenized), it passes from a plastic to an
almost liquid condition. The plastic limit is the
water content at which the remolded argillaceous material passes from the plastic to a
friable or brittle condition (e.g., Terzaghi and
Peck, 1967).
sediment compressibility is quantified by the
compression index. This is the slope of the
straight line part of the void ratio versus the
log stress curve (Fig.l), calculated by the
Terzaghi equation (Terzaghi and Peck, 1967):
e.+l = e x - Cc lg (ax+l/a~)
where the indices refer to the void ratio (e) at a
defined stress (a), and C¢ is the compression
index.
Specific surface area
The specific surface area was determined
using a StrShlein Areameter II instrument.
The test is based on the BET (Brunauer,
Emmett and Teller, 1938) method which
measures N 2 adsorption on the internal surfaces of a sample at the temperature of fluid
nitrogen.
Reliability of data
The geotechnical data used in this study
were taken from various sources. However,
their reliability should be affected only to a
0
0.01. I
,
,
1
I
,
2
I
,
,
actual
void ratio T
e3
1
,
,
3
|
/7
///
/
e2
,
[
1 //,'/
//
/
e
_
void
ratio
I
initial
void ratio
O. 1
~/
--
~
preconsolidation
stress
~
6"2
. /
Cc= 1 . 0 4 ~
Compressibility
The compressibility of a sediment is determined by means of a standardized compression
test (e.g., Terzaghi and Peck, 1967) in which a
sediment volume is compressed by applying
different known stresses under confined conditions. The test results provide information on
(i) previous consolidation (expressed as stress
value - - the so-called pre-consolidation stress,
a°) which the sediment has experienced and (ii)
compressibility. For stresses exceeding the
preconsolidation stress ("first loading"), the
(4)
/
1
(MPa)
G'
stress
Fig.1. Theoretical curve of void ratio (e) versus the log of
effective stress (a) showing typical compression behavior
of a pre-consolidated sediment. When stress increases, the
void ratio does not change significantly until the preconsolidation stress is reached. Then, during "first loading",
there is a linear relationship between void ratio (e) and log
effective stress (a); the inclination of the graph is defined
as the compression index (Co) by eqn. (4): e3=e2-Cc lg
108
A. WETZEL
w
water
~
content
Fig.2. Relationship between liquid limit, plastic limit and
specific surface area for fine-grained marine sediments (31
samples; off northwest Africa, Sulu Sea, central Pacific
and Gulf of Mexico). This pattern suggests that the water
adsorption capacity of a sediment depends mainly on
surface properties of particles when the chemical conditions are similar. Stars indicate surface sediment samples
for which initial porosity and compressibility were also
determined. All data were determined by the author.
~
(4)
100-
• lk liquid limit
lk
0 ple$tl¢ Ilml|
o
~
e-
•
50.
/
oO
oO °
:
*
o£ O
o
°
0
0
o
O0
Sp®cific surface a r e a
(rn=g -~)
!
0
|
I
50
100
s t a n d a r d i z e d a n d h e n c e a c e r t a i n a c c u r a c y of t h e
m e a s u r e m e n t s h a s b e e n achieved.
T h e e r r o r d u e to l a b o r a t o r y p r o c e d u r e s for
p o r o s i t y is _+2%, for l i q u i d l i m i t + 3 % , a n d for
c o m p r e s s i o n i n d e x _ 5 % . T h e e r r o r i n specific
s u r f a c e a r e a d e t e r m i n a t i o n is _ 2.5%. H o w e v e r ,
d i s t u r b a n c e s d u e to s a m p l i n g a n d s u b s a m p l i n g
p r o c e d u r e s a r e difficult to e s t i m a t e a n d t h e y m a y
i n f l u e n c e t h e r e s u l t s of t h i s study.
Sg
Results
m i n o r degree by the fact t h a t t h e y were
o b t a i n e d i n m a n y d i f f e r e n t l a b o r a t o r i e s , because the test procedures are internationally
Three relationships between the geotechnic a l p r o p e r t i e s of s u r f a c e s e d i m e n t s a r e con-
(%) porosity
at
floor
at the
the sea
sea floor
100-
__
-
.---
- e- _ ~• _ - - . . . . . .e-.
,
50
0
. . . .
0
!
50
,
,
,
,
I
100
. . . .
!
150
•
'
•
'
I
200
water content
.atthe !i~ui.d limit
'
250
•
(%)
Fig.3. Relationship between the porosity and liquid limit of fine-grained marine surface sediments (sample interval 0 2 cm).
This graph indicates equilibrium conditions between the pore volume formed during deposition and the electrostatic
particles properties, in combination with the ionic composition of the pore water (the latter two are reflected by the liquid
limit). The dashed line is the regression line for all 91 data points, while the continuous line marks the observed, upper limit.
Stars indicate samples for which compressibility and specific surface area were also determined by the author (off northwest
Africa, Sulu Sea, central Pacific and Gulf of Mexico). Other data were taken from Richards (1962, Atlantic), Keller (1971;
north Atlantic), Dietrich (1976; Baltic Sea), Lambert et al. (1980, 1986; east Atlantic), and National Geophysical Data Center
(Boulder, CO) reports MGG 03005010 (off New Jersey), MGG 03005011 (Caribbean), MGG 03005012 (off New Jersey), MGG
03195001 (Caribbean) and MGG 09005001 (Gulf of Mexico).
109
GEOTECHNICALPROPERTIESOF FINE-GRAINEDSEDIMENTS
e'~ void ratio
at stress ~o = 0 . 0 1 MPa
/ • •
,
/:
6
- - ..
5
el
•
....~.
•
•
4
•
4
oe
8
•
I
I
"~'
compression Index
0
0
1
2
3
Cc
Fig.4. Relationship between compression index (C¢) and void ratio (e'0) at a standardized effective stress (a'o = 0.01 MPa);
derived from 384 compression test data. The continuous line is the regression line for all data. Stars mark surface sediment
samples for which initial porosity, liquid limit and specific surface area were also determined. In addition to 112
determinations by the a u t h o r (off northwest Africa, Sulu Sea, central Pacific and Gulf of Mexico), data were t a k e n from
B r y a n t et al. (1974; Gulf of Mexico), T r a b a n t et al. (1975; Aleutan Trench), Shepard and B r y a n t (1980; J a p a n Trench),
Shepard et al. (1982; Middle America Trench), Geotechnical Consortium (1984; southeastern Atlantic), Schultheiss and Gunn
(1985; n o r t h Atlantic), Taylor and B r y a n t (1985; Middle America Trench), Marine Geotechnical Consortium (1985; northwest
Pacific) and Gandais and Viguier (1986; Caribbean).
sidered: (i) Atterberg limits and specific surface
area, (ii) porosity and liquid limit, and (iii) void
ratio and compression index.
Atterberg limits and specific surface area are
related to each other (Fig.2) by the equations:
L L = 1.01 Sg ÷ 46.5,
L L > 50
(5)
P L = 0.43 Sg + 13.5,
P L > 20
(6)
S p e c i f i c s u r f a c e area a n d A t t e r b e r g l i m i t s
The Atterberg limits depend mainly on (i) the
type and amount of the clay fraction, (ii)
exchangeable cations and (iii) pore water
chemistry (e.g., Mitchell, 1976). Under given
chemical conditions, factors (ii) and (iii) are
assumed to be constant, and parameter (i) can
be approximated by the specific surface area
(Rabitti et al., 1983).
where L L is the liquid limit, P L the plastic
limit and Sg the specific surface area.
The water adsorption capacity of marine
argillaceous material reflected by the Atterberg limits and by the specific surface area is
important because it may govern the porosity
formed during deposition.
110
A. WETZEL
Porosity and liquid limit
The porosity of fine-grained surface sediments were found to be closely related to the
liquid limit (LL) (Fig.3). The relationship
follows the equation
n a = 100 (0.0378LL + 0.43)/(0.0378LL + 1.43) (7a)
n u = 100 (0.0438LL + 0.5)/(0.0438 + 1.5)
(7b)
where na is the trend line for the porosity for
all data points, n u is the upper limit of the
porosity data and LL is the liquid limit. The
regression coefficient for equ. (7a) is 0.87.
Equations (7a) and (7b) are valid only for a
liquid limit higher than 20; below this value
there are no data available. Regression line n~
also fits the porosity - - liquid limit relationship which was found by Skempton (1970) in
samples taken from nine drill holes. Therefore,
the observed regression may reflect "average"
conditions for marine deposits, conditions
which also average over any changes caused
by bioturbation.
The scattering of the data points around the
regression line is ascribed to (i) variations in
sediment composition, especially to the different intratest porosities of microfossils, and (ii)
to a varying degree of bioturbation (see below).
The close relationship between liquid limit
and the porosity of surface sediments implies
that in the marine environment the particles
reach a state of equilibrium during accumulation (e.g., Bennett et al., 1981). Consequently,
the porosity of the surface deposits reflects the
sediment composition (including exchangeable
cations) as well as the ionic composition of the
pore water. In this context it is interesting to
note that a relatively sharp upper limit of
porosity exists at a given liquid limit.
Compression index and void ratio
The compressibility, expressed as a compression index, is related to the void ratio (e'o) at a
standardized stress a:=0.01 MPa (Fig.4). A
close relationship between these parameters is
evident and can be described by the equation:
eo= 3.352 exp C¢
(8)
where e'o is the void ratio at stress
a o= 0.01 MPa and C¢ is the compression index.
The correlation coefficient is 0.96.
Such a relationship can also be deduced by
combining (i) the correlation between porosity
at the sediment surface and the liquid limit,
and (ii) the equation established by Skempton
(1944):
Cc = 0.009(LL - 10%)
(9)
where C¢ is the compression index and LL the
liquid limit.
The relationship between void ratio and
compression index implies that the particle
properties in a given chemical environment
determine the arrangement of the particles,
and hence, the number and type of particle
contacts, which control sediment properties
such as porosity and compressibility.
Discussion
The interdependencies observed between the
various physical properties of fine-grained
sediments have some implications. Among
these, are (i) change in geotechnical properties
due to bioturbation, (ii) estimation of the
strength of interparticle bondings (expressed
as stress value) at the depositional interface,
and (iii) evaluation of erosion at the sea
floor.
Bioturbation
Bioturbation can change the physical
properties of sediments considerably (e.g.,
Rhoads and Boyer, 1982; Richardson, 1983),
and changes in geotechnical properties due to
bioturbation of sediments are related to fabric
changes (e.g., Chernow et al., 1986). However, a
direct comparison between bioturbated and
non-bioturbated sediments of similar composition is difficult to make because sediment
physical properties are also affected by the
conditions that prevent bioturbation, i.e.,
mainly rapid sedimentation and oxygen-free
bottom waters. Because rapid sedimentation is
GEOTECHNICALPROPERTIESOF FINE-GRAINEDSEDIMENTS
void ratio
e
111
~at stress
Ill / (MPa)
8.
ill
7.
I'/S%
., I y S ~
°°:°°°:
o.ooos
0.001
iiii:
.........j~S~y;iiiiii!i~"
compression index
o
1
cc
Fig.5. State of consolidation of fine-grained marine surface
sediments derived from the relationship between (1) initial
porosity and liquid limit (Fig.3) and (2) compression index
and void ratio at different stresses calculated fi-om eqn. (8)
[e'o= 3.352 exp Co], and eqn. (4) [e=+~= e = - Cc lg (a=+ ~/ax) ]. T h e
porosity and the liquid limit data for the surface sediments
were transformed into compression index and void ratio
values using eqns. (7) and (8). The stippled area refers to
"average" surface sediments, and the ruled area refers to
sediments with maximum porosity. In general, overconsolidation decreases with increasing initial void ratio.
not discussed in this paper, only anaerobic
conditions are considered.
Compared to deposits formed under oxic
conditions more porous deposits normally form
under euxinic conditions. This is because the
particle arrangement is changed by the formation of organic-mineral complexes, resulting
in an open fabric (e.g., Keller, 1982).
However, the influence of bioturbation on
sediment physical properties can be estimated
indirectly, by analyzing the variations in
physical properties between different cores as
well as with depth in a single core, as
demonstrated by Richardson (1983).
Porosity is usually increased by bioturba-
tion, although it may also occasionally be
reduced (e.g., Rhoads and Boyer, 1982). The
range of porosity variations at the sediment
surface due to bioturbation can be estimated in
Fig.3 by quantifying the deviation from the
trend line for all samples.
The compression index can be lowered by as
much as 20% when the deposits are completely
homogenized, a process comparable to remolding in soil mechanical investigations (e.g.,
Mitchell, 1976). However, normal biogenic
reworking results only in incomplete homogenization, (e.g., Chernow et al., 1986).
Additionally, the effect of bioturbation on
the compression index can be deduced from the
data in Fig.5. Assuming that the fabric changes
also result in a change in porosity, the
difference between average porosity and actual porosity of sea floor sediments (Fig.3 and
eqn. (7a)) implies changes in the compression
index. Accordingly, assuming a maximum porosity increase in average muds due to bioturbation (Fig.3), the change in the compression
index is about 12_ 2% for sediments with void
ratios < 5 (= 83~/o porosity).
Skempton's
(1944) experimental
work
showed that the influence of increased porosity
(e.g., by bioturbation) on the compressibility of
muds decreases by as much as the deposits
consolidate. At stress values exceeding
0 . 1 - 1 M P a (10-30m of overburden), most
porosity-depth curves for similarly composed
sediments do not show major deviations from
each other, regardless of whether bioturbation
is intense or not. Thus, the differences between
sediments bioturbated to varying degrees are
obliterated when they are compacted. This
implies that the compaction properties deeper
in the sediment depend on sediment composition and pore water chemistry, and to a lesser
degree on fabric. In contrast, if bioturbation
diminishes the porosity, its effect will be
rapidly obscured by further compaction.
State of consolidation
Combining the observed relationship between (i) the porosity and liquid limit of
112
surface sediments and (ii) the compression
index and void ratio at a standardized stress
using eqns. (7) and (9), it is possible to roughly
estimate the forces between particles (expressed as stress values) at the depositional
interface (Fig.5). A value of 0.0002MPa
(corresponding to about the top 3-5 cm of
overburden) was found for the average surface
sediments represented by the trend line in
Fig.3. Taking the sampled interval into account, the sediments are overconsolidated 1.5
to 3 times. A stress value of 0.00005MPa
(corresponding to about 1 cm of overburden)
was found for the maximum porosity at a given
liquid limit.
Erosion
Erosion of surface sediment can be estimated
from the presented data using the method
suggested by Skempton (1970). Assuming a
constant sediment composition (referring to
constant Atterberg limits) and determining the
actual porosity and the liquid limit, the
difference between the actual measurement
and the average value (Fig.3) can be ascribed
to erosional loss. This difference can be viewed
in terms of overburden by constructing a
compaction curve, using eqns. (9), (3) and (1).
However, because there is a considerable
change in the Atterberg limits deeper in the
sediment (Skempton, 1970), this method is only
applicable for near-surface sediments.
Conclusions
(1) A close relationship between the initial
porosity and the liquid limit of fine-grained
surface sediments exists within the upper 2 cm
of the sediment column. Because the liquid
limit is related to sediment composition (including exchangeable cations) and the ionic
composition of the pore water, it is deduced
that initial porosity depends on these parameters. Consequently, initial porosity reflects
equilibrium conditions between particle
properties and the pore fluid at the depositional interface.
A.WETZEL
(2) The Atterberg limits were found to be
related to the specific surface area. Additionally, the latter reflects the particle properties
of the argillaceous sediments.
(3) A close relationship between the compression index and void ratio at a standardized
stress supports the above-mentioned equilibrium and implies that the compression index is
related to sediment composition.
(4) Based on the relationships between
geotechnical properties and porosity in the
sediment, the state of consolidation of freshly
deposited, fine-grained sediment can be quantified. Normally, argillaceous deposits at the
sea floor are overconsolidated by 2 to 3 times
due to the electrostatic forces between the
particles.
(5) The effect of bioturbation can be roughly
estimated using the deviation from the trend
for "average" muds; often, porosity increases
by 5-10%, and overconsolidation decreases to
a value of 1-2 (for low organic matter content).
(6) Even if the initial porosity is changed by
bioturbation, the compaction of the sediment
will reach equilibrium conditions again under
thicker overburden (if the chemical conditions
remain reasonably constant), because the rearrangement of particles results only in changes
in the compressional properties by about
5-10%.
Acknowledgements
H. Kassens (Kiel, F.R.G.) critically read an
earlier version of the manuscript and L. Hobert
(Albany, NY) improved the English. Parts of
this study received financial support from the
Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. All these
contributions are gratefully acknowledged.
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