Ratten, Vanessa, 2010, 'Social Cognitive Theory and the Adoption of E-book Devices', International Journal of e-Business Management, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 3-16. DOI 10.3316/IJEBM0402003. This is a peer-reviewed article.
Social Cognitive Theory and the
Adoption of E-book Devices
Vanessa Ratten
DUQUESNE UNIVERSITY
ABSTRACT
The book publishing industry has been revolutionised by the technological innovations created by
the Internet. Electronic book (e-book) devices such as Kindle by Amazon, Nook by Barnes and Noble
and the iPad by Apple are relatively new technological innovations that will change the way individuals
purchase and read books. The purpose of this paper is to examine the factors that will lead to a person
adopting an e-book device. In this paper, a social cognitive theoretical framework is utilised to understand an individual’s intention to adopt an e-book device like the Kindle, Nook or iPad. A conceptual model is proposed, which focuses on the antecedents to a person’s adoption behaviour and is
empirically tested through a survey of Australian youths. A portion of the conceptual model is supported. This suggests that marketing has an effect on a person’s intention to adopt an e-book device,
which is mediated by their entrepreneurial orientation. The conceptual model proposed and tested
has implications for the e-book industry as it demonstrates the internal and external environmental
factors that influence adoption behaviour. The paper highlights for the book industry the important
areas of e-commerce and m-commerce and how technological innovations are influenced by environmental factors. More recently, m-commerce has increased in usage as people can buy an electronic
book via their e-book device anywhere in the world. E-book devices are a mobile device that people
adopt in different ways depending on environmental factors and this paper is one of the first to develop and test a model of e-book adoption behaviour.
Keywords: E-books, book industry, e-commerce, technological innovations, social cognitive theory.
The technological innovation of the e-book has meant that people can download and read
books electronically from any location. An e-book device, also called an e-book reader or ereader, is an electronic device that is used to read digital books and periodicals. It uses e-ink
technology to display the content to readers and is portable. In 2009 there was $US113
million worth of e-books sold but it is still a small percentage of the $US24.3 billion spent
on all books (smh.com.au, 2009). The Kindle sold by Amazon has no annual contract, no
monthly fees and does not need a wireless hotspot. The Kindle operates on Amazon’s wireless
technology delivery system called Whispernet. Whispernet utilises 3G GSM technology
over the AT&T Global Network to deliver wireless new books and magazines. People can
also upload personal documents to their e-book device via their USB device. Borders are
also working with the Canadian digital book company Kobo to develop an e-reader application that will work on most mobile phones. Sony is also expected to release later this year
an e-book device called the Reader Pocket Edition.
This advance in e-commerce has enabled people and business to conduct transactions
via a technological device rather than face-to-face transactions. E-commerce has created a
way for book sellers to communicate about their products and services directly to consumers.
E-books are an element of m-commerce as the books are bought and downloaded via a
mobile device. M-commerce is defined by Harris, Rettie and Kwon (2005, p. 210) as ‘the
use of mobile wireless (handheld) devices to communicate and conduct transactions through
public and private networks’. A wider definition is stated by Snowden, Spafford, Michaelides
© RMIT Publishing, http://www.rmitpublishing.com.au/ijebm.html
4 | International Journal of e-Business Management, vol. 4, no. 2, 2010
and Hopkins (2006, p. 525) as ‘the integration of mobile computing devices into business
processes’ and this definition is adopted in this paper.
M-commerce is important for the book industry as it allows people direct access to books
and other reading material such as magazines and newspapers that were previously only
available in hard copy. Rather than going to a retail outlet to buy a hard copy of a book, ebooks have enabled people easier access to literature that has created space advantages as
they no longer need to store heavy individual books in paper form. As e-books become more
popular and decrease in price, more people will be utilising m-commerce to buy books. In
addition, as people become more trusting of m-commerce applications, more people will
use e-book devices. There are also numerous time advantages for book, magazine and
newspaper publishers to market their products and services directly to consumers and advertisers. M-commerce means that real time messages and advertisements can be sent directly
to a person’s e-book device. Previously, publishers could not personalise advertisements in
real time to individual customers, so the use of e-book devices will allow more direct communication.
E-book devices are a mobile technology that enables people total independence in terms
of time and place they buy and access books. Wireless technology has created a competitive
advantage for e-books as it enables people to utilise a technology device to do their shopping.
Wireless technology allows people to increase their productivity that would otherwise be
restricted because of mobility issues (Lu, Yu, Liu & Yao, 2003). Wireless technology enables
people to communicate electronically, thereby saving travel costs. Aungst and Wilson (2005,
p. 59) define wireless communication as ‘the process of communicating information in
electromagnetic media over a distance through the free-space environment, rather than
through traditional wired or other physical conduits’. In terms of e-books, wireless communication is the process of transferring information electronically onto an e-book device.
There are a number of different usages of e-book devices. People can download and read
books via their e-book device. They can write comments and edit the books on their e-book
device, which can be sent electronically to other people. People can pay for e-books via their
e-book device and this enables people access to books that would otherwise be difficult to
access due to geographic location. This paper contributes to the gap in the e-commerce literature on e-book applications and the reasons why people adopt new technological innovations.
The number of people buying e-book devices has been increasing at a rapid rate during
the past year. In 2010 it is estimated that 10 million people will have bought an e-book
device (Mui, 2009). Apple expects to sell 3-4 million iPads in 2010 (Hesseldahl, 2010). The
market for digital books has been doubling approximately every 18 moths (McGee & Oleya,
2009). Most publishers now offer 95 percent of their printed titles on e-book format that
normally sell for less than 60 percent of their printed book versions (McGee & Oleya, 2009).
Different e-book device brands have different demographics. People usually buy the Kindle
by Amazon e-book device when they are frequent purchasers from the Amazon website. In
addition, previous research by Mui (2009) suggests that the Kindle is bought by consumers
in the 45-60 year old age group as a complementary service to the products that they already
buy from the Amazon website.
In order to increase e-book sales, Amazon has utilised a business model that incorporates
innovative technology into the device. Amazon has advertised no monthly fees or annual
contracts for the Kindle and no wireless hotspot is required to download books. Moreover,
Amazon has begun to utilise a wireless technology delivery system called Whispernet for the
Vanessa Ratten,'Social Cognitive Theory and the Adoption of E-book Devices' | 5
Kindle. Whispernet uses 3GSM technology from AT&T Global Network to deliver e-books.
Barnes and Noble have also utilised another business model in its Nook e-book device.
Borders has partnered with a Canadian digital book company Kobo to create an e-book
application that will work in most cell phones. Other companies with e-book devices have
also encouraged technological innovations as a strategy to increase e-book device sales. Sony
miniaturised its e-book device to create the Reader Pocket Edition that can fit in a person’s
pocket. Apple also introduced a free application to enable a person to read an e-book on
their iPhone in order to increase their sales of their e-book devices. This has enabled people
who previously bought Apple products to complement their existing products by adding an
e-book device.
Prior research has called for more research on how new e-commerce applications are
adopted by individuals (Ratten, 2008). The objective of this paper is to investigate the factors
that help to understand why and how people adopt e-book devices. This will help to understand how e-book devices can be adopted more quickly and how publishers can tailor their
marketing strategies to increase usage. This paper stresses that internal and external environmental influencers help to decide whether a person will adopt an e-book device.
This paper will examine what impacts an individual’s intention to use an e-book device.
As new technologies become available, it is important for the book industry to understand
how they can utilise technology more efficiently. The conceptual model proposed in this
paper explains in part the adoption process of e-book technology. Social cognitive theory is
utilised as a theoretical framework for the conceptual model as it includes both internal and
external environmental variables. The research question of this paper is: what influences a
person’s intention to adopt an e-book device?
The paper is structured as follows. Firstly, a literature review on technological innovations
in the e-commerce and m-commerce industry is discussed. Then the theoretical framework
of social cognitive theory is justified in terms of why it is the most appropriate theory for
the research conducted in this paper. Next, the conceptual model is explained and the research
methodology stated. The findings and results from the conceptual model are then discussed.
Lastly, suggestions and directions for future research are stated.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Technological innovations provide knowledge that changes human behaviour (Kock, 2004).
This knowledge alters the way individuals live and interact with their environment (Cantisani,
2006). People learn about new technologies through processing knowledge obtained about
innovations (Chan & Lu, 2004). People often learn by observing others in their social group
use a new technology (LaRose & Eastin, 2004). This learning referred to as social learning
enables people to learn by sharing information about a new technology (Li, Liu & Ren,
2007). Through a person’s social group, their behaviour will be changed based on the information and knowledge exchanged.
Learning models suggest that a person learns through their exposure to different information. A person’s behaviour will thus be the result of exposure to certain stimuli (Bandura,
1989). Behavioural models of learning suggest that a person reacts by interacting with their
environment, which includes a degree of problem solving (Schiffman & Kanuk, 2000). The
adoption of technological innovations is often the result of a number of different environmental factors (Scholnikoff, 2001).
6 | International Journal of e-Business Management, vol. 4, no. 2, 2010
Another model of learning is the cognitive learning model, which proposes that people
respond to environmental conditions and not just stimuli. People adopt e-book devices because of a variety of different environmental factors, all of which are important. Thus, the
cognitive learning approach is adopted in this paper as it focuses on a person’s response to
environmental conditions. There are a variety of different cognitive learning theories that
apply to technological innovations including the technology acceptance model, the theory
of planned behaviour, the theory of reasoned action and social cognitive theory. Each of
these theories will now be explained and the reasons why social cognitive theory is adopted
in this paper justified.
The technology acceptance model examines the reasons why people use technology faster
than others (Davies, 1989). The model is used to explain user acceptance of technological
innovations (Venkatesh & Davis, 1996). The technology acceptance model takes into account
how useful a person finds a technology and how they utilise the technology (Chan & Lu,
2004). However, the technology acceptance model does not examine the factors that lead
a person to use a technology. In adopting an e-book device, it is important to understand
the factors that encourage a person to use an e-book. The technology acceptance model has
now included some antecedent factors that make a person use a technology such as perceived
usage (Venkatesh & Davis, 1996). The technology acceptance model has been criticised for
its simplicity and for not fully incorporating all antecedent environmental factors that influence behavioural intention (Taylor & Todd, 1995). Social cognitive theory on the other
hand incorporates cognitive instrumental processes with the complex nature of human behaviour. Moreover, whilst the technology acceptance model looks at user acceptance of
technology, the social cognitive theory also examines the reciprocal interaction between a
person’s environment and their behaviour (Bandura, 1986).
The theory of planned behaviour was first developed by Ajzen (1985). It proposes that
a person’s behaviour is pre-planned and does not take into account impulses that lead to
the use of a technology (Mathieson, 1991). In addition, the theory of planned behaviour
unlike social cognitive theory does not take into account environmental changes (Ratten,
2008). The theory of reasoned action was first espoused by Fishbein and Ajzen (1975). It
is commonly used in the e-commerce literature to explain and predict behaviour (Chan &
Lu, 2004). Whilst the technology acceptance model and theory of planned behaviour focus
on an individual’s attitudes of technological innovations, the theory of reasoned action also
focuses on the role of other people’s attitudes in influencing how a person thinks they should
behave (Chan & Lu, 2004). The theory of reasoned action examines the social context of
behavioural intention but does not look at other environmental factors such as marketing
that are not under a person’s control (Ratten & Ratten, 2007). Social cognitive theory incorporates the theory of reasoned action, theory of planned behaviour and the technology acceptance model in a more comprehensive theoretical framework that includes both external
and internal environmental factors that influences a person’s behaviour.
Social cognitive theory acknowledges that people are influenced by events and experience
(Compeau, Higgins & Huff, 1999). A person’s behaviour is the result of the various environmental factors that influence what they learn. People constantly learn in numerous ways
that are impacted by their current and future behaviour (Kock, 2004). A person can increase
their learning rate by observing others in their social group (Pincus, 2004). A person’s social
group then influences the expectation they have about their own behaviour. Social cognitive
theory focuses on the role of learning in predicting what influences a person’s behaviour
(McCormick & Martinko, 2004).
Vanessa Ratten,'Social Cognitive Theory and the Adoption of E-book Devices' | 7
Social cognitive theory is used as the theoretical framework in this paper to explain a
person’s intention to use an e-book device. Whilst other theories could have been used, social
cognitive theory is adopted because it is a type of social learning behaviour that includes
both individual and group behaviour (Pincus, 2004). A person’s behaviour is influenced by
a variety of actions they are engaged in (McCormick & Martinko, 2004). Social cognitive
theory emphasises that a person needs to learn skills to adopt a technology (Compeau,
Higgins & Huff, 1999). A person learns about e-book devices through a variety of different
sources that are influenced by their entrepreneurial and learning orientation. The conceptual
model discussed in the next section is based on social cognitive theory as it allows for an
understanding of how a person will adopt an e-book device.
CONCEPTUAL MODEL
The conceptual model depicts the drivers of a person’s intention to adopt an e-book device.
Social cognitive theory focuses on understanding how people engage in certain behaviour
as a result from interacting with external and internal stimuli (Chan & Lu, 2004), and the
conceptual model highlights these stimuli. In the conceptual model, learning orientation
and entrepreneurial orientation mediate the relationship between marketing, outcome expectancy, and modelling with an individual’s intention to adopt an e-book device. People
are influenced by the marketing they see about e-book devices. There are a variety of marketing messages that a person receives about technological innovations and they include
print media, television and online advertisements. The outcomes that a person expects from
the use of an e-book device influence their adoption behaviour. The expectations of a person
to use an e-book device are influenced by their entrepreneurial and learning orientation.
When a person is more entrepreneurially orientated and has a high learning orientation, the
intention rate to adopt an e-book device will be higher.
Borros, innovations
1999). Entrepreneurship
is a devices
strategic have
tool that
enables people
see decade as people
Technological
like e-book
increased
in thetopast
become more
comfortable
usingaswireless
handheld
Entrepreneurial
technological
innovations
a time-saving
solution. devices.
Technological
innovations are innovations
have decreased the time needed to develop a new product (Lundvall & Borros, 1999). Endeveloped through a time efficient process (Rycroft, 2006), which is influenced by how
trepreneurship is a strategic tool that enables people to see technological innovations as a
it takesTechnological
a person to learn about
the technology.
People now place
an emphasis
time-saving quick
solution.
innovations
are developed
through
a timeonefficient
process (Rycroft,
2006),they
which
is influenced
how
quickly
it takes
a person
to learn about
the marketing
see about
e-books in by
order
to find
out if they
will adopt
an e-book
the technology. People now place an emphasis on the marketing they see about e-books in
device. The conceptual model depicted below proposes that marketing, modelling and
order to find out if they will adopt an e-book device. The conceptual model depicted below
outcome
expectations
influence
an outcome
individual’s expectations
intention to adopt
an e-book an
device,
proposes that
marketing,
modelling
and
influence
individual’s intention to adopt
an
e-book
device,
which
is
mediated
by
a
person’s
entrepreneurial
and
which is mediated by a person’s entrepreneurial and learning orientation
learning orientation.
Figure 1 Conceptual Model
Figure 1: Conceptual Model
Media
Modelling
Outcome
expectancy
Learning
orientation
Intention to adopt
e-book device
Entrepreneurial
orientation
Modelling
M-commerce is adopted by consumers differently depending on who they are and
where they live (McCoy, Galletta & King, 2007). People model their behaviour based on
their social network, which includes family members, friends and work acquaintances.
Hence, the usage of a mobile device depends largely on the collective usage of a
mobile network. E-book devices are often marketed at increasing a person’s self
8 | International Journal of e-Business Management, vol. 4, no. 2, 2010
Modelling
M-commerce is adopted by consumers differently depending on who they are and where
they live (McCoy, Galletta & King, 2007). People model their behaviour based on their
social network, which includes family members, friends and work acquaintances. Hence,
the usage of a mobile device depends largely on the collective usage of a mobile network. Ebook devices are often marketed at increasing a person’s self prestige or status in society. In
addition, lead users or early adopters of e-book devices will influence other people to adopt
e-book devices. Looking at whether other people in an individual’s social network are using
e-book devices will influence whether a person buys an e-book device. Sales of e-book devices
increase in popularity when people who are early adopters encourage or promote their usage.
The more exposure a person has to seeing others use e-book devices, the more likely they
are to emulate this behaviour. People often imitate the actions of others, which influences
their decision to adopt a new technology (McCormick & Martinko, 2004). This leads to
the first hypothesis:
H1: The more exposure a person has to e-book devices, the greater their intention to use an
e-book.
Marketing
The degree and effectiveness of marketing campaigns about e-book devices influence
whether a person will adopt an e-book device. The more resources devoted to marketing a
technological innovation, the greater the social impact factor with people wanting to adopt
popular technologies (Snowden et al., 2006). Marketing is an external environmental factor
designed to influence a person’s behaviour. E-book device companies often conduct product
placements in movies and on television to show people using e-book devices. The more exposure to marketing a person receives, the more likely this will influence their behaviour
(Sheth, Mittal & Newman, 1999).This leads to the next hypothesis:
H2: The more marketing a person sees about e-book devices, the greater their intention to
use an e-book.
Outcome Expectancy
Expectations an individual has about a service will influence whether they choose to use the
service (Bandura, 1986). Bandura (1986) defines outcome expectancy as the outcomes an
individual believes will occur after conducting a certain action or behaviour. The more an
individual believes that the use of a technology will result in positive benefits the more likely
they will use this technology (Henry & Stone, 1999). When an individual believes that using
an e-book device will result in time and money savings the more likely they will use an ebook device. Therefore, the next hypothesis is:
H3: The greater a person’s belief that an e-book device will result in positive outcomes, the
greater their intention to use an e-book device.
Learning Orientation
A person’s learning orientation is the emphasis placed on learning new things. The strength
of a person’s learning intent will determine the resources an individual devotes to learning
about new technologies. A person with a strong learning orientation will learn more effectively
and quicker (Tsang, 1999). The concept of a person having a learning orientation is a relatively new concept in the literature and has not been studied before in the context of m-
Vanessa Ratten,'Social Cognitive Theory and the Adoption of E-book Devices' | 9
commerce. A person’s learning orientation is the set of values an individual has that influences
the propensity of a person to create and use knowledge (Sinkula et al., 1997). A person with
a stronger intent to learn about new technologies will more likely want to know about ebook devices. Hence, this leads to the next hypothesis:
H4: The greater a person’s learning orientation, the greater their intention to use an e-book
device.
Entrepreneurial Orientation
An entrepreneurial orientation is the extent to which a person stresses innovative, risk-taking
and proactive activities (Lee & Peterson, 2000). An individual with a strong entrepreneurial
orientation will focus on the processes, practices and decision-making activities that lead to
the adoption of a new technological innovation like an e-book device. Entrepreneurship is
often associated with autonomy, risk-taking and competitive aggressiveness (Miller, 1983).
A person with a proclivity to engage in new things will more likely try new technological
innovations such as an e-book device. Therefore, this leads to the next hypothesis:
H5: The greater a person’s entrepreneurial orientation, the greater their intention to use an
e-book device.
METHODOLOGY
This study utilised a cross-sectional time frame to understand the drivers of an individual’s
intention to adopt an e-book device. The cross-sectional time frame was chosen as it allowed
effective delivery of the study. In addition, it suited the research question and purpose of
the study. A survey approach was taken as it allowed a greater section of youths to be covered
in the same time period. As the purpose of the study is to identify the roles of variables associated with intention to use an e-book device the methodological approach was deemed to
be most suitable. A sample population of youths in the Brisbane metropolitan area of Australia
was utilised.
A field setting was utilised instead of a mail or telephone interview due to time and cost
issues (Malhotra et al, 1996). In addition, a personal approach to conducting a survey is
widely associated with higher response rates (Yu & Cooper, 1983). A five page questionnaire
was given to the survey respondents. The survey included pre-existing scales, which were
adapted to suit the e-book context of the study. The intention to adopt an e-book device
scale was adapted from Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) and Fishbein and Ajzen (1975). The
scale is a seven point semantic differential scale. The marketing scale was adapted from
Sheeshka at al. (1993) and is a five point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to
strongly agree. The modelling scale was adapted from Sheeshka et al. (1993) and is a five
point Likert scale from never to always. The outcome expectancy scale is adopted from
Malaviya et al. (1996) and is a nine point semantic differential scale. The learning orientation
scale was adapted from Sinkula et al. (1997) and is a five point Likert scale from strongly
disagree to strongly agree. The entrepreneurial orientation scale is adopted from Matsuno
et al. (2002) and is a five point Likert scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Table
1 below depicts the scale items for each of the constructs included in the conceptual model.
10 | International Journal of e-Business Management, vol. 4, no. 2, 2010
Table 1: Scale Items
Construct
Measurement Items
Marketing α = 0.72
Magazine articles and ads suggest that people use an e-book device.
TV ads for e-book devices persuade me to try this service.
I usually ignore advertisements for e-book devices.
The advertisements I see for e-book devices catch my attention.
Magazines I read suggest that e-book devices are an important part of today’s lifestyle.
I don’t pay attention to newspaper and magazine stories about e-book devices.
Magazine and TV ads showing e-book devices make such a service appealing to me.
I usually ignore TV advertisements for e-book devices.
Ads in magazines and on TV about e-book devices have some influence on the e-book device
I select.
The advertisements for e-book devices make me interested in trying this service.
Outcome expectancy α =
0.87
What are your expectations about e-book devices?
Bad–good
Dislike–like
Not convenient–convenient
Not superior–superior
Few unique features–many unique features
Difficult to use–easy to use
Poor service quality–good service quality
Will not produce good benefits–will produce good benefits
Low performance product–high performance product
Lacks important benefits–offers important benefits
Modelling α = 0.74
How often do you see the following people use an e-book device?
Partner/wife/husband/boyfriend/girlfriend
Friends
Colleagues
Family members/relatives
Vanessa Ratten,'Social Cognitive Theory and the Adoption of E-book Devices' | 11
Construct
Measurement Items
People in the media
Behavioural intention α =
0.94
Rate the probability that you would use an e-book device:
Unlikely–likely
Nonexistent–existent
Improbable–probable
Impossible–possible
Uncertain–certain
Definitely would not use–definitely would use
Learning orientation α =
0.71
My ability to learn is the key to my competitive advantage.
I think learning is the key to improvement.
Learning is an investment, not an expense.
Learning is a key commodity necessary to guarantee survival.
There is a commonality of purpose towards learning.
I am committed to the goals of learning.
I learn to help myself chart the direction of my future.
I am not afraid to reflect critically on the shared assumptions I have made.
I agree that the very way I perceive the marketplace must be continually questioned.
I rarely collectively question my own biases about the way I interpret customer information.
Entrepreneurial orientation
α = 0.81
When it comes to problem solving, I value creative new solutions more than the solutions of
conventional wisdom.
I encourage the development of innovative marketing strategies, knowing well that some will
fail.
I value the orderly and risk-reducing management process much more highly than leadership
initiatives for change.
I like to ‘play it safe’.
I like to implement plans only if I am very certain that they will work.
I firmly believe that a change in market creates a positive opportunity for me.
I talk more about opportunities rather than problems.
The sample comprised 208 youths between the ages of 18 and 29 years old who attended
one of the major metropolitan universities in Brisbane, Australia. Out of the 208 respondents
to the survey, 107 were from males and 101 were from females. This indicates an almost
equal distribution between males and females and the data will not have any gender bias.
12 | International Journal of e-Business Management, vol. 4, no. 2, 2010
Approximately 83 percent of the respondents were under the age of 23 and fulfils the representation requirement for the definition of the youth market adopted in this study. Approximately 75 percent of the respondents earned less than $AUD25,000 per annum.
The survey data were analysed through SPSS. A three way ANOVA with two mediating
variables was used to test the conceptual model. ANOVA was chosen as the analysis technique
as it can analyse several independent variables (Keppel, 1991). ANOVA also allows a greater
level of data sensitivity and makes one overall comparison, which reduces type 1 errors that
may result from a regression analysis (May et al., 1991). Table 1 indicates the reliability of
each of the scale items as measured by Cronbach α. All the scales were above the 0.70 level
used to measure reliability (Nunnally, 1978).
RESULTS
Table 2 depicts the analysis results of the conceptual model. A portion of the model instead
of the full model was supported at the 0.05 statistical probability level. The conceptual
model proposed that marketing, modelling of others, outcome expectancy, learning orientation and entrepreneurial orientation were proposed to influence a youth’s intention to adopt
an e-book device. H2, H3 and H4 were rejected but H1 and H5 were not rejected. Therefore,
the results of the analysis support the effect that marketing has on the intention a youth to
adopt an e-book device and a mediating effect by entrepreneurial orientation. The other
variables in the model (modelling of others, outcome expectancy and learning orientation)
were found to be statistically insignificant.
A person with a higher entrepreneurial orientation is more likely to be proactive, innovative and risk-taking. As e-book devices are a new technology it makes sense that a person
who is proactive about using new services will more likely adopt an e-book device. The
analysis did not support the relationship between learning orientation and intention to adopt
an e-book device, which is interesting given that social cognitive theory is a learning theory
and as proposed by the literature there should be a link. The unsubstantiated link may mean
that a youth will learn about e-books after they have started to use the service rather than
learning about it prior to first usage. More research should examine if a person more committed to learning also has a higher uptake of technological innovations.
Modelling of others was found not to be supported by the data analysis, whilst it has
been supported in other marketing studies (Mizerski, 1982). According to social cognitive
theory, a youth should be influenced by their social network. Australian youths in the study
were found not to be influenced by observing others when deciding to use e-book devices.
A potential reason for this may be that the youth’s friends, family and social network does
not use e-books. Outcome expectancy was also not found to be significant in the data analysis findings and this may mean that youths in the survey base their outcomes on information
found in the media rather than their own personal experiences. Previous researchers such as
Bandura and Adams (1977) and Godding and Glasgow (1985) also found that outcome
expectancy is not a predictor of behavioural intention in all circumstances.
Vanessa Ratten,'Social Cognitive Theory and the Adoption of E-book Devices' | 13
Table 2: ANOVA Analysis (Dependent Variable: BISUM)
Source
Type 3 SS
df
Mean Square
F
Sig
Corrected Model
128.12
15
7.687
5.021
0
Intercept
60.011
1
61.011
35.27
0
SESUM
2.88
1
2.78
1.678
0.168
OVALSUM
21.015
1
21.132
12.978
0
MEDIAHL
37.201
1
35.061
19.076
0
MODHL
0.11
1
.0127
.071
0.681
OESG
4.88
1
5.12
2.789
0.079
MEDIAHL*MODHL
14.79
1
15.534
9.127
0.001
MEDIAHL*OESG
4.89
1
5,21
2.789
0.067
MODHL*OESG
0.48
1
0.512
0.273
0.485
MEDIAHL*MODHL*OESG
4.49
1
5.125
2.968
0.071
MEDIAHL*MODHL*OESG
0
0
0
0
0
Error
297.12
185
1.398
Total
3789.11
206
Corrected Total
412.78
205
R-Squared = 0.278
Adjusted R-Squared = 0.219
IMPLICATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
This paper has examined how the technological innovations in the form of e-book devices
are adopted by an individual and the reasons why an individual may be influenced to use
this technology faster. This paper extends the existing literature on technological innovations
by stressing the importance of both external and internal environmental factors in influencing
the adoption of e-book devices. E-book devices are a new technological innovation with
some companies like Sony expected to release their own devices later this year. Hence, in
order to have a first mover advantage in the market for e-book devices it is important for
companies to focus on the factors proposed in the conceptual model and how they will influence adoption behaviour. From a practical perspective it would also be interesting to examine the time it takes for a person to adopt an e-book device from the time they learn
about the technology to when they buy the device. Future research needs to examine in
more detail if a person’s intrinsic value system influences their learning and entrepreneurial
orientation to adopt new technological innovations like e-book devices. It is also important
for future research to take a longitudinal approach to see how issues such as brand name
14 | International Journal of e-Business Management, vol. 4, no. 2, 2010
and what type of marketing campaign technique is most effective in evaluating a person’s
intention to adopt an e-book device.
REFERENCES
Ajzen, I. (1985). From intentions to actions: a theory of planned behavior. In J. Kuhl & J. Beckman
(Eds.), Action-control: From cognition to behavior, Heidelberg: Springer, 11-39.
Ajzen, I. & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Aungst, S. G. & Wilson, D. T. (2005). A primer for navigating the shoals of applying wireless technology to marketing problems. The Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, 20(2/3), 59-69.
[CrossRef]
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: a social cognitive theory. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ.
Bandura, A. (1989). Human agency in social cognitive theory. The American Psychologist, 44(9),
1175-1184. [CrossRef]
Bandura, A. & Adams, N. (1977). Analysis of self-efficacy theory of behavioral change. Cognitive
Theory and Research, 1, 287-310. [CrossRef]
Cantisani, A. (2006). Technological innovation processes revisited. Technovation, 26, 1294-1301.
[CrossRef]
Chan, S. & Lu, M. (2004). Understanding internet banking adoption and use behavior: A Hong
Kong perspective. Journal of Global Information Management, 12(3), 21-43.
Compeau, D., Higgins, C. & Huff, S. (1999). Social cognitive theory and individual reactions to
computing technology: A longitudinal study. MIS Quarterly, 23(2), 145-158. [CrossRef]
Davis, F. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and user acceptance of information
technology. MIS Quarterly, 13(3), 319-339. [CrossRef]
Fishbein, M. & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to theory
and research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Godding, P. & Glasgow, R. (1985). Self-efficacy and outcome expectations as predictors of controlled
smoking status. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 9, 585-590. [CrossRef]
Harris, P., Rettie, R. & Kwan, C.C. (2005). Adoption and usage of m-commerce: A cross-cultural
comparison of Hong Kong and the United Kingdom. Journal of Electronic Commerce Research,
6(3), 210-224.
Henry, J. & Stone, R. (1999). The impacts of end-user gender, education, performance, and system
use on computer self-efficacy and outcome expectancy. Southern Business Review, 25(1), 10-16.
Hesseldahl, A. (2010, 22 February). The iPad: More than the sum of its parts, $270 actually. Business
Week, 24.
Keppel, G. (1991). Design and analysis: A researcher’s handbook (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
Kock, N. (2004). The psychobiological model: Towards a new theory of computer-mediated communication based on Darwinian evolution. Organization Science, 15(3), 327-348. [CrossRef]
LaRose, R. & Eastin, M. S. (2004). A social cognitive theory of internet uses and gratifications: Toward
a new model of media attendance. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 48(3), 358-372.
[CrossRef]
Lee, S. M. & Peterson, S. J. (2000). Culture, entrepreneurial orientation, and global competitiveness.
Journal of World Business, 35(4), 401-416. [CrossRef]
Li, Y., Liu, Y. & Ren, F. (2007). Product innovation and process innovation in SOEs: Evidence from
the Chinese transition. Journal of Technology Transfer, 32, 63-85. [CrossRef]
Lu, J., Yu, C., Liu, C. & Yao, J. (2003). Technology acceptance model for wireless internet. Internet
Research, 13(3), 206-222. [CrossRef]
Lundvall, B. & Borras, S. (1999). The globalising learning economy: Implications for innovation
policy. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.
Vanessa Ratten,'Social Cognitive Theory and the Adoption of E-book Devices' | 15
Malaviya, P., Kisielius, J. & Sternthal, B. (1996). The effect of type of elaboration on advertisement
processing and judgement. Journal of Marketing Research, 33, 410-21. [CrossRef]
Malhotra, N., Hall, J., Shaw, M. & Crisp, M. (1996). Marketing research: An applied approach.
Sydney: Prentice-Hall.
Mathieson, K. (1991). Predicting user intentions: comparing the technology acceptance model with
the theory of planned behavior. Information Systems Research, 2(3), 173-191. [CrossRef]
Matsuno, K., Mentzer, J. T. & Ozsomer, A. (2002). The effects of entrepreneurial proclivity and
market orientation on business performance. Journal of Marketing, 66(1), 18-32. [CrossRef]
May, R., Masson, M. & Hunter, M. (1991). Applications of statistics in behavioral research. New
York: Harper and Row.
McCormick, M. J. & Martinko, M. J. (2004). Identifying leader social cognitions: Integrating the
causal reasoning perspective into social cognitive theory. Journal of Leadership and Organizational
Studies, 10(4), 2-11. [CrossRef]
McCoy, S., Galletta, D. F. & King, W. R. (2007). Applying TAM across cultures: The need for
caution. European Journal of Information Systems, 16, 81-90. [CrossRef]
McGee, T. & Oleya, B. (2009). Are we on the verge of an e-book explosion?. Book Business, 12(7),
10.
Miller, D. (1983). The correlates of entrepreneurship in three types of firms. Management Science,
29(7), 770-791. [CrossRef]
Mizerski, R. (1982). An attribution explanation of the disproportionate influence of unfavorable information. Journal of Consumer Research, 9(12), 301-310. [CrossRef]
Mui, Y. Q. (2009, 5 November). E-books holiday charge: as sales soar, digital works face season’s
crucial test. The Washington Post, A1.
Nunnally, J. (1978). Psychometric Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Pincus, J. (2004). The consequences of unmet needs: The evolving role of motivation in consumer
research. Journal of Consumer Behavior, 3(4), 375-387. [CrossRef]
Ratten, V. (2008). Technological innovations in the m-commerce industry: A conceptual model of
mobile banking intentions. Journal of High Technology Management Research, 18(2), 111-117.
[CrossRef]
Ratten, V. & Ratten, H. (2007). Social cognitive theory in technological innovation. European
Journal of Innovation Management, 10(1), 90-108. [CrossRef]
Rycroft, R. W. (2006). Time and technological innovation: Implications for public policy. Technology
in Society, 28, 281-301. [CrossRef]
Schiffman, L. & Kanuk, L. (2000). Consumer behavior (7th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall.
Scholnikoff, E. B. (2001). International governance in a technological age. In J. De la Mothe (Ed.),
Science, technology and governance, New York: Continuum Press, 119-134.
Sheeshka, J., Woolcott, D. & MacKinnon, N. (1993). Social cognitive theory as a framework to explain
intentions to practice healthy eating behaviors. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 23(19),
1547-73. [CrossRef]
Sheth, J., Mittal, B. & Newman, B. (1999). Consumer behavior: Consumer behavior and beyond.
Austin, TX: Dryden Press.
Sinkula, J. M., Baker, W. & Noordewier, T. G. (1997). A framework for market-based organisational
learning: Linking values, knowledge and behavior. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,
25, 305-318. [CrossRef]
Smh.com.au. (2009). New Sony e-book reader undercuts Kindle. Retrieved from http://www.smh.com.au/digital-life/digital-life-news/new-sony-ebook-reader-undercuts-kindle20090805-e9d5.html.
Snowden, S., Spafford, J., Michaelides, R. & Hopkins, J. (2006). Technology acceptance and mcommerce in an operational environment. Journal of Enterprise Information Management, 19(5),
525-539. [CrossRef]
16 | International Journal of e-Business Management, vol. 4, no. 2, 2010
Taylor, S. & Todd, P. (1995). Understanding information technology usage: A test of competing
models. Information Systems Research, 6(2), 144-176. [CrossRef]
Tsang, E. W. K. (1999). A preliminary typology of learning in international strategic alliances.
Journal of World Business, 34(3), 211-229. [CrossRef]
Venkatesh, V. & Davis, F. D. (1996). A model of the antecedents of perceived ease of use: Development and test. Decision Sciences, 27(3), 451-482. [CrossRef]
Yu, J. & Cooper, H. (1983). A quantitative review of research design effects on response rates to
questionnaires. Journal of Marketing Research, 20, 36-44. [CrossRef]
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Vanessa Ratten is an Assistant Professor in Strategy and Entrepreneurship. Her PhD (University of
Queensland) examined alliances in the technology industry. Her research interests include entrepreneurship, sport and technology. She has published in numerous journals including the Asia
Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business,
Journal of High Technology Management, European Journal of Innovation Management, Journal of
Management & Organisation, International Journal of Educational Management, Thunderbird International Business Review, Marketing Intelligence & Planning and International Journal of Innovation and
Technology Management.
Vanessa Ratten
A J Palumbo & J F Donahue Schools of Business Administration
Duquesne University
Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Email: [email protected]
Copyright of International Journal of e -- Business Management is the property of RMIT Training Pty Ltd
trading as RMIT Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv
without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email
articles for individual use.