Empowerment of Women Through Household Decision Making Power in
India: A State Wise Analysis
Susmita Bharati, Manoranjan Pal, Suparna Som and Premananda Bharati
Abstract
Empowerment of women refers to giving decision-making power to women in social, economic
and political sphere of life. It is a process of making women aware of socio-psycho-cultural and
political injustice that is prevailing in the society against women. Women empowerment is a
prerequisite to gender equality and development.
The process of empowerment should start from our own home. Women’s position in the
household determines women’s autonomy in the family. It is worth to examine whether women
can decide about household matters like buying jewelries, having access to money, having
mobility to go to market or relatives house or getting health care facilities.
In this paper we have found the state wise variations in the percentages of women who are
involved in the household decision making power and have examined whether levels of
education, types of occupation, working status of women etc., and the other characteristics of the
household like standard of living, sex of head of household etc. have positive influence on the
empowerment. Data from NFHS-2 Survey conducted in 1998-99 have been used for the analysis.
The degree of women’s decision making power is not same over the different aspects of life
considered here. Women are almost the sole authority to decide about cooking and have access
to money but can rarely buy jewelry of its own. Less than one-third of women can decide about
health care or get permission to go to relatives house or market.
The empowerment of women increases with the age of women and remains almost same among
different occupational groups. Husband’s education or occupation does not contribute much to
the empowerment. Working women have distinct advantage as against non-working or unpaid
working women. Though maximum percentage of empowered women has been observed about
cooking but its nature is different from others. Unlike others, this percentage decreases as SLI
increases, is less for literate women and female headed households. Behaviour of North-East
region is also a bit different from other regions in India which becomes evident if one compares
the coefficients of the logistic regression.
--------------------------------------------Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata
Introduction
India is a democratic country and democracy implies equal opportunity to all and thus also
implies gender equity. But in reality, most of the states are patriarchal where women lack
autonomy and have low status in the family as well as in the larger society. Since the mid 1980s,
the term empowerment or autonomy has received considerable attention in the study of
development, especially with reference to women. In the world conference on women in Bejing
(1995) priority has been given for empowering the women in the developing countries because
the status of women has been found to be low in these countries.
According to Dixon (1978), autonomy means “the degree of women’s access to material
resources (including food, income, land and other forms of wealth) and to social resources
(including knowledge, power and prestige) within the family, in the community and in the
society at large”. Dyson and Moore (1983) stated that female autonomy as “the capacity to
manipulate one’s personal environment”. Mason (1984) stated “Measurement of female
autonomy includes the degree of power of women to have over their own mobility, personal
decision and decisions within the household”. So autonomy means the controlling power of
women in their own lives as well as on their family members, authority to make independent
decisions, freedom from constraints on physical mobility etc.
India is a cosmopolitan country, so autonomy has a great regional variation. There are many
approaches to assess the degree of empowerment among women. One of the factors of regional
difference is the participation of female population in the labour force. For example, in South
India, wet rice cultivation is more prevalent than in North India. In South India, women are more
engaged in this cultivation than the wheat production of North India (Bardhan, 1974). Earning
status of women is one of the key factors towards decision-making power of women. The paid
workers has the natural advantage of taking decisions about how money should be spent along
with taking decisions on other aspects of life compared to a non-earning women. The state
policies regarding gender equality vary which lead to variations in autonomy in different states
and regions of India (Jeffrey, 1993).
Autonomy has a multi-dimensional aspects such as civil, political, social, economic, cultural
participation and rights. So to measure the degree of autonomy, its associated various factors
have to be measured. Family is the smallest area where women can share or control over the
resources. But gender inequality in the family level is manifested by a weaker role of women in
decision-making and less control over resources and restrictions in physical movements by
women. According to Jejeebhoy (1998) “.....while women’s autonomy is indeed
multidimensional, at least three dimensions - decision making, mobility and access to economic
resources- are closely related in all settings, irrespective of region or religion”.
In anthropological approaches, women’s autonomy is also dependent on social organization,
kinship, marriage patterns etc. In India, after marriage the brides usually go to a completely
unknown family which ultimately affect the position of women.
In India the study of women’s empowerment is scanty. The study on its regional variation is also
very rare. On the basis of women’s decision making power in different sphere of life, women’s
autonomy has been judged in three-fold ways in this paper: Firstly, to investigate the percentage
involved in decision making power of women in socio-cultural, socio-economic and health
aspects of their own lives; Secondly, the assessment of regulatory factors or ability to formulate
the decision making power and thirdly, the comparative account of women’s empowerment and
its associated factors through the comparison between working (paid and un-paid workers) and
non-working women.
Materials and methods:
For this study we have used the National Family Health Survey (NFHS – II) data conducted by
the International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS) Mumbai in 1998-99. The study analysis
is based on 70,280 ever married reproductive aged women of (15-49) years from all Indian
states that existed at the time of the survey. The survey includes women in the sample
households who were usually resident or who were visitors or who stayed in the sample
households the night before the interview.
The variables through which women’s empowerment has been assessed are the decision making
powers in four aspects of life such as household, economic, health care and mobility. Household
decision making power involves the criteria of cooking and buying jewelry. Decision making
related to economic autonomy are assessed through whether women can spend money for the
family members or for herself. Regarding health care autonomy, it was seen whether women can
take decision about health care and lastly, it has been seen whether the women have the freedom
of movement to relatives house or market.
The background variables of assessing empowerment of women are: type of places, age-groups
of women, educational attainment of women and their husbands, occupational categories of
women and their husbands, nutritional status of women through Body Mass Index (followed by
WHO, 2003) standard of living index (followed by NFHS –II) and head of house-hold.
To see the differentials of women’s autonomy in different states and zone of India, percentage
distribution has been made. Logistic regression of women’s autonomy has also been carried out
to see the simultaneous effect of covariates on decision making. It is used here because the
dependent variables are dichotomous. All the independent variables for regression are also
dichotomous. The reference categories for different independent variables are ‘rural’ residence,
‘15-30’ age groups, ‘illiteracy’ for women and their husbands, ‘no occupation’ for both women
and their husbands; ‘not working & unpaid’ worker, ‘malnourished (BMI is below 18.5)’ women
, ‘low & middle’ SLI and ;male’ household head. The statistical package for the social sciences
(SPSS, version 12.0) has been used for all the analysis . Significance of levels of ‘p’ values have
been considered to see the degree of effect of each variable on the women’s autonomy .
Findings:
In this paper women’s empowerment has been measured in the light of some decision-making
power regarding domestic, economic, health and mobility related areas.
Household level decisions:
Cooking:
It is expected that married women in India are most likely to participate in the decision about
what to cook. State-wise difference may be there but overall 72 percent Indian women make
decisions of their own about cooking (Table-1). There is not much variation in the percentages
among the different states and regions. The lowest percentages have been observed in Jammu
and Kerala- the two extreme states. Jammu is one of the Muslim dominated underdeveloped and
Kerala is one of the most developed states in India. Women’s participation in household decision
making alone or jointly with others increases with age suggesting that autonomy increases with
age. It is found from the Table-4 that illiterate women are more involved in the decision of
cooking. Proportion of self decision about cooking is quite lower in female headed household.
The possible reason may be her external activities. Significant difference in the decision of
cooking has been found in the working status of women (Table-8a).
Buying Jewelry:
In India 37 percent of women paid earners have a right to take decision how money will be spent
in the family (Table-3). Now one can imagine the situation of other women about purchasing
jewelry. The percentage of women who can buy jewelry of their own (7.9%) is much less than
37%. This percentage among the paid workers is 11.8% (Table 5). Table-1 shows that the states
vary from 2.5 percent in Assam to 26 percent in Goa (Table-1). The states with higher levels of
self decision has been found in Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura, West Bengal, Karnataka and Kerala.
As mentioned above age has a significant effect on purchasing jewelry (Table-7). Women in
Female-headed households, especially the female heads, have more power in taking decisions to
buy jewelry.
Economic access to money:
Women’s economic access to money has been measured through their participation in monetary
matters. It is found from the Table-1 that about 62 percent of women have access to money.
However, it may not imply that they exercise this power alone. Usually they spend money with
consultation with others, which include husband. Access to money by women is highest in
western region (71.3%) especially in Goa (82.6%) (Table 1). State-wise maximum has been
found in Meghalaya (83.5%). Acess to money among the different categories of workers are
similar to the overall percentages which is evident from the pair wise correlations of these
variables being around 0.9.
Actual economic power of women can not be measured through the access of money, but can be
measured through whether they spend it of their own or with consultation with others. Stages of
development have significant role in the percentages of women who can spend money of their
own. But socio-cultural and religious background are also important factors in the decision
making process of how money should be spent. If we look into the paid women workers only,
New Delhi, Goa, Jammu, Sikkim, Manipur, Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh etc. have the
highest percentages in this regard (Table 3). The reason for being Jammu & Kashmir and Goa
being at the top may be found in the religions. Most people in Goa are Chritians whereas Jammu
& Kashmir is Muslim populated state. Punjab and New Delhi are two of the most developed
states in India. But we cannot explain by the same reasoning why Kerala is lagging behind. Also,
variation of percentages is very high in the North-east states. It has as low as 9.9% in Nagaland
and as high as 64.8% in Sikkim. Participation of husband in the decision making process of
women is not very marked except in Tripura. Consultation with other members are more often
made especially in the North-east states.
Self health care:
Self health care is essential in the light of woman autonomy as she looks after the whole family.
State-wise percentages (Table-2) show that high self health caring states are Kerala, Tamil Nadu
(from South), New Delhi, Punjab (from North), Goa, Maharastra (from West) and Assam and
Sikkim (from North-East). Normally we expect that working mothers are more aware of the
health care and take decisions about health care compared to non-working mothers (Table-6).
But in actual practice it is not so. However, working mothers are distinctly more empowered
than working unpaid workers on this aspect. Socio-cultural factors like age and residence are
very important in increasing self decision. Regression analysis (Table-8B) also proves that
almost in all zones these two are very important. Other independent factors like sex of household
have also a significant role in measuring health care.
Mobility related:
Women’s free movement can be considered as a fundamental measure of autonomy. If persons
other than the women themselves determine whether women members in the family can or can
not go outside their house, many areas of functioning may be closed to women. A tremendous
fluctuation is found in case of mobility in different regions of India. States of west zone (Table2) are quite free whereas in the orthodox states like Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Jammu and the states of eastern and most of the states of north eastern zone the situation is just
the opposite. Table-6 shows that a higher percentage of working women can take decisions to go
to market compared to non-working and unpaid working mothers. So is the case for going to
relatives house except for North East and East Zones. Regression analysis (Table-8c) shows that
there is significant effect of some independent factors like residence, age, literacy, working
status, household standard of living and sex of the household head on the mobility of women.
Regression analysis shows that husband’s occupation has no influence on the women
empowerment except for cooking. It may be added that husband’s education has influence on
empowerment. Age has the maximum influence on empowerment for all aspects
Discussion and conclusion:
The study reveals the women’s autonomy through the decision making power on different
aspects of life such as household, access to money, self-health care and freedom of movements
to relative’s house or to the market. It covers 70,280 women of reproductive age (15-49) of
different states and zones of India. The study also provides socio-cultural and socio-economic
variations in the level of empowerment.
Our result indicates that there exists a great regional variation in the levels of women’s
autonomy. Highest autonomy in household such as cooking has been seen in North-east zone and
lowest in North zone. In state-wise distribution, greater autonomy has been seen in women of
Nagaland, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu in case of cooking and Goa, Kerala, Tripura, West Bengal
and Tamil Nadu in case of buying jewelry. And lower percentages have been found in Jammu,
Kerala, Uttar Pradesh etc. for cooking and Nagaland, Punjab in buying jewelry. South zone and
North zone show highest and lowest autonomy in buying jewelry respectively. In regards to
economic aspect, i.e. access to money, highest autonomy has been seen in West zone and lowest
in Central zone. State wise the higher degrees are found in Meghalaya, Goa, Himachal Pradesh
and Tamil Nadu and lowest in Nagaland, Assam etc.
State wise distribution of health care autonomy of women for themselves shows high
percentages in Kerala, New Delhi, Assam, Tamil Nadu etc, and less in Nagaland, Manipur,
Orissa etc. Highest empowerment is seen in West Zone and lowest in East zone.
Greater freedom of movements is found in West zone and the lowest is in Central zone. When
seen State wise, greater mobility is found in Goa, Gujarat, Maharastra, Tamil Nadu etc, and it is
lesser in Jammu, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, Orissa, West Bengal etc.
The striking feature is that among the paid workers, decision making power in spending the
earnings are seen to be high in Jammu, Goa, New Delhi and low in Nagaland, Mizoram, Orissa,
Madhya Pradesh etc. Zonewise, highest degree is found in North zone and lowest in Central
zone. Women’s autonomy through the comparison among three working categories viz. nonworking, working (paid) and working (unpaid) is seen to vary in different spheres of cooking,
buying jewelry. Earning women have greater access to decision making power. But in case of
access to money, there is no significant difference between non-working and working (paid)
women. Among the other two of decision makings such as mobility and health care, nonworking women shows lesser ability in mobility. In health care ability, lesser autonomy are
found among the working (unpaid) women than non-working and working (paid ) women.
In India, rural women shows less autonomy than urban women. Age-groups and educational
attainment has a positive relation with the increment of autonomy. Working status (paid), better
nutritional status, standard of living index, and female headed household act as a stimulator for
the enhancement of autonomy. So it is proved that higher female earnings make women
unambiguously better off giving them more power in household decision making, health care and
mobility.
A striking feature is that household and domestic female workers have greater decision making
power than paid workers. Thus improvement of household wealth may not enhance female
autonomy rather it may reduce the autonomy of female. It also supports the view that women’s
education helps to increase the autonomy.
To sum up, to answer the question why women’s autonomy varies over different regions/states,
the analysis through the selected explanatory variables is not enough. One has to have an indepth knowledge about the cultural beliefs and practices that exist in the different zones and the
states and also among different castes and religious groups.
References
Bardhan, PK. 1974. “On life and death questions,” Economic and Political Weekly. 9: 32 –34.
Dixon,RB. 1978. Rural women at work: Strategies for Development in South Asia. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press.
Dyson,T and Moore,M. 1983. “On kinship structure, female autonomy, and demographic
behaviour in India,” Population and Development Review. 9: 35-60.
International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS) and ORC Macro. 2000. National Family
Health Survey (NFHS-2), 1998-99: India, Mumbai: IIPS.
Jeffrey,R. 1993. Politics, women and well-being: How Kerala became ‘A Model,” Delhi: Oxford
University Press.
Jejeebhoy,S. 1998. Women’s autonomy in rural India: Its dimensions, determinants and the
influence of context, in Harriet B. Presser and Gita Sen eds., Women;s empowerment and
demographic process by IUSSP, Oxford University Press, pp. 204-238.
Mason,KO. 1984. The status of women: A review of its relationships to fertility and mortality,
New York: The Rockefeller foundation.
Planning Commission, Government of India. 2002. National Human Development Report. Delhi:
Oxford University Press.
World Health Organization (WHO). 2003. Diet, Nutrition and the prevention of
Chronic diseases. Report of a joint WHO/FAO expert consultation. Technical
Report Series No. 916. Geneva: WHO.
Table 1 Statewise and regionwise percentage distribution of women’s decision making
power in cooking, buying jewelry and access to money: India
States
Total
Percentage involved in decisions making
no. of
Household
Economic
women
Cooking
Buying jewelry
Access to money
taken self husband With self husband With
No
Yes
others
others
North -East
ArunachalPradesh
Assam
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Nagaland
Sikkim
Tripura
7967
784
2461
1096
538
781
547
880
880
78.9
85.1
75.0
72.5
81.2
78.4
96.3
88.3
71.1
4.6
3.7
4.6
5.3
5.4
4.5
1.1
2.2
9.3
16.4
11.2
20.4
22.2
13.4
17.2
2.6
9.5
19.5
7.1
12.2
2.5
6.0
5.6
9.1
2.9
8.3
17.2
32.7
20.7
39.3
30.6
27.9
16.5
18.6
38.5
48.4
60.2
67.1
58.2
63.4
66.5
74.4
78.4
53.2
34.4
43.8
23.0
61.6
22.8
16.5
44.2
77.3
21.4
56.5
56.2
77.0
38.4
77.2
83.5
55.8
22.7
78.6
43.5
East
Bihar
Orissa
West Bengal
12974
5767
3688
3519
68.8
65.0
72.2
71.3
5.50
7.2
4.9
3.2
25.80
27.7
22.9
25.5
8.80
7.1
5.5
15.2
44.10
48.2
37.9
44.0
41.3
44.7
56.6
40.8
41.3
32.3
53.4
43.5
58.7
67.7
46.6
56.5
Central
Madhya Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh
10770
5702
5068
67.1
70.1
63.7
4.1
3.9
4.3
28.8
26.0
32.1
7.2
8.8
5.5
38.1
39.5
36.6
54.6
51.7
57.9
49.10
51.2
46.8
50.90
48.8
53.2
West
Goa
Gujarat
Maharashtra
8410
1054
3196
4160
75.5
72.8
68.8
81.3
1.5
1.9
1..6
1.4
23.0
25.3
29.6
17.3
8.5
26.2
4.9
6.8
28.4
32.0
17.8
35.6
63.1
41.8
77.3
57.6
28.6
17.4
26.3
33.3
71.3
82.6
73.7
66.7
North
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jammu
New Delhi
Punjab
Rajasthan
17072
2503
2619
2314
1877
2394
5365
67.8
77.1
60.4
53.8
63.3
83.0
67.9
3.5
2.5
1.0
6.4
6.7
0.3
4.4
28.6
20.3
38.6
39.8
29.9
16.7
27.70
4.7
2.40
2.90
8.50
7.90
2.50
4.80
25.6
17.80
2.90
30.60
34.30
19.20
38.00
69.7
79.80
94.20
60.90
57.90
78.20
57.20
36.3
29.7
18.0
40.2
16.3
21.3
60.3
63.7
70.3
82.0
59.8
83.7
78.7
39.7
South
Andhra Pradesh
Karnataka
Kerala
13087
3401
3510
78.0
77.7
85.9
3.3
4.1
3.7
18.7
18.20
10.40
33.4
31.10
44.80
54.6
59.50
48.30
32.3
43.0
33.5
67.8
57.0
66.5
2403
58.80
3.40
37.90
28.00
53.00
33.7
66.3
3773
70280
83.30
72.00
2.10
3.80
14.60
24.20
12.0
9.40
6.90
19.0
0
14.7
0
7.90
28.20
33.50
57.00
58.50
20.2
38.3
79.8
61.7
Tamil Nadu
India
Table 2 Percentage distribution of women’s autonomy in health care and mobility in
different regions of India
Total
Percentage involved in decisions making :
Health care
Mobility
To go relatives
To go market
self husband With Permission Permission Permission Permission
others not needed
needed
not needed
needed
North -East
Aru. Pradesh
Assam
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Nagaland
Sikkim
Tripura
7967
28.0
35.7
36.3
28.6
71.4
27.8
72.2
784
2461
29.0
48.0
8.4
20.3
13.7
6.4
34.5
20.2
29.3
33.6
53.1
19.7
25.0
26.7
37.6
48.5
41.7
18.3
38.5
60.0
61.3
66.9
27.8
31.3
50.1
11.6
27.5
45.9
57.1
12.2
40.2
20.9
49.9
88.4
72.5
54.1
42.9
87.8
59.8
79.1
42.3
10.6
27.7
43.1
62.1
11.5
36.8
24.7
57.7
89.4
72.3
56.9
37.9
88.5
63.2
75.3
East
Bihar
Orissa
West Bengal
12974 14.6
5767 18.0
3688 9.0
3519 14.8
49.3
36.1
15.3
84.7
18.2
81.8
43.6
57.7
50.0
38.4
33.2
35.2
18.7
12.8
12.4
81.3
87.2
87.6
19.9
15.9
17.8
80.1
84.1
82.2
Central
Madhya
Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh
10770 21.9
47.7
30.4
14.2
85.8
17.6
82.4
5702
5068
19.8
24.3
53.5
41.2
26.7
34.5
17.6
10.4
82.4
89.6
19.2
15.8
80.8
84.2
West
Goa
Gujarat
Maharashtra
8410
1054
3196
4160
36.4
33.1
30.5
42.4
57.6
56.9
43.1
39.6
32.3
38.7
31.8
25.1
39.6
28.7
42.6
21.7
56.5
50.2
32.9
43.5
49.8
67.1
65.1
54.7
56.6
34.9
45.3
43.4
North
Haryana
Himachal
Pradesh
Jammu
New Delhi
Punjab
Rajasthan
17072 29.8
2503 32.6
32.1
38.1
21.0
79.0
30.6
69.4
29.2
38.3
18.8
81.2
35.5
64.5
2619
2314
1877
2394
5365
32.7
24.3
49.8
45.0
15.6
15.4
36.5
28.7
19.4
46.6
51.9
39.2
21.5
35.5
37.7
32.7
7.0
31.5
26.8
16.2
67.3
93.0
68.5
73.2
83.8
34.7
12.2
50.0
50.2
18.9
65.3
87.8
50.0
49.8
81.1
South
AndhraPradesh
Karnataka
Kerala
Tamil Nadu
India
13087
3401
3510
2403
3773
70280
33.8
38.4
27.7
34.7
65.3
47.3
52.7
21.7
22.2
53.8
42.8
27.1
41.5
46.1
21.2
39.5
39.4
36.8
31.7
25.0
17.7
33.4
13.1
31.5
37.3
55.6
24.9
86.9
68.5
62.7
44.4
75.1
18.8
41.1
47.7
78.6
32.3
81.2
58.9
52.3
21.4
67.7
States
1096
538
781
547
880
880
Table 3 Percentage distribution of women’s autonomy only for paid earners
in different regions of India
Percentage involved in decisions making
(only for paid earners)
who decides how money will be spent?
self
husband
With others
36.3
18.4
45.3
38.9
17.5
43.7
32.5
26.3
41.2
54.0
9.6
36.4
25.0
16.4
58.6
15.1
13.4
71.6
9.9
15.6
74.5
64.8
15.2
20.0
24.6
51.4
23.9
States
Total
North -East
ArunachalPradesh
Assam
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Nagaland
Sikkim
Tripura
1928
126
369
541
152
292
141
165
142
East
Bihar
Orissa
West Bengal
2630
1012
860
758
40.3
48.3
21.2
51.3
31.8
29.1
35.6
31.3
27.9
22.6
43.4
17.4
Central
Madhya Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh
2324
1749
575
32.0
28.2
43.5
34.1
35.6
29.7
33.9
36.2
26.8
West
Goa
Gujarat
Maharashtra
2545
341
951
1253
40.8
61.6
37.7
37.5
22.4
10.0
13.0
32.9
36.8
28.4
49.2
29.6
North
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jammu
New Delhi
Punjab
Rajasthan
2151
223
297
322
326
210
773
50.0
53.8
50.5
64.6
62.0
47.6
38.3
15.2
10.3
5.7
12.7
9.2
10.0
25.2
34.8
35.9
43.8
22.7
28.8
42.4
36.5
South
Andhra Pradesh
Karnataka
Kerala
Tamil Nadu
India
4651
1455
1213
511
1472
16229
31.6
23.9
33.6
37.4
35.5
37.5
31.7
33.7
37.3
24.3
27.6
26.8
36.7
42.3
29.1
38.4
36.9
35.7
Table 4 Percentage distribution of women’s autonomy with respect to independent
variables
Household
Independent Factors
Type of place
Rural
Urban
Age-groups
15-20
20-30
30-40
40+
Respondent’s education
Illiterate
Literate
Husband’s education
Illiterate
Literate
Respondent’s occupation
No occupation
Household & domestic
Professional/sales/ser
Agriculture
Manual
Husband’s occupation
No occupation
Household & domestic
Economic
Buying Access to
Cooking jewelry money
Health
Mobility
Health care Relatives Market
48103 71.5
22177 72.2
6.8
10.5
55.7
74.7
24.1
33.7
20.3
34.9
25.3
47.4
4826
25862
24276
15316
2.2
5.2
9.4
12.0
46.3
59.0
64.2
66.9
11.7
22.1
31.1
34.1
10.9
20.3
27.5
32.9
14.1
26.7
35.9
41.7
34096 75.4
36184 68.7
6.9
8.9
52.3
70.4
23.9
30.2
19.7
29.8
24.9
39.3
17461 78.3
52819 69.9
7.5
8.1
51.1
65.1
24.6
28.0
19.9
26.5
25.1
34.6
45206
614
3663
15638
5159
69.4
83.1
72.8
77.4
76.1
6.9
21.2
15.3
7.5
11.2
62.5
73.3
84.6
52.4
64.2
27.1
46.6
38.9
22.8
29.2
23.0
42.2
48.6
23.3
27.8
30.9
55.7
58.5
27.8
37.0
2004
64.5
13.2
62.0
30.9
26.9
154
44.4
64.5
79.2
81.8
76.6
9.7
64.3
43.5
28.6
33.9
42.9
Professional/sales/ser
20590 69.5
9.0
73.3
31.1
31.2
40.1
Agriculture
24967 73.
5.7
51.3
21.0
19.1
23.7
Manual
22565 73.0
8.9
62.4
29.7
25.4
34.5
Not working
45167 69.4
6.9
62.5
27.1
23.0
30.9
Unpaid worker
8884
5.8
51.0
20.4
21.9
25.4
Paid worker
16229 79.0
11.8
65.0
30.7
31.8
40.1
Malnourished
22429 72.3
7.0
54.9
23.0
20.5
26.5
Normal
39167 71.1
7.7
61.7
27.1
24.7
31.7
Obese & overweight
8684
11.3
78.9
38.0
37.3
49.7
Working status
72.4
Women’s nutritional status
74.8
Standard of living index
Low
18764
79.3 8.2
50.4
23.5
20.4
25.4
Medium
33738
72.1 7.8
59.4
26.6
23.7
30.8
high
17778
64.1 8.0
77.8
32.0
31.9
42.3
Male
66152
72.5 7.2
61.1
26.1
24.0
31.5
Female
4128
63.1 19.1
70.5
43.3
39.3
45.7
Sex of household head
Table 5 Percentage distribution of women’s autonomy with respect to working status
(only for household and economic aspects)
Percentage involved in decision making
Working (paid)
Working (unpaid)
Access
Access
Access
Cook Buying to
Cook Buying
to
Cook Buying
to
ing jewelry money
N
ing jewelry money N
ing jewelry money
77.4
5.8
50.4
1928 80.1
9.8
69.1 912
84.9
8.9
61.7
84.3
8.1
70.8
126 81.0
18.3
83.3 288
87.8
14.9
82.3
74.4
2.0
35.6
369 78.0
5.7
56.4 30
80.0
0.0
13.3
62.3
3.8
78.0
541 76.2
6.8
78.0 210
80.0
7.6
73.8
82.6
3.6
82.2
152 81.6
9.2
83.6 82
75.6
6.1
87.8
80.2
10.3
50.6
292 75.7
9.6
65.4 80
78.8
1.3
47.5
95.6
4.0
19.9
141 97.2
2.8
32.6 180
96.7
1.7
18.3
87.0
6.6
76.0
165 93.3
15.2
89.7 8
100.0
12.5
87.5
70.7
14.6
39.8
142 74.6
25.4
60.6 34
64.7
35.3
50.0
Not working
States
North -East
Aru. Pradesh
Assam
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Nagaland
Sikkim
Tripura
N
5127
370
2062
345
304
409
226
707
704
East
Bihar
Orissa
West Bengal
9667
4323
2672
2672
66.0
61.1
69.9
69.9
7.6
5.8
4.9
13.3
58.7
68.7
46.3
54.9
2630
1012
860
758
77.6
77.1
79.9
75.7
13.2
11.5
7.1
22.3
59.4 677
65.9 432
48.6 156
62.9 89
74.0
75.7
68.6
75.3
8.9
9.7
5.1
11.2
55.2
61.6
40.4
50.6
Central
MadhyaPradesh
Uttar Pradesh
6480 61.7
2585 63.7
3895 60.3
6.3
8.4
4.8
53.7
56.1
52.2
2324 79.3
1749 79.0
575 80.3
10.8
11.1
9.7
50.0 1966
45.8 1368
62.8 598
70.5
71.1
69.2
6.2
6.4
5.9
42.6
39.1
50.7
West
Goa
Gujarat
Maharashtra
4481
573
1617
2291
74.3
75.7
64.7
80.7
7.2
23.2
3.9
5.6
74.4
80.3
77.5
70.7
2545
341
951
1253
80.2
68.6
77.3
85.6
42.5
31.4
8.3
10.5
71.0
87.7
70.1
67.0
1384
140
628
616
70.6
70.7
66.7
74.5
5.3
25.7
2.2
3.7
62.3
80.0
69.4
51.0
North
Haryana
Himachal
Pradesh
Jammu
New Delhi
Punjab
Rajasthan
12336 67.9
2207 76.7
4.3
1.9
67.1
69.2
2151 70.4
223 81.6
8.7
7.2
70.3 2585
78.9 73
65.2
76.7
3.2
5.5
41.9
76.7
2072
1371
1534
2175
2977
60.5
53.2
62.5
82.9
65.2
2.7
9.4
6.7
2.3
5.1
80.9
61.3
82.7
78.0
42.8
297
322
326
210
773
62.0
54.7
66.9
83.3
75.0
5.7
12.7
12.9
5.7
7.8
95.3 250
65.5 621
89.6 17
86.7 9
47.7 1615
58.0
54.9
76.5
88.9
69.5
1.2
4.2
17.6
0.0
2.8
75.2
53.5
64.7
77.8
30.3
South
AndhraPradesh
Karnataka
Kerala
Tamil Nadu
India
7076
1478
1750
1846
2002
45167
74.6
75.0
84.9
57.3
81.2
69.4
11.9
8.0
6.8
18.1
13.5
6.9
69.1
61.9
70.6
63.3
78.4
62.5
4651
1455
1213
511
1472
16229
82.4
80.1
88.6
63.2
86.1
79.0
13.6
11.1
9.1
22.3
16.8
11.8
68.4
55.3
64.0
76.5
82.1
65.0
81.3
78.4
83.2
69.6
83.9
72.4
7.2
8.1
2.6
15.2
13.0
5.8
59.4
46.8
58.7
71.7
78.6
51.0
1360
468
547
46
299
8884
Table 6 Percentage distribution of women’s autonomy with respect to working status
(only for mobility and health care)
Percentage involved in decisions making :
Working (paid)
Not working
Rela mark Health
Rela market Health
tives et
care
N tives
care
23.2 22.3
30.5 1928 36.9
38.5
25.7
38.9 30.5
23.5 126 57.9
54.8
34.1
10.6 9.4
46.4 369 17.6
17.9
56.9
24.1 23.5
7.0 541 27.0
29.8
9.4
40.8 39.1
21.4 152 58.6
56.6
21.7
54.3 58.7
11.5 292 59.9
65.8
17.1
7.1 10.2
6.6 141 15.6
15.6
5.7
35.8 32.4
33.5 165 58.8
55.8
40.0
18.6 20.9
18.8 142 31.0
38.7
24.6
North -East
Aru. Pradesh
Assam
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Nagaland
Sikkim
Tripura
N
5127
370
2062
345
304
409
226
707
704
East
Bihar
Orissa
West Bengal
9667
4323
2672
2672
16.2
17.9
13.1
16.5
12.7 2630 20.9
16.2 1012 24.1
7.7 860 19.5
12.1 758 18.1
24.3
24.4
25.0
23.2
21.7
26.5
13.4
24.7
677
432
156
89
21.9
28.7
12.8
4.5
24.1
24.8
29.5
55.6
13.4
16.2
7.7
10.1
Central
MadhyaPradesh
Uttar Pradesh
6480 13.8 17.3
2585 20.0 21.1
3895 9.7 14.7
21.1 2324 18.0
20.7 1749 18.8
21.3 575 15.5
22.2
22.1
22.8
25.2 1966
22.2 1368
34.3 598
11.2
11.5
10.4
13.2
21.6
17.5
20.9
15.3
33.6
West
Goa
Gujarat
Maharashtra
4481
573
1617
2291
62.0
60.4
58.4
64.9
38.0 2545 44.1
37.9 341 65.7
31.7 951 50.8
42.5 1253 33.1
57.0
74.8
57.7
54.0
38.5
46.0
36.4
38.0
1384
140
628
616
34.1
55.0
42.0
21.3
40.5
74.6
13.9
6.4
27.2
30.7
27.9
25.8
North
12336 21.1 32.0
Haryana
2207 17.1 33.5
HimachalPrades
h
2072 31.9 32.9
Jammu
1371 8.50 13.8
New Delhi
1534 29.9 48.2
Punjab
2175 24.6 48.5
Rajasthan
2977 15.3 18.2
31.6 2151 30.5
32.1 223 33.2
40.2
53.8
35.5 2585
39.5 73
12.9
26.0
16.3
6.7
16.2
24.7
32.5
24.6
48.7
44.0
16.1
297
322
326
210
773
51.9
8.1
38.1
48.1
22.8
58.6
16.5
57.7
68.1
24.1
40.1
30.7
55.2
55.2
20.8
250
621
17
9
1615
17.2
3.2
52.9
44.4
14.8
30.1
60.7
37.5
32.9
66.3
25.6
20.5
41.2
66.7
12.3
7076
South
AndhraPradesh 1478
Karnataka
1750
Kerala
1846
Tamil Nadu
2002
India
45167
35.2
20.8
22.3
54.4
39.5
27.1
4651
1455
1213
511
1472
16229
36.3
14.2
30.8
47.7
59.6
31.8
49.2
19.7
40.1
60.3
82.1
40.1
34.2
23.6
24.3
52.1
46.7
30.7
1360
468
547
46
299
8884
29.4
9.4
29.3
39.1
59.5
21.9
38.2
19.8
45.1
39.7
14.7
15.9
25.1
18.6
17.2
50.0
45.8
20.4
13.4
16.5
10.6
11.1
44.1
51.5
53.0
35.9
34.5
13.2
32.6
34.4
52.1
23.0
47.8
19.5
43.5
44.3
75.8
30.9
N
912
288
30
210
82
80
180
8
34
Working (unpaid)
Rela market Health
tives
care
41.1
36.2
19.1
61.1
79.9
33.7
6.7
17.4
50.0
34.3
35.6
8.1
41.5
45.7
13.4
61.3
12.0
12.5
16.1
31.2
6.7
50.0
10.0
12.5
26.5
11.2
32.4
Table 7a. Percentage distribution relationship between women’s autonomy and its
independent variables in respect to respect to women’s working status (part –I)
Independent
Factors
Type of place
Rural
Urban
Age-groups
15-20
20-30
30-40
40+
Education
Illiterate
Literate
Husband’s edu.
Illiterate
Literate
Occupation
No occupation
Hhd. & domestic
Profnl./sales/ser
Agriculture
Household and economic
Working (paid worker)
N
Cook Buying Access
ing jewelry money
Not working
Cook Buying Access
ing jewelry money
N
56.1 11420
73.5 4809
80.8
74.7
9.9
16.5
58.8 8305
79.7 579
72.5
70.8
5.6
9.3
49.9
67.0
1.8
4.7
8.3
10.9
48.1
60.5
65.3
67.4
773
5159
6508
3789
55.9
75.0
82.6
82.9
4.1
7.7
13.5
16.3
44.5 633
60.4 3024
67.8 3122
70.9 2105
42.8
63.8
80.8
82.1
2.1
3.6
6.2
9.5
39.0
47.7
52.0
57.8
72.7
67.1
5.6
7.9
52.3
69.6
9423
6806
82.1
74.6
10.7
13.5
56.3 6194
77.1 2690
73.5
69.7
5.3
7.0
46.2
62.1
8579
36588
75.1
68.0
5.9
7.2
50.3 5883
65.4 10346
83.8
76.2
10.9
12.4
55.5 2999
70.5 5885
76.6
70.2
5.2
6.1
44.9
54.1
45167
-
69.4
-
6.9
-
62.5
-
596
3424
7397
82.9
72.8
83.2
21.3
15.3
9.6
73.7
18
85.2 239
55.2 8241
88.9
74.1
72.2
16.7
15.1
5.5
57.1
61.1
76.2
-
-
-
-
4787
76.3
11.6
64.7
372
74.2
5.4
49.9
1341
60.3
8.5
59.4
515
76.5
26.4
73.4
148
60.8
9.5
45.3
Household &
94
domestic
Professional/sale 15705
s/ser
Agriculture
12397
69.1
8.5
60.6
44
84.1
11.4
70.5
16
100.0
12.5
68.8
68.7
8.0
72.2
3663
72.7
13.2
81.4 1222
70.8
8.9
64.2
68.7
4.7
51.3
6637
82.3
8.6
54.5 5933
74.0
4.8
47.7
Manual
15630
71.3
7.5
62.0
5370
79.3
13.5
66.1 1665
68.2
6.7
53.5
Malnourished
13094
68.1
5.8
55.3
6015
81.1
11.0
57.8 3320
72.8
4.5
48.2
Normal
25440
68.7
6.7
62.1
8592
78.1
11.7
66.6 5135
71.8
6.3
51.6
Obese &
overweight
SLI
6633
74.4
10.2
78.5
1622
76.0
16.0
83.9
429
75.8
9.8
65.5
Low
9253
75.3
6.7
47.1
7264
84.2
10.9
55.9 2247
80.2
5.7
46.4
Medium
22052
70.2
6.9
59.8
6307
77.8
12.5
66.2 5379
72.4
5.8
49.9
High
13862
64.0
7.2
77.2
2658
67.5
12.9
87.4 1258
58.2
6.1
63.8
Sex of hhd.
Head
Male
42352
70.0
6.3
62.1 15313
79.5
10.9
64.2 8487
72.4
5.3
50.2
2815
59.5
16.6
68.3
69.9
27.4
78.3
72.3
17.1
67.5
Manual
Husband’s
occu.
No occupation
28378
16789
68.6
70.6
5.8
8.8
3420
17679
14646
9422
42.1
61.6
77.4
81.2
18479
26688
Working (unpaid worker)
N cooking Buying Access
jewelry money
Nutri. status
Female
916
397
Table 7b Percentage distribution relationship between women’s autonomy and its
independent variables in respect to respect to women’s working status (part –II)
Independent
factors
Type of place
Rural
Urban
Age-groups
15-20
20-30
30-40
40+
Education
Illiterate
Literate
Husband’s edu.
Illiterate
Literate
Occupation
No occupation
Hhd. & domestic
Profnl./sales/ser
Agriculture
Household and economic
Not working
Working (paid worker)
Health Relat- Mark N Health Relat Market
care
ives
et
care ives
N
Working (unpaid worker)
N
Health Relat- Market
care
Ives
28378
16789
24.1
32.2
17.7 22.7 11420
32.0 44.6 4809
26.9 26.2
39.8 44.9
32.6
57.9
8305
579
20.0
25.6
20.9
36.3
24.1
43.5
3420
17679
14646
9422
12.2
22.7
31.6
34.1
9.8
19.5
25.6
30.4
13.5
26.3
34.6
39.9
773
5159
6508
3789
13.3
23.7
34.0
38.2
14.1
24.9
34.0
40.9
18.4
32.1
43.3
49.8
633
3024
3122
2105
7.4
16.0
23.0
26.9
12.8
17.5
22.8
29.8
12.3
19.7
26.9
35.2
18479
26688
23.9
29.4
17.2 22.6
27.1 36.6
9423
6806
26.9 24.8
36.0 41.4
31.2
52.3
6194
2690
19.1
23.3
19.2
28.2
22.1
32.9
8579
36588
25.3
27.6
17.0 22.4 5883
24.4 32.8 10346
26.8 24.3
33.0 41.4
30.4
45.6
2999
5885
18.2
21.5
19.9
23.0
22.8
26.7
45167
-
27.1
-
23.0 30.9
-
50.0
25.5
20.1
27.8
38.5
21.2
38.9
46.0
24.2
-
-
1341
596
3424
7397
46.5 43.0
39.8 49.4
25.8 25.2
56.2
59.4
31.8
18
239
8241
-
4787
29.8 27.9
37.0
372
21.2
26.3
36.6
25.9
22.7 29.0
515
46.8 40.6
49.1
148
21.6
18.2
25.0
94
46.8
28.7 45.7
44
31.8 27.3
38.6
16
56.3
31.3
37.5
Profnl./sales/ser
15705
30.0
28.4 37.4
3663
38.2 44.3
54.7
1222
25.1
27.6
30.9
Agriculture
12397
20.7
15.6 20.1
6637
23.9 24.0
30.2
5933
18.6
21.0
23.9
Manual
15630
29.4
23.4 32.9
5370
32.5 32.1
41.4
1665
23.3
21.5
26.6
Malnourished
13094
22.0
18.0 23.8
6015
27.2 26.4
33.3
3320
19.3
20.0
24.7
Normal
25440
27.2
22.6 30.1
8592
30.6 32.3
40.8
5135
20.3
22.3
24.8
6633
36.9
34.7 47.6
1622
44.5 49.0
61.5
429
30.1
32.2
38.2
9253
22.3
16.8 20.7
7264
26.3 24.7
31.4
2247
19.3
21.4
25.2
Medium
22052
26.8
21.8 29.4
6307
31.1 32.4
41.2
5379
20.4
21.5
24.5
High
13862
30.9
29.1 39.9
2658
41.8 49.6
61.0
1258
22.7
24.7
29.3
42352
26.2
22.2 30.1 15313
29.6 30.7
39.1
8487
19.2
20.9
24.4
2815
41.2
35.5 41.8
48.6 49.2
57.0
397
45.6
43.1
47.1
Manual
-
Husband’s occu.
No occupation
Hhd. & domestic
Nutri. status
Obese & overweight
SLI
Low
Sex of Hhd. head
Male
Female
916
Table 8a Odd ratios of the coefficients of Logistic regression of women’s autonomy on household factors: Coking and buying jewelry
Independent
factors
Place
Rural®
Urban
Age-groups
15-30®
30-40+
Education
Illiterate®
Literate
Husband’s edu.
Illiterate®
Literate
Occupation
No occupation®
Others
Husband’s occu.
No occupation®
Others
Working status
Not working
Or unpaid
Paid
Women’s BMI
Malnourished®
Normal & Obese
SLI
Low &
Medium®
High
Sex of hh
Male®
Female
Constant
Chi-square
Cooking
India
N-East East Central
Buying jewelry
West
North South India N-East East
Central West
North
South
1.00
1.12**
1.00
0.94
1.00
1.26**
1.00
1.14**
1.00
1.09
1.00
0.91*
1.00
1.23**
1.00
1.51**
1.00
1.02
1.00
2.04**
1.00
1.89**
1.00
0.99
1.00
1.93**
1.00
1.36**
1.00
2.63**
1.00
1.86**
1.00
2.94**
1.00
2.70**
1.00
2.95**
1.00
2.61**
1.00
2.55**
1.00
2.36**
1.00
1.51**
1.00
2.47**
1.00
2.96**
1.00
2.37**
1.00
2.59**
1.00
2.34**
1.00
0.98
1.00
0.98
1.00
0.93
1.00
0.86**
1.00
0.89*
1.00
0.89**
1.00
0.64**
1.00
1.34**
1.00
1.17**
1.00
1.39**
1.00
1.29**
1.00
1.11
1.00
1.04
1.00
1.25**
1.00
0.79**
1.00
0.94
1.00
0.79**
1.00
0.73**
1.00
0.84*
1.00
0.75**
1.00
0.84**
1.00
0.94
1.00
1.19
1.00
0.90
1.00
0.90
1.00
0.81
1.00
0.98
1.00
1.03
1.00
0.98
1.00
1.45**
1.00
1.18*
1.00
1.21**
1.00
0.66**
1.00
0.68**
1.00
1.07
1.00
0.97
1.00
1.62**
1.00
1.38*
1.00
1.15
1.00
0.77
1.00
0.89
1.00
0.70
1.00
1.56**
1.00
1.30
1.00
1.71**
1.00
1.38**
1.00
1.64**
1.00
1.55**
1.00
1.54**
1.00
0.60
1.00
0.83
1.00
0.59**
1.00
0.71
1.00
0.43**
1.00
0.55
1.00
0.63
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.38**
0.74**
1.26**
1.51**
1.59**
1.45**
1.02
1.80**
0.99
1.39*
1.51**
2.20**
2.02**
1.85**
1.00
1.01
1.00
1.24**
1.00
0.98
1.00
0.94
1.00
0.96
1.00
0.95
1.00
1.01
1.00
1.05**
1.00
1.24**
1.00
1.06
1.00
0.94
1.00
1.14*
1.00
1.25*
1.00
1.01
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.57**
0.69**
0.53
0.59**
0.46**
0.70**
0.59**
0.73**
1.09
0.82*
0.76*
0.95
0.74**
0.85*
1.00
0.70
1.88
4638.2**
1.00
0.68**
2.837
199.3**
1.00
0.78
1.192
1082.1
**
1.00
0.82*
1.507
1000.9**
1.00
0.54**
3.6333
654.3**
1.00
0.91
1.560
1102.9
**
1.00
0.47**
5.187
916.4*
*
1.00
3.17**
0.016
2143.1
**
1.00
2.49**
0.014
106.6**
1.00
3.54**
0.015
561.0*
*
1.00
3.52**
0.011
394.6**
1.00
4.12**
0.021
324.8*
*
1.00
3.75**
0.007
425.2**
1.00
2.42**
0.034
406.3*
*
Table 8b Odd ratios of the coefficients of Logistic regression of women’s autonomy on household factors (economic and health care)
Independent
factors
Place
Rural®
Urban
Age-groups
15-30®
30-40+
Education
Illiterate®
Literate
Husband’s edu.
Illiterate®
Literate
Occupation
No occupation®
Others
husband’s occu.
No occupation®
Others
Working status
Not working &
unpaid worker®
Paid worker
Women’s BMI
Malnourished®
Normal & Obese
SLI
Low & Medium®
High
Sex of hh
Male®
Female
Constant
Chi-square
Access to money
India
N-East
East
Central West
1.00
1.60**
1.00
1.24**
1.00
1.49**
1.00
1.88**
1.00
1.35**
1.00
1.08
1.00
1.40**
1.00
1.55**
1.00
1.25**
1.00
1.15**
Health care
North
South
India N- East East
North
South
1.00
1.37**
1.00
1.51**
1.00
1.65**
1.00
1.34**
1.00
0.81**
1.00
1.28**
1.00
1.46**
1.00
1.54**
1.00
1.32**
1.00
1.13**
1.00
1.33**
1.00
1.47**
1.00
1.48**
1.00
1.29**
1.00
1.82**
1.00
1.09*
1.00
1.93**
1.00
1.98**
1.00
1.72**
1.00
1.92**
1.00
2.17**
1.00
1.01
1.00
1.79**
1.00
1.43**
1.00
2.23**
1.00
1.29**
1.00
1.24**
1.00
0.78**
1.00
0.83**
1.00
1.13*
1.00
1.21*
1.00
1.27**
1.00
1.55**
1.00
1.31**
1.00
1.14**
1.00
1.12*
1.00
1.06
1.00
1.21**
1.00
1.27**
1.00
0.96
1.00
0.88**
1.00
0.91
1.00
1.02
1.00
0.99
1.00
0.89**
1.00
1.25**
1.00
0.88**
1.00
1.78**
1.00
1.03
1.00
0.92
1.00
0.85*
1.00
0.60**
1.00
0.97
1.00
0.79**
1.00
0.49**
1.00
0.98
1.00
1.06
1.00
0.88
1.00
0.48**
1.00
0.76**
1.00
1.09*
1.00
1.34*
1.00
0.98
1.00
1.04
1.00
0.89
1.00
1.27*
1.00
0.91
1.00
0.89*
1.00
0.63**
1.00
0.78*
1.00
1.02
1.00
0.74*
1.00
1.21
1.00
0.78*
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.57**
1.21*
1.15
1.18*
1.34**
1.96**
1.46**
1.52**
1.55**
1.76
1.16
1.38**
2.22**
1.51**
1.00
1.16**
1.00
1.34**
1.00
1.23**
1.00
1.06
1.00
1.14*
1.00
1.24**
1.00
1.17**
1.00
1.17**
1.00
1.11*
1.00
1.14*
1.00
1.01
1.00
1.17**
1.00
1.14**
1.00
1.15**
1.00
1.83**
1.00
1.81**
1.00
2.00**
1.00
1.57**
1.00
1.89**
1.00
1.69**
1.00
1.54**
1.00
1.04*
1.00
1.14*
1.00
0.89
1.00
0.92
1.00
1.21**
1.00
0.99
1.00
0.76**
1.00
1.37**
0.423
5549.8**
1.00
1.46**
0.238
523.3**
1.00
1.37**
0.576
545.0**
1.00
1.41**
0.342
889.4**
1.00
1.34*
0.830
518.3**
1.00
1.83
0.237
2483.4**
1.00
0.94
0.960
597.7**
1.00
1.62
0.514
165.1**
1.00
3.11**
0.039
450.7**
1.00
2.71**
.053
399.4**
1.00
1.58**
0.194
433.6**
1.00
2.42**
.079
959.9**
1.00
1.89**
0.122
735.9**
1.00
2.18**
0.092
2797.1**
Central West
Table 8c Odd ratios of the coefficients of Logistic regression of women’s autonomy on household factors (mobility)
Independent
Factors
Place
Rural®
Urban
Age-groups
15-30®
30-40+
Education
Illiterate®
Literate
Husband’s edu.
Illiterate®
Literate
Occupation
No occupation®
Others
Husband’s occu.
No occupation®
Others
Working status
Not working &
unpaid worker®
Paid worker
Women’s BMI
Malnourished®
Normal & Obese
SLI
Low &
Medium®
High
Sex of Head
of Hhd.
Male®
Female
Constant
Chi-square
India
NEast
Mobility to relatives
East
Centr West
al
North
South
India
NEast
Mobility to market
East
Centr
West
al
North
South
1.00
1.76**
1.00
1.20**
1.00
1.42**
1.00
2.25**
1.00
1.71**
1.00
1.71**
1.00
1.57**
1.00
2.16**
1.00
1.37**
1.00
1.82**
1.00
2.33**
1.00
2.65**
1.00
1.76**
1.00
1.82**
1.00
1.72**
1.00
1.37**
1.00
1.73**
1.00
2.12**
1.00
1.67**
1.00
2.00**
1.00
1.56**
1.00
1.79**
1.00
1.49**
1.00
1.74**
1.00
2.22**
1.00
1.88**
1.00
2.13**
1.00
1.59**
1.00
1.49**
1.00
1.32**
1.00
0.78**
1.00
1.38**
1.00
1.08
1.00
1.47**
1.00
1.33**
1.00
1.58**
1.00
1.35**
1.00
0.92
1.00
1.49**
1.00
1.25**
1.00
1.47**
1.00
1.43**
1.00
1.06*
1.00
1.06
1.00
0.95
1.00
0.98
1.00
0.95
1.00
1.07
1.00
1.33**
1.00
1.07**
1.00
1.09
1.00
0.89*
1.00
0.92
1.00
1.08
1.00
1.02
1.00
1.47**
1.00
1.32**
1.00
2.41**
1.00
1.83**
1.00
1.11
1.00
1.04
1.00
0.81**
1.00
1.11
1.00
1.15**
1.00
2.14**
1.00
1.78**
1.00
1.04
1.00
0.81**
1.00
0.61
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.97
1.00
1.24
1.00
0.79*
1.00
0.92
1.00
1.05
1.00
0.84
1.00
0.88
1.00
1.02
1.00
1.15
1.00
0.81
1.00
0.79
1.00
1.11
1.00
0.94
1.00
1.06
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.33**
0.75**
0.89
1.37**
1.26**
1.83**
1.30**
1.53**
0.94
0.92
1.48**
1.49**
2.09**
1.46**
1.00
1.15**
1.00
1.28**
1.00
1.08
1.00
1.05
1.00
1.28**
1.00
1.05
1.00
1.10*
1.00
1.15**
1.00
1.14*
1.00
1.08
1.00
1.10
1.00
1.31**
1.00
1.17**
1.00
1.13**
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.09**
0.97
1.32**
1.15*
1.68**
1.07
0.94
1.11**
0.98
1.17*
1.17*
1.45**
1.21**
0.78**
1.00
2.02**
0.054
4205.2**
1.00
1.65**
0.076
332.4**
1.00
2.2**
0.058
377.4**
1.00
2.76**
0.022
615.6**
1.00
1.00
1.65** 2.85**
0.148
0.037
629.9** 1153.0**
1.00
1.49**
0.083
379.1**
1.00
2.25**
0.064
491.0**
1.00
1.00
1.47** 1.78**
0.143
0.076
518.3** 6346.2**
1.00
2.68**
0.033
801.8**
1.00
1.00
1.39**
2.18**
0.214
0.069
1128.3** 1644.0**
1.00
1.22**
0.215
775.2**