International
Medical Society
http://imedicalsociety.org
2017
International Archives of Medicine
Section: Toxicology & Therapeutics
ISSN: 1755-7682
Vol. 10 No. 58
doi: 10.3823/2328
Identification of Macroelements and
Microelements in the Leaves of the Synadenium
Grantii Hook Used as Medicinal Plant in the Brazil
ORIGINAL
Igor Domingos de Souza1, Ana Lucia Alves de Arruda2, Anderson Fernandes da Silva1,
Rafaela Henriques Rosa2, Marcos Antonio Ferreira Júnior3, Valter Aragão do Nascimento4,
Rita de Cassia Avelhaneda5
lements (K, Mg, Mo and P) and microelements (Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo,
Zn, Si, Ni, Co, Cd and Al) in the leaves of medicinal plant Synadenium
grantii Hook used in the treatment of diseases by rural and urban
communities of the Campo Grande, State of Mato Grosso do Sul,
Brazil.
1 School of Medicine, Postgraduation
Program in Health and Development
in the Middle West Region, Federal
University of Mato Grosso do Sul,
Brazil, Campo Grande, MS, Brazil.
2 Faculdade Unigran Capital, Abrao Júlio
Rahe, 325, Campo Grande, MS, Brazil.
3 Federal University of Rio Grande
do Norte, Natal/RN, Brazil. Av.
Senador Salgado Filho, S/N, Campus
Universitário, Lagoa Nova, Natal/RN.
4 Scholl of Medicine, Postgraduation
Program in Health and Development
in the Middle West Region, Federal
University of Mato Grosso do Sul,
Brazil, Campo Grande, MS, Brazil.
5 Postgraduation Program in Health
and Development in the Middle West
Region, Federal University of Mato
Grosso do Sul, Brazil, , Campo Grande,
MS, Brazil.
Method: The chemical digestions of samples were prepared utilizing
Contact information:
Abstract
Introduction: The Synadenium grantii Hook f. species is a medicinal plant of the Euphorbiaceae family and is popularly known in the
Midwest regions of Brazil as leitosinha or janaúba. All the parts of
Synadenium grantii Hook f. as stem, latex, leaves and flowers are used
for the treatments of various disease, but no elemental composition
has been done.
Objective: The aim of present work was to measure the macroe-
HNO3 and H2O2 and microwave digestion system Speedwave Berghof,
Germany. After digestion, the concentrations of the elements in leaves
were determined by technique of Inductively Coupled Plasma – Optical
Emission Spectrometer (ICP-OES) with a Dual Plasma (Thermo Scientific – iCAP 6000 Series)
Valter Aragão do Nascimento.
[email protected]
Results: Results demonstrated that the Synadenium grantii Hook f.
leaves are source of K but aren't the best source of Na and P. Its leaves are rich in elements such as Mg, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo and Zn. The
leaves of Synadenium grantii Hook f. showed a high content of Mg
values tolerable upper intake level. However, Fe, Na, P, Mn, Mo and
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1
2017
International Archives of Medicine
Section: Toxicology & Therapeutics
ISSN: 1755-7682
Vol. 10 No. 58
doi: 10.3823/2328
Zn are below the values tolerable upper intake level. The leaves of
this plant have elements as Ni, Cu, Cr and Cd above the permissible
limit set by WHO and FAO.
Conclusions: The gaps in knowledge about the level of contents
in the Synadenium grantii Hook f. was completed in this work and
would serve as a tool for deciding the dosage of prepared from this
plant with medicinal purposes. Brazil should create legal standards
for the use of medicinal plants based on internationally practiced requirements.
Introduction
Frequently indigenous and urban populations used
plants as a mode of treatment of variety of ailments. However, they do not know in detail how
a particular plant work- even though in medicinal
benefit is well established. In Pakistan, an effort
has been made to review the elemental contents
of ethno medicinally important plants [1]. As far as
herbal remedy chemical composition is concerned,
especially for traditional Indian [2] and Chinese remedies [3]. Also, to the best of our knowledge,
studies recent to on ancient Chinese herbal medicine and molecular biology in the treatment of
myocardial infarction have been undertaken [4,5].
As well as additional studies confirmed the use
of herbal medicine for the treatment of vascular
dementia [6].
On the others hand in Brazil, few studies focussed on detailed chemical analysis of the applied
medicinal plant. However, several Brazilian authors
have reported studies on the antimalarial plants
used by indigenous people [7], plants used as
antidiabetics and basic traditional knowledge on
the medical application of most commonly used
plants in some States of Brazil [8, 9]. A recent
Brazilian review showed that for the majority of
the medicinal plants used for weight loss, there is
2
Keywords
Medicinal Plants; Synadenium
Grantii Hook; Inductively
Coupled Plasma Mass
Spectrometry.
a little scientific evidence corroborating its usage
[10]. Thus, the knowledge on compounds present
in medicinal plants and its role in health is scarce
and necessary.
The vegetation of Brazil has great wide variety of
medicinal plants, some of which are yet to be fully
studied. Medicinal plants species as Synadenium
grantii Hook f. grows in the fields and pastures or
urban area of Brazil and develops in hot tropical
climate with low rainfall. This species belongs to
the family Euphorbiaceae and is popularly known in
Brazil as leitosinha or janaúba, also is commonly
called African Milk Bush. It is small tree native to
East Central Africa. In nature, the plants will reach
up to 5 m in height [11].
In folk medicine the latex of Synadenium grantii
Hook f. to treat neoplasic diseases and gastric disorders such as peptic ulcers and gastritis inflammatory [12]. Moreover, studies in animals showed
that the latex extracts of Synadenium grantii Hook f.
has anti-ulcer activity without causing toxicity [12].
The cytotoxicity as well as the antiparasitic activity
of the CHCl3 extract of Synadenium grantii Hook
f. leaves was performed and proved to be active
[13]. According with others studies, the Synadenium
grantii Hook f. have antioxidant properties; results
showed these biological activities may be associated
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2017
International Archives of Medicine
Section: Toxicology & Therapeutics
ISSN: 1755-7682
with the presence of flavonoids and terpenes, as
revealed by HPLC and NMR analyses of the crude
stem bark extract [14].
All the parts of Synadenium grantii Hook f. as
stem, leaves and flowers reported are used for the
treatments of various disease, but no elemental
composition has been done. It is very important
determine the concentration of macroelements
and microelements in medicinal plants to know if
these concentration are above the limits Tolerable
Upper Intake Level, that is, maximum daily intake
of nutrients that can pose a risk of adverse effects
on health. Macroelements (sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus) and microelements
(iron, manganese, zinc, cobalt, copper, chromium,
lead, nickel, cadmium, aluminum, selenium, sulfur, arsenic, selenium) are elemental constituents
of these medicinal plants and often poses human
lives at risk, these elements can also be dangerous
and toxic [15].
In addition, the above considerations, the deficiency of certain elements also cause disease in human
and plants. Several ethnopharmacology studies have
proved that there was relationship between microelements or macroelements and efficacy of herbal
medicine, human health, and disease prevention [1].
In Brazil, the dose rate of medicinal plants is not well
defined. These precautions are indispensable when
larger amounts of the products are consumed and
long-term therapy is undertaken. Thus, know the
concentration of minerals in medicinal plants is very
important and need to be screened for their quality
control.
The aim of present work was to measure for the
first time the macroelements and microelements in
the leaves of medicinal plant Synadenium grantii
Hook f. used in the treatment of diseases by rural and urban communities of the Campo Grande, State of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil. There are
no studies published on chemical composition of
leaves this plant in Brazil or others country. The
macroelements and microelements content, after
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Vol. 10 No. 58
doi: 10.3823/2328
microwave digestion, were determined by inductively coupled plasma - optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES).
Materials and Methods
Research area
The leaves of Synadenium grantii Hook f. were collected in June 2016 in an urban area in the city of
Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, with the
coordenates 20°28’43”S and 54°38’28”W, altitude
of 551 m. The Figure 1 has the Geographic coordinates of Campo Grande, State of Mato Grosso do
Sul, Brazil, which was used in mapping and navigation, including GPS satellite navigation system (the
Global Positioning System).
Figure 1: G
eographic coordinates of Campo
Grande, State of Mato Grosso do Sul,
Midwest region of Brazil.
In the Figure 2, there are images of Synadenium
grantii Hook f. (Euphorbiaceae), popularly known
as Janaúba, Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul
State, Brazil. The specimen was identified by Fábia
Alves and deposited (No 53971) in the herbarium
of the Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul
(UFMS), Brazil.
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2017
International Archives of Medicine
Section: Toxicology & Therapeutics
ISSN: 1755-7682
Figure 2: S ynadenium grantii Hook f. (Euphorbiaceae), popularly known as Janaúba,
Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul
State, Brazil.
Vol. 10 No. 58
doi: 10.3823/2328
s amples were determined using the corresponding
standard calibration curves obtained by using standard solutions of the elements of interest. Triplicate
analyses were performed on each sample.
Basic requirements of comparative.
Elemental analysis by ICP-OES technique
The leaves were oven dried at the temperature of
50°C for 24 hours. The dried samples were then
ground with a manual grinder into powder and
sieve to get very fine powder. It was then weighed
and digested in HNO3 + H2O2 mixture. Digestions of
the samples in triplicate were prepared as follows:
processed with mixture of 0.5 g sample plus 5 mL
HNO3 (65% Merck) and 3 mL H2O2 (35%, Merck
Millipore) in the microwave digestion system Speedwave Berghof, Germany. After digestion, samples were diluted to100 mL with ultrapure water.
Since the final acid concentration of the samples
was quite high (4% HNO3).
The concentrations of the elements in leaves
were determined by technique of Inductively Coupled Plasma – Optical Emission Spectrometer (ICPOES) with a Dual Plasma (Thermo Scientific – iCAP
6000 Series). ICP-OES elemental analysis technique that uses the emission spectra of a sample
to identify, and quantify the elements present.
The emission line selected for the determination of
elements (wavelength in nm) were: K (766.490), Mg
(285.213), Na (589.592), Cr (283.563), Cu (327.396),
Fe (259.940), Mn (259.373), Mo (202.030), Zn
(206.200), P (177.495), Si (212.412), Ni (221.647),
Co (228.616), Cd (226.502) and Al (167.079). The
concentrations of the different elements in these
4
The concentration of elements obtained in the leaves of Sinadenium grantii Hook f. was compared
with the following recommended values:
• Recommended dietary allowance (RDA): average daily level of intake sufficient to meet
the nutrient requirements of 98% of healthy
people.
• Adequate Intake (AI): used where no RDA has
been established. It is a recommended average daily nutrient intake level for a group (or
groups) of apparently healthy people.
• Tolerable upper intake levels (ULs): the highest level of daily nutrient consumption that
is considered to be safe for, and cause no risk
of adverse health effects in, 97.5% of healthy
individuals in each life-stage and sex group.
In the absence of established RDA or data on
Adequate Intake (AI), the values of concentration
of macroelements and microelements obtained
in this manuscript are compared with permissible
limit set by FAO/WHO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations / World Health
Organization) or with evidence of medicinal plants’
results published.
Elemental concentration of leaves of Synadenium
grantii were compared with the Ricinus communis
L. and Chrozophora tinctoria (L) Raf., both plants
belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae.
Results and Discussion
In Table 1, the concentrations of the elements determined in the analyzed leaves of Synadenium
grantii Hook f. are shown as an arithmetic means
and standard deviation. In addition, results average
concentration of elements measured in the leaves
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International Archives of Medicine
Section: Toxicology & Therapeutics
ISSN: 1755-7682
2017
Vol. 10 No. 58
doi: 10.3823/2328
Table 1. E lemental concentration (mg/100g ± standard deviation) of leaves of Synadenium grantii Hook f.
compared to Ricinus communis L, Chrozophora tinctoria (L) Raf. and values tolerable upper intake
levels (ULs) for adults.
Our data Synadenium
grantii
Leaf (mg/100g)
Ricinus communis
L. [16]
Leaf (mg/100g)
Chrozophora tinctoria Tolerable Upper Intake
(L.) Raf. [16]
Levels (ULs)
Leaf (mg/100g)
mg/day(adults)
Macroelements
K
1,364.317±51.320
2.71±0.00
2.707±0.002
ND
Mg
133.188 ±16.904
0.9992±0.2226
0.9083±0.0636
350¹
Na
63.833±0.206
0.2235±0.010
0.1555±0.0108
2,300
50.94± 23.00
ND
ND
4,000
P
Microelements
Cr
0.489±0.016
ND
ND
ND
Cu
0.910±0.001
0.005±0.0059
0.006±0.0023
10
Fe
8.345±0.275
2.735±0.0113
0.2989±0.0258
45
Mn
1.047±0.125
0.0216±0.006
0.013±0.0017
11
0.522±0.004
0.0027±0.0045
0.001±0.0048
2
Mo
Zn
3.621±1.580
0.170±0.0025
0.232±0.0025
40
Si
23.524±3.012
ND
ND
ND
Ni
1.951±0.222
ND
ND
1
Co
1.723±0.117
ND
ND
ND
0.044± 0.004
ND
ND
ND
Cd
13.498±0.072
0.033±0.0558
1.183±0.375
ND
Al
¹: The UL for magnesium is determined by supplementation only and does not regard the ingestion from food or water.
ND: Not detected
of Ricinus communis L, leaves of Chrozophora tinctoria (L.) Raf. and values tolerable upper intake level (UL) are listed in Table 1. The results obtained
within the framework of this study were compared
with the estimates based on the regulatory limits
of the WHO/FAO, recommended dietary allowance
(RDA), adequate intake (AI), tolerable upper intake
levels (ULs) and published studies involving medicinal plants when available in the literature. In the
present work, the concentration of macroelements
in leaves decreases in the order: K > Mg > Na >
P. As well as the concentration of microelements
in the leaves also decreases in the order: Si > Al >
Fe > Zn > Ni > Co > Mn > Cu > Mo > Cr > Cd.
Among the various elements K, Mg, Al, Fe are
found present at the major level. On the other
hand, Cr and Mo are at minor level.
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Microelements
Potassium (K)
It is observed that amongst all the elements studied in the analysed sample, potassium accumulation is the highest in Synadenium grantii Hook
f. than the concentration of other metals. The
present study revealed that the concentration of
potassium in leaves of Synadenium grantii was
1,364.317 mg/100g, being much higher than
the concentration in leaves of Ricinius cummunis L. 2.71 mg/100g followed by 2.70 mg/100g
of Chrozophora tinctoria (L.) Raf. [16]. For healthy
adults, the adequate intake (AI) for potassium is
set 4,700 mg/day [17], our results demonstrated
that the Synadenium grantii leaves are good food
source in potassium. The plant Trigonella foenumgraecum L. of family Euphorbiaceae also exhibit
higher potassium concentration 910.3 mg/100g
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International Archives of Medicine
Section: Toxicology & Therapeutics
ISSN: 1755-7682
[18]. Potassium is of great importance for electrolyte balance in systems in the body. The tolerable
upper intake levels (ULs) are not established for
potassium. However, according studies the higher
potassium intake was associated with a lower risk
of stroke [19].
Magnesium (Mg)
In Table 1, a higher concentration of magnesium is
found in the leaves of Synadenium Grantti Hook
f. 23.34 mg/100g, while for Ricinnus cummunis
L. and Chrozophora tinctoria (L.) Raf. are 0.9992
mg/100g and 0.9083 mg/100g [16]. The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of magnesium
for adults is established the mean intake of 355
mg/day [20]. So, the Synadenium grantii Hook f. is
food rich of magnesium. There is not current data
to establish a safe upper level for the magnesium
intake. Magnesium is important to cells, enzymes
involved in proteins and metabolism [21]. The UL
for magnesium is determined by supplementation
only (350 mg/day) and does not regard the ingestion from food or water [20]. Although in lower
concentrations when compared to UL, the magnesium content obtained of the leaves of plants
would pose a risk of adverse effects on health.
That is, some macroelements consumed at very
high levels and during long time could cause toxicity. Our results indicated that the Synadenium
grantii Hook f. plant showed a high content of Mg
as well as previous findings of Trigonella foenumgraecum L [18, 22].
Sodium (Na)
In Table 1, in relation to macroelements, the lowest
concentration detected of Na in the leaves of Synadenium grantii Hook f. were 63.83 mg/100g,
which differed from the findings of others results
as Ricinus cummunis L. (0.2235 mg/100g) and
Chrozophora tinctoria (L) Raf (0.155 mg/100g)
[16]. In Table 1, similar to our present study, all
plants show low concentration of sodium. Consi-
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dering the adequate intake of sodium for adults
of 1,500 mg/day [17], Synadenium grantii Hook f.
is not considered a source of sodium. Moreover,
the tolerable upper intake level (UL) for consuming
of sodium in adults is 2,300 mg/day [17]. So, the
results in Table 1 are below the values tolerable
upper intake level. High dietary sodium intakes increase the development of hypertension and the
atherosclerotic vascular diseases [23].
Phosphorus (P)
In Table 1, concentration detected of phosphorus
in the leaves of Synadenium grantii Hook f. were
50.94 mg/100g. In work published in Ref. [16]
was not detected the phosphorus concentrations
in the leaves of the Ricinus communis L. and leaves
of Chrozophora tinctoria (L.) Raf. The RDA for daily
Phosphorus in adults is established the mean intake
of 700 milligrams per day [20]. From this comparison, the present study indicates that leaves of the
Synadenium grantii are not source in phosphorus.
The tolerable upper intake level (UL) for phosphorus
is 4,000 mg/day for generally healthy adults [20].
In this case specifically, the contents of phosphorus
obtained of the leaves Synadenium grantii Hook f.
were well below the permissible limit. Phosphorus is
estrogenic, immuno stimulant and anti-osteoporotic
[24].
Macroelements
Chromium (Cr)
In Table 1, chromium (Cr) contents were 0,489
mg/100g for the Synadenium grantii Hook f. leaves. In work published in Ref. [16] is not informed
the average value of the chromium concentration
obtained for Ricinus communis L. and Chrozophora
tinctoria (L.) Raf. Considering the adequate intake
of c hromium for adults of 0.030 mg/day [25], leaves of this plant is rich in chromium. The permissible
limit set by FAO/WHO (1984) in edible plants was
0.002 mg/100g. The permissible limit of chromium
in finished herbal products is 0.02 mg/day recomThis article is available at: www.intarchmed.com and www.medbrary.com
International Archives of Medicine
Section: Toxicology & Therapeutics
ISSN: 1755-7682
mended by WHO [26]. After cooperation of researches data above, the concentration of chromium in
Sinadenium grantii Hook f. was recorded above the
permissible limit set by FAO/WHO.
Moreover, the tolerable upper intake level (UL)
for consuming of chromium in adult is not established yet. The beneficial effects of supplemental
chromium in individuals with type 2 diabetes were
observed at levels higher than the upper limit of
the estimated safe and adequate daily dietary Intake [27].
Copper (Cu)
Copper contents were 0.910 mg/100g for the Synadenium grantii Hook f. leaves respectively (Table 1). In our study, copper content in the leaves
of Synadenium grantii Hook f. is highest than the
concentration obtained for Ricinus communis L.
(0.005 mg/100g) and Chrozophora tinctoria (L.)
Raf (0.006 mg/100g) [16]. The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of copper for adult men and
women is 0.9 mg/day [25]. The present results indicate that leaves of Synadenium grantii Hook are
rich in copper.
The permissible limit of copper set by FAO/WHO
(1984) in edible plants is 0.3 mg/100g, and according to ref. [28], the permissible limit recommended
by WHO of copper for plants is 1mg/100g. However, some countries as China and Singapore had
set limits for copper in medicinal plants at 20 and
0.150 mg/g [26]. Our results indicate that the copper
concentration detected in the Synadenium grantii
Hook f. leaves are above the values established by
FAO/WHO (1984) and smaller than the stipulated
value for plants by the WHO, but within the limits
adopted by other countries. The tolerable upper
intake level (UL) for consuming of copper in adults
is 10 mg/day [25]. Therefore, the results in Table 1
for copper are below the values adequate intake
and tolerable upper intake level. In humans, Cu is
necessary for bones and for proper absorption of
iron and for vitamin C. Acute Cu intoxication leads
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2017
Vol. 10 No. 58
doi: 10.3823/2328
to gastrointestinal effects in the form of nausea,
vomiting and crampy abdominal pain [29].
Iron (Fe)
In our study, the iron content obtained were 8.345
mg/100g in the leaves of Synadenium grantii Hook
f., its value is highest than the concentration obtained for Ricinus communis L. 2.735 mg/100g) and
Chrozophora tinctoria (L.) Raf (0.2989 mg/100g).
Recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of iron for
adults is established the mean intake of 13 mg/day
[25]. After comparison, the present study indicates
that leaves of the Synadenium grantii are rich in
iron. The regulatory limits of the WHO/FAO (2005)
have not been established yet for the iron in herbal medicines. The permissible limited set by FAO/
WHO (1984) in edible plants was 2 mg/100g [30].
However, the concentrations of iron presented in
the table 1 are minor that the values tolerable upper
intake level (45 mg/day) [25], so that, concentration
of iron obtained in leaves of Synadenium grantii
H o o k f. are below the values tolerable upper
intake level. Iron (Fe) is necessary for the proper
functioning of the liver and transporting oxygen in
the blood to all parts of the body [31]. Iron deficiency negatively influences the normal defense systems
against infections.
Manganese (Mn)
In Table 1, our results show that the manganese
contents were 1.047 mg/100g in the leaves of Synadenium grantii Hook. Unlike the present study [16]
reported low Mn contents (0.0216 mg/100g) in the
Ricinus communis L. and Chrozophora tinctoria (L.)
Raf (0.013 mg/100g). Considering the adequate intake of manganese of 2.5 mg/day [25], the leaves
of Synadenium grantii is food rich in manganese.
However, for manganese in medicinal plants limits
not yet been established by WHO (2005) [26]. The
upper intake level (UL) for consuming of manganese
in adults is 11 mg/day [25]. Therefore, the results
in table 1 for manganese are below the values to-
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Section: Toxicology & Therapeutics
ISSN: 1755-7682
lerable upper intake level. Manganese is a part of
enzymes involved in urea formation, pyruvate metabolism and the galactotransferase of connective
tissue biosynthesis [32].
Molybdenum (Mo)
Molybdenum contents in the leaves of Synadenium
grantii Hook f. were 0.522 mg/100g respectively
(see Table 1). In our study, molybdenum content
in the leaves of Synadenium grantii is highest than
the concentration obtained for Ricinus communis
L. (0.001 mg/100g) and Chrozophora tinctoria (L)
Raf (0.001 mg/100g) [16]. The RDA of molybdenum for adults is established the mean intake of
0.045 mg/day [25]. The present results indicate
that leaves of Synadenium grantii H o o k f. are
rich in molybdenum. The values of dietary intake
of Mo are scarce in the literature reports in Brazil
and others countries. This is important information
required in assessing risks to human health due to
their overburden. In animals and man, molybdenum
has been recognized as an essential component
of the metalloenzyme xanthine oxidase, aldehyde
oxidase and sulphite oxidase [33]. Dietary molybdenum affects copper metabolism in man [34]. The
tolerable upper intake level (UL) for consuming of
molybdenum in adults is 2 mg/day [25]. Thus, the
results in table 1 for molybdenum are below the
values tolerable upper intake level.
Zinc (Zn)
In our work, in relation to Synadenium grantii
Hook f. leaves were obtained the amount of zinc
3.621 mg/100g, others works ranged between
0.170 mg/100g for Ricinus communis L. and 0.232
mg/100g for Chrozophora tinctoria (L.) Raf. There
are no limits of zinc concentration in medicinal plants
by the World Health Organization [26]. Recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of zinc for adults is
established the mean intake of 9.5 mg/day [25].
Therefore, leaves of the Synadenium grantii H o o k
f. are food rich in zinc. Recommendation of zinc is
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beneficial in the treatment of several disorders, such
as several pro-inflammatory conditions and cancer
[35]. The concentrations of zinc presented in the
Table 1 are minor that the values tolerable upper
intake level (40 mg/day) [25].
Silicon (Si)
According to data in Table 1, the contents silicon
was 23.524 mg/100g in Synadenium grantii Hook
f. leaves. In work published in Ref. [16] was not
detected the silicon concentrations in the leaves of
the Ricinus communis L. and leaves of Chrozophora
tinctoria (L.) Raf. There are no established a permissible criteria for level of silicon in herbs medicinal.
The daily intake from the British diet has been estimated to 20-50 mg corresponds to 0.3-0.8 mg/kg
body weight/day in a 60 kg person [36]. There is
evidence that silicon is important in bone formation.
Although the main source of silicon for humans
is the diet, the bioavailability of silicon from solid
foods is not fully understood [37]. There is not tolerable upper intake level (UL) for consuming of silicon
in adults. However, the result in table 1 for silicon
is within limit the daily intake from the British diet.
Nickel (Ni)
Nickel concentrations detected in the leaves of
Synadenium grantii Hook f. were 1.951 mg/100g
(Table 1). In Ref. [16] was not detected the nickel
concentrations in the leaves of the Ricinus communis
L. and leaves of Chrozophora tinctoria (L.) Raf. The
recommended daily amounts of nickel are not fixed.
However, according to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations in 1984 the
permissible limit in edible plants is 0.163 mg/100g
[30]. From of information about metal limit in medicinal plants proposed by FAO/WHO (1984) it is
found that the leaves of Synadenium grantii Hook
f. accumulate Ni above this limit. No limit yet been
given by WHO in 2005 for Ni in medicinal plants.
Studies have shown that Ni is toxic as evidenced by
lipid peroxidative damage to placental membrane;
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International Archives of Medicine
Section: Toxicology & Therapeutics
ISSN: 1755-7682
in this case, the metabolic change may be responsible for decreased placental viability, altered permeability, and potential subsequent embryotoxicity [38].
The concentration of nickel presented in the Table 1
are above of the values tolerable upper intake level
(1 mg/day).
Cobalt (Co)
The contents of cobalt varied from 1.723 mg/100 g
in the leaves of Synadenium grantii Hook f. Results
on Mentha piperita shown 0.026 mg/100 g of cobalt in a Spanish study [39]. In work published in
Ref. [16] was not detected the cobalt concentrations in the leaves of the Ricinus communis L. and
leaves of Chrozophora tinctoria (L.) Raf. A safe recommended dietary allowance (RDA) or adequate
intake for cobalt (Co) hasn’t been set yet. Neither
has cobalt been assessed in relation to the WHO
guidelines for drinking-water. Until now, cobalt has
not been evaluated by competent organs in order
to establish a tolerable upper intake level. Cobalt is
part of vitamin B12; the recommended daily intake
of vitamin B12 for an adult in the USA was 3 μg,
corresponding to 0.012 μg of cobalt [39]. Cobalt is
not easily absorbed from the digestive tract. In fact,
clinical studies have shown that maximum cobalt
whole blood concentrations between 9.4 and 117
μg/L were not associated with clinically significant
changes in hematological and basic clinical variables [40]. However, cobalt(II) complexes have been
synthesized with a series on non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs. Complexes exhibit noteworthy
antioxidant activity and significant binding affinity
for serum albumins and calf-thymus DNA [41].
Cadmium (Cd)
The contents of cadmium varied from 0.044
mg/100g in the leaves of Synadenium grantii Hook
f. In work published in Ref. [16] was not detected
the cadmium concentrations in the leaves of the Ricinus communis L. and leaves of Chrozophora tinctoria (L.) Raf. A safe recommended dietary allowan© Under License of Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License
2017
Vol. 10 No. 58
doi: 10.3823/2328
ce (RDA) or adequate intake for cadmium (Cd) hasn’t
been set yet. For medicinal plants the permissible
limit for cadmium set by WHO and others countries
was 0.03 mg/100g [26]. The FAO/WHO (1984) has
set in edible plants was 0.021 mg/100g [30]. There
is not tolerable upper intake level (UL) for consuming
of cadmium in adults. The average daily cadmium
obtained in our work is above the guidelines established by the WHO e FAO/WHO. Cadmium is not
at present believed to be an essential nutrient for
animals or man. Humans normally absorb cadmium
into the body either by ingestion or inhalation. According to published studies, cadmium causes acute
and chronic poisoning [42]. There is little general
agreement about acceptable safety limits for cadmium intake. Evidence is insufficient to determine
an association between exposure to cadmium and
reproductive effects in humans.
Aluminum (Al)
Aluminum contents were 13.498 mg/100g for
the Synadenium grantii Hook f. leaves respectively. On others works published ranged between
0.033 mg/100g for Ricinus communis L. and 1.118
mg/100g for Chrozophora tinctoria (L.) Raf. There
are not RDA and adequate intake for aluminum (Al).
According to FDA’s 1993 total diet study dietary exposure model and the 1987–1988 U.S. Department
of Agriculture (USDA) Nationwide Food Consumption Survey, the authors estimated daily aluminum
intakes 0.12 mg Al/kg/day for adult males and females [43]. However, excessive intake of aluminum
results in pathological aberrations such amnesia in
young people. Aluminum is present in the brain of
patients with Alzheimer disease [44].
Conclusions
First comprehensive study on determination of contents in the leaves of the Synadenium grantii is of
great importance to understand the pharmacological action of this plant. The data obtained in the
9
International Archives of Medicine
Section: Toxicology & Therapeutics
ISSN: 1755-7682
manuscript on elemental compositions of leaves of
Synadenium grantii will be useful in deciding the
dosage of the drugs prepared from the plant and
thus will be helpful in synthesis of new modern
drugs. Our studies demonstrated that the Synadenium grantii Hook f. leaves are good source in K but
not Na and P. However, leaves of Synadenium grantii
Hook f. are rich in elements such as Mg, Cr, Cu, Fe,
Mn, Mo and Zn. The aluminum does not have nutritional function. There are not Recommendation
(RDA) and Adequate Intake for aluminum (Al).
Unlike the Ricinus communis L. and plants Chrozophora tinctoria (L.) Raf in leaves of the Sinadenium granti Hook f. was detected elements as phosphorus, silicon, nickel, cobalt and cadmium. The
contents of macroelements and microelements in
the leaves of Synadenium grantii is highest than
contents in the leaves of Ricinus communis L. and
Chrozophora tinctoria (L.) Raf. These different was
could be due to mineral composition of the soil and
its surrounding climatological conditions.
The leaves of Synadenium grantii showed a high
content of Mg values tolerable upper intake level.
However, Fe, Na, P, Mn, Mo and Zn are below the
values tolerable upper intake level.
After comparison, metal limit in the studied medicinal plants with those proposed by FAO/WHO
(1984) it is found that this plant have Ni, Cu, Cr,
Cd above this limit above the permissible limit set
by WHO and FAO.
There are no established a permissible criteria for
level of silicon in herbs medicinal. Silicon is within
limit the daily intake from the British diet. Cobalt has
not been evaluated by competent organs in order to
establish a tolerable upper intake level.
As Synadenium grantii Hook f. has macroelements
and microelements in ample amount, it can be used
as a good natural dietary supplementary as well
as therapeutics uses. Since it not exceed allowable
limits set by WHO and FAO, RDA and UL
The use of Medicinal plants acquired in public
markets, herbal shops, by urban populations can-
10
2017
Vol. 10 No. 58
doi: 10.3823/2328
not be ignored because the element toxicity risk
assessment is bases rather on habitual than on
incidental intake. Brazil should create legal standards for the use of medicinal plants based on
internationally practiced requirements.
Conflict of interest disclosure
The authors declare that there is no conflict of
interest regarding the publication of this paper.
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