Atmospherically Deposited Metal and Metalloid
Contaminated Dust in Inner Townsville, Queensland
Headland Park, The Strand, Townsville, Queensland
(Source: Paris Spellson)
December 5th 2014
Prepared by
Professor Mark P. Taylor with Ali Maadh, Audrey Quicke, Emilia Rupsys, Paris Spellson
Discipline of Environmental Science
Department of Environment and Geography
Faculty of Science and Engineering
Macquarie University ~ Sydney
North Ryde, NSW 2109
Email contact: [email protected]
Telephone: 0422 940 916; 02 9850 4221(w)
Report finalised and uploaded to NQCC website, Dec 5th 2014
SUMMARY
This study presents the results of metal and metalloids (arsenic, cadmium, lead and nickel) in
surface wipes and in pre- and post-play hand wipes following 10 minutes of child-simulated play
activity at playgrounds across the inner city of Townsville. The study was undertaken over a 6-day
period from September 26th to October 1st 2014.
The purpose of the study was to determine the extent of contamination from all elements tested in
wipes in places used frequently by children. Data from the study reveal a level of contamination
that needs to be addressed. All playgrounds tested showed that, on at least one day, lead dust on
surfaces exceeded 400 µg/m2, the goal applied by the Government of Western Australia (2011) for
surfaces accessible by children. The mean increase in lead on post-play hand wipes was more than
10 times pre-play loadings. The maximum post-play loading on hands was 3012 µg/m2 (more than
seven times the goal of 400 µg/m2 used by the Government of Western Australia, 2011). Repeat
sampling of surfaces over the 5-day study period showed that surfaces were re-contaminated daily
by the deposition of metal-rich atmospheric dusts. Lead isotopic composition analysis of dust wipes
showed that the lead is similar to Mount Isa type ores, which are exported through the Port of
Townsville.
In the short-term we recommend that thorough daily cleaning of the playgrounds be implemented,
along with signage recommending that hands are washed after play. To facilitate this it is suggested
that the necessary facilities for cleaning of hands (water or wipes, for example) are made available
at playgrounds. For the long-term, however, it is recommended that the source(s) of contamination
associated with ore transport into and out of the Port of Townsville be identified and eliminated.
Without taking this action, the data suggest that frequent and cumulative metal contamination will
perpetuate exposure risks associated with deposited metal-rich dusts across the city
2
1. INTRODUCTION
This report evaluates the extent and significance of dust metal deposition in the city of Townsville,
Queensland and the potential risk of harm to children. The study focuses on playgrounds because
these are readily accessible public places where children interact with the outside environment.
Previous work in Port Pirie, South Australia, and Broken Hill, NSW, has demonstrated the potential
risk of exposure in playgrounds (Taylor et al., 2013; 2014b).
Children are at higher risk of heavy metal poisoning because of their small body size,
developmental stage, and because of their tendency to engage in hand-to-mouth behaviour (Jarup,
2003; National Toxicology Program (NTP), 2012; Needleman, 2004). The effects of metal exposure
in children, particularly in the case of lead, include irreversible damage to neurological functioning
(National Toxicology Program (NTP), 2012; Needleman, 2004; Taylor et al., 2012a,b). For this
reason, identifying childhood exposure pathways is critical in order to break the cycle of adverse
health effects associated with environmental metals. Lead is a specific focus for this report because
of its well-known adverse effects on human health. The report responds to long-standing complaints
from sectors of the local community who have raised concerns in regards to dust deposits and their
composition coming from loading and unloading operations at the Port of Townsville (Wolanski
and Ducrotoy, 2013). Mineral transport operations at the Port of Townsville include the importation
of nickel ore and zinc concentrate and the export of copper, lead and zinc concentrate from a range
of sources (Port of Townsville Limited, 2012). Ores are moved via rail, with nickel ore being
moved in open wagons, and processed concentrates moved in covered wagons. With respect to the
metal ores being transported, lead in particular, has a well-known toxicological profile, while the
human health effects of nickel are relatively less well understood (ATSDR, 2011). Nevertheless,
nickel has known adverse outcomes on respiratory health, can increase dermatitis, is considered to
be a human carcinogen and can affect neonatal development (ATSDR, 2011).
A Queensland Government study (Queensland Government, 2010) reported on a range of aerosol
contaminants in the Townsville environment, including total suspended particles (TSP), and
concentrations (µg/m3) of arsenic, cadmium, lead, manganese, mercury, nickel, vanadium and
mercury. Total insoluble dust (µg/m2/day) and the lead concentrations in those deposited dusts (lead
µg/m2/day) were also reported.
The Queensland Government report issued the followed relevant conclusions (Queensland
Government, 2010, page iii):
3
“The monitoring program was unable to find any evidence that dust emissions from the
Townsville Port contributed significantly to ambient levels of nickel, manganese and
vanadium, or to dust deposition, at any monitoring site.
While compliance with EPP (Air) objectives was maintained at all times, the monitoring
program identified that dust emissions from Townsville Port activities did contribute to
ambient levels of TSP, lead, copper, zinc, arsenic and cadmium, and to lead deposition, at
the closest monitoring site, Coast Guard. Measurable contributions of these pollutants from
Townsville Port activities at monitoring sites located further from the Port were only
observed for lead.
Queensland Health has concluded that the total exposure to lead from inhalation and
ingestion of dust in the residential community areas near the Townsville Port is highly
unlikely to be associated with any known adverse health effects.”
This report presents the results from surface dust and post-play hand wipe dust samples collected
from six locations across Townsville. The study focuses on atmospheric lead deposition but also
reports on the post-play hand wipe loadings (µg/m2) of arsenic, cadmium and nickel (cf. Taylor et
al., 2013; 2014b). These elements formed part of the Queensland Government’s (2010) air quality
study (measured primarily as metals in µg/m3) and are included as part of regular air quality
monitoring programs in the city (Queensland Government, 2014). However, only lead in dust was,
and continues to be, measured in dust deposition. This study asks 3 main questions:
1.
What is the spatial and temporal distribution of heavy metal contamination in
playgrounds around inner Townville and how, if at all, do they relate to the
operations at the Port?
2.
What are the risks to public health?
3.
What action is required to reduce the risk of exposure?
2. METHODS
The methods and approach undertaken in this study of surface dusts are similar to those conducted
recently by the lead author in Port Pirie and Broken Hill (Taylor et al. 2013; 2014b). A brief
description of the field methods undertaken for this study is provided below.
2.1 Field Sampling
Six flat surfaces across Townsville city were sampled daily for arsenic, cadmium, lead and nickel
loadings from 26th September to 1st October 2014. The six sample surfaces were wiped before the
start of the daily playground sampling program. The purpose of this ‘pre-wipe’ (conducted 26th
4
September), was to establish a historical measure of longer-term deposition as compared to the
daily 24-hour values that were collected subsequently via the surface wipes. It should be noted that
the length of time these ‘pre-wiped’ surfaces had been exposed to atmospheric loading without
prior wiping or any cleaning or washing from precipitation is unknown. Subsequent surface wipes
(n = 30) provided a measure of the 24-hour metal and metalloid (hereafter referred to as metals)
loading over the remaining study period 27th September to 1st October, 2014. Sample sites were
determined partly by access to suitable playgrounds, paint-free surfaces, locations proximal and
downwind from the Port and existing environmental data for Townsville (Queensland Government,
2010; 2014).
The surfaces selected for sampling were exposed to the atmosphere and were considered unlikely to
be disturbed by users of the playgrounds. The surfaces at Sister Kenny Park, Headland Park,
Soroptimist Park, Queens Park Oval and Anzac Memorial Park were stainless steel surfaces of
council rubbish bins or other utility boxes. At Reid Park similarly constructed surfaces were not
available so a flat surface on top of the playground equipment was marked out and sampled for
surface dust metal loading.
Surface areas were demarked using masking tape and the dimensions measured. Wiped surface
areas were 30 cm x 30 cm, except where suitably sized surfaces were unavailable: Reid Park - 60
cm x 13 cm; Queens Park Oval - 40 cm x 24 cm; Anzac Memorial Park - 30 x 29 cm. Metals
measured in the wipe samples (µg/wipe) were subsequently standardised to µg/m2, to allow
comparison with a range of relevant surface dust standards. Dust wipes were collected using the
method described in ASTM E 1728-03 (American Society for Testing and Materials, 2003), which
is standard protocol for surface dust lead measurement. The dust wipes used were the Lead WipeTM,
which is designed specifically for lead dust sampling.
A minimum of two soil samples was taken from each of the six locations (Figure 1) where surface
and playground wipes were collected (n = 15). Samples were taken from a depth of 0-2 cm in line
with AS 4874-2000 (Standards Australia, 2000). Bulk soil samples were collected in labelled,
sealed plastic bags and oven dried for 48 hours or until dry, to remove moisture.
5
Soroptimist Park
Headland Park
North Ward – Qld Govt site
Sister Kenny Park
Queens Park Oval
Port of Townsville
Coast Guard– Qld Govt site
Anzac Memorial Park
Reid Park
Figure 1. Map of Townsville showing locations of soil, playground and surface wipe sample sites (marked with red
circles). Sample sites collecting both playground and surface wipes: Sister Kenny Park; Headland Park; Soroptimist
Park; Reid Park. Sites sampled only for surface dusts were: Queens Park Oval and Anzac Memorial Park. Queensland
Government dust lead monitoring sites (marked in blue) North Ward and Coast Guard are also shown.
Dust wipes were collected at approximately the same time in the morning of each sample day in the
same sequence: Sister Kenny Park, Headland Park, Soroptimist Park and Reid Park. Nitrile gloves
were worn at all times to prevent accidental contamination and sampled wipes were stored in
labelled, sealed lead-free zip lock plastic bags prior to analysis at the Australian Government’s
National Measurement Institute, Sydney.
In addition, four playgrounds were sampled daily for five days: 27th September to 1st October 2014
(Figure 1) using a combination of pre-play and post-play hand wipes, which were taken after 10
minutes of child-simulated play on the playgrounds. The playground sampling protocol utilised
‘simulated play’ to measure metal loadings that children might be exposed to during interaction
with the playgrounds (see methods in Taylor et al. 2013; 2014b). Each day, the same researcher
‘played’ on the play equipment at the allocated site for 10 minutes, mimicking the exploratory
behaviour of a child. The researcher’s hands were wiped thoroughly with dust wipes prior to play
and following play using the method employed by Taylor et al. (2013; 2014b). Samples from both
hands were combined into a single sample, resulting in 40-paired samples. Pre- and post-play wipes
were analysed separately for metals (arsenic, cadmium, lead and nickel) and compared
6
subsequently to measure the effect of contact with the play equipment. The frontal hand surface
area was calculated for each play participant using DuBois and DuBois (1916) and then converted
to µg/m2 to allow comparison between each of the playgrounds over the 5 day sample period.
2.2 Laboratory Analysis
Dust wipes were analysed by the National Measurement Institute, Sydney, for arsenic, cadmium,
lead and nickel. Dust wipes were digested in a 3:1 ratio of aqua regia and measured for their metal
concentrations using a Varian 730-ES ICP-OES and Perkin Elmer Elan DRC II ICP-MS. Blanks,
duplicates, matrix spike and reference samples were also analysed to verify sample data quality.
After drying, soil samples were sieved to < 2 mm prior to hand held XRF analysis using an
Olympus Delta 40kV instrument. This approach was taken to screen soils to ascertain if higher
precision, wet chemistry analysis was warranted.
2.3 Laboratory Quality Assurance / Quality Control
Field dust blanks returned < 0.1 µg/wipe for arsenic, < 0.05 µg/wipe for cadmium, 0.074 µg/wipe
for lead and 0.275 µg/wipe for nickel, respectively, suggesting there may have been some
detectable ambient lead and nickel during sampling. Laboratory blanks were below the limits of
reporting – < 0.1 µg/wipe for arsenic, and < 0.05 µg/wipe for cadmium, lead and nickel. Recovery
rates for the in-house laboratory control sample (AGAL-10) were as follows: arsenic 100 %;
cadmium 98 %; lead 106 % and nickel 110%. Matrix spike recoveries were within laboratory
reporting procedures for all elements, ranging from a minimum of 88 % (lead) to 107 % (arsenic).
Lead isotopic compositions of selected samples (n = 10) were determined using a Perkin Elmer
Elan DRC II ICP-MS after optimizing sample concentrations. Analyses were conducted with
concentration-matched measurements of NIST SRM 981 bracketing each sample, which were used
to correct for isotopic mass fractionation. Analytical precision (RSD) for lead isotopic compositions
was 1.606%, 0.684% and 2.007% for 206Pb/207Pb, 208Pb/207Pb and 206Pb/204Pb, respectively.
2.4 Statistical Analysis
Wilcoxon signed-rank tests for hand wipe data were performed using the web-based statistical
application developed by Stangroom (2014). Regression analysis was also used to assess the
relationship between surface metal loadings and compared with those recovered on post-play hand
wipes.
7
3. RESULTS
3.1 Surface Dust
In order to understand the loading metal values recovered from the surface wipes, a range of
relevant benchmark values need to be considered. These include the arsenic (4 µg/m2/day),
cadmium (2 µg/m2/day), and lead (100 µg/m2/day), dust deposition limits and trigger values listed
under schedule B, Table 4 of the Mount Isa Mines Environmental Authority (available in the
supplementary data of Taylor et al., 2014a). These trigger values are calculated as an annual
average per calendar year. The German Federal Immission Control Act 2002 (TA Luft 2002) also
contains on the same dust deposition standards as those in the Mount Isa Mines Environmental
Authority, and lists a maximum value for nickel at 15 µg/m2/day, averaged over a year.
Other relevant values include the surface lead dust standard provided by the Government of
Western Australia (2011) of 400 µg/m2 for surfaces accessible to children. This value was applied
to the lead carbonate spill clean-up program in Esperance (Government of Western Australia
(2011). There is also the more general Australian Standard for outdoor dust of 8000 µg/m2, which
was devised for lead paint management (Standards Australia, 1998).
In this study of surface dust metal deposition, we rely on the values promulgated by the Queensland
Government in the Mount Isa Mines Environmental Authority for arsenic, cadmium and lead and
on the German Federal Immission Control Act 2002 (TA Luft 2002), for nickel. In addition, for
dust lead, particularly with respect to playground activity, we rely primarily on the Government of
Western Australia (2011) lead dust standard of 400 µg/m2 because it refers specifically to children
and the potential hazard lead dust may pose to them.
The data returned from the dust pre-wipes collected on 26th September 2014 show that deposition of
lead-rich particles in the inner city is accumulating to levels that exceed acceptable standards (Table
1, Figure 2). The wipes collected on the first day of the study (i.e. 26th September 2014) are referred
to as ‘pre-wipes’ and reflect the longer-term metal loading because, to the best of our knowledge,
they had not been subject to recent cleaning (Figures 2, 3).
8
Table 1. Dust loadings measured on September 26th 2014 (pre-wipe samples). Because surfaces were not pre-cleaned,
the values can be taken to indicate ‘typical’ loading on surfaces not cleaned regularly. Bold and underlined values
exceed the Government of WA (2011) lead carbonate clean-up value of 400 µg/m2 of lead on surfaces accessible to
children. No equivalent values exist for the other elements. Where values were below the limits of reporting they were
assigned zero for statistical purposes.
Long-term surface dust lead and nickel loadings
10000
Dust loading values (µg/m2)
Lead
Nickel
WA Govt lead clean-up value for surfaces accessible to children (400 µg/m2)
1000
100
10
1
Sister Kenny Park
Headland Park
Soroptimist Park
Reid Park
Queen's Park Oval
Anzac Memorial Park
Figure 2. Lead and nickel dust loadings on horizontal surfaces collected on 26th September 2014. Surface lead loadings
are compared with the Government of WA (2011) lead carbonate clean-up value of 400 µg/m2 of lead on surfaces
accessible to children. No similar value exists for nickel. Note the y-axis is scaled logarithmically. See Table 1 for raw
data.
9
Long-term surface dust arsenic and cadmium loadings
20
Arsenic
Cadmium
18
Dust loading values (µg/m2)
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Sister Kenny Park
Headland Park
Soroptimist Park
Reid Park
Queen's Park Oval
Anzac Memorial Park
Figure 3. Arsenic and cadmium dust loadings on horizontal surfaces collected on 26th September 2014. There are no
Australian loading values for arsenic or cadmium. See Table 1 for raw data.
In terms of the surface dust metal loading measures collected on a daily basis from the six sites
across inner Townsville, the data shows that lead and nickel are the elements that most commonly
exceed relevant standards (Table 2). It is worth noting that on September 29th and 30th the surfaces
at Sister Kenny Park, Headland Park and Soroptomist Park (September 30th only) appeared to have
been cleaned by Council workers, which may have had the effect of lowering the loading values in
the analysed wipes.
10
Mean
St Devn
Min
Max
Mean
Headland St Devn
Park
Min
Max
Mean
Soroptimist St Devn
Park
Min
Max
Mean
St Devn
Reid Park
Min
Max
Mean
Queen's
St Devn
Park Oval Min
Max
Mean
Anzac
St Devn
Memorial
Min
Park
Max
Sister
Kenny
Park
Arsenic
µg/m 2
1.60
0.99
0.00
2.44
2.53
1.55
1.22
5.22
0.82
1.16
0.00
2.44
5.00
0.87
3.97
6.28
3.46
0.71
2.40
4.27
0.97
1.38
0.00
2.99
Cadmium
µg/m 2
0.51
0.49
0.00
1.11
0.93
0.58
0.00
1.56
0.22
0.50
0.00
1.11
1.91
0.48
1.22
2.56
2.38
0.90
1.15
3.44
0.85
0.52
0.00
1.38
Lead
µg/m 2
107.56
86.09
40.00
222.22
127.56
90.22
32.22
255.56
54.89
37.75
34.44
122.22
243.59
55.14
166.67
294.87
412.50
131.06
250.00
562.50
110.81
97.39
29.89
264.37
Nickel
µg/m 2
46.42
37.71
4.33
88.89
67.33
47.54
6.67
133.33
65.67
54.72
10.56
155.56
38.41
15.60
12.56
51.28
88.54
21.10
61.46
114.58
7.96
1.59
6.21
10.00
Table 2. Summary of daily (24-hour) dust metal and metalloid loadings across all six sites sampled in Townsville city,
Queensland, 27th September to 1st October, 2014. Bold and underlined values exceed the trigger values (averaged over a
year) set by the Queensland Government for the environmental monitoring of Mount Isa Mines (arsenic - 4 µg/m2/day;
cadmium - 2 µg/m2/day; and lead - 100 µg/m2/day) and that for nickel (15 µg/m2/day) in the German air quality control
document, TA Luft (2002).
3.2 Pre- and Post-play Hand Wipe Metal Values
Figures 4 and 5 and Supplementary Tables S2-S5 show that metal loadings on hands increased postplay, indicating the availability of contaminated dust to children using play equipment. The mean
level of increase in lead on post-play hand wipes (965 µg/m2/day) across all sites was more than 10
times mean pre-play loadings (95 µg/m2/day). The maximum post-play lead loading (Reid Park, day
5) measured was 3012 µg/m2 (more than 30 times the trigger value for surface lead loading of 100
µg/m2/day and more than 7 times Government of Western Australia (2011) of 400 µg/m2 for
surfaces accessible to children). Maximum daily nickel post-play hand loadings (404 µg/m2, Sister
Kenny Park, day 2) were more than 26 times above the German benchmark of 15 µg/m2/day.
Maximum arsenic and cadmium post-play hand wipe values (Reid Park, day 2) were also elevated
at 43 µg/m2 and 68 µg/m2, respectively. Compared with the trigger values applied in Environmental
11
Authority for Mount Isa Mines, these elements were more than 10 and 34 times over the respective
annual average trigger values of 4 µg/m2/day (arsenic) and 2 µg/m2/day (cadmium).
A Wilcoxon signed-rank test showed that the increase in metal loading on hands for arsenic,
cadmium, nickel and lead post-play compared with pre-play (all sites combined) was significant (95
% confidence). Summary statistical results are provided in Table 3.
Element in hand wipe Mean loading (µg/m2 )
Arsenic Pre-play
3.63
Arsenic Post-play
20.25
Cadmium Pre-play
4.54
Cadmium Post-play
25.19
Nickel Pre-play
51.24
Nickel Post-play
174.69
Lead Pre-play
95.03
Lead Post-play
964.91
Standard Deviation
3.07
10.86
3.23
18.63
20.29
99.34
54.89
870.26
n
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
z
p (1 tail)
-3.823
<0.0001
-3.7146
0.0001
-3.8826
<0.0001
-3.9199
<0.0001
Table 3. Summary statistics for post-play increases in metal loadings on hands. Analysis using the Wilcoxon signedrank test shows that post-play arsenic, cadmium, nickel and lead mean loadings are significantly different (p < 0.05)
compared with pre-play wipe metal loadings. Note that values below instrument detection limit were treated as zero for
statistical analyses.
3.3 Soils
Mean concentrations of all metals in the < 2 mm fraction with the exception of a single sample were
below the National Environmental Protection (Assessment of Site Contamination) Measure 1999
(NEPM, 2013) guidelines for soils in recreational areas. Only one sample taken from Anzac
Memorial Park (1294 mg/kg) exceeded the lead guideline of 600 mg/kg provided by NEPM
guidelines for soils in recreational areas (NEPM, 2013). The results are provided in Supplementary
Table S1.
12
Sister Kenny Park
Soroptimist Park
WA Govt lead clean-up value (400 µg/m2)
Pre-play
500
Hand lead dust loading (µg/m2)
Hand lead dust loading (µg/m2)
2500
Post-play
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Post-play
WA Govt lead clean-up value (400 µg/m2)
Pre-play
Day 1
Day 2
Day 5
400
300
200
100
0
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
Headland Park
Post-play
Day 4
Reid Park
WA Govt lead clean-up value (400 µg/m2)
Pre-play
3200
Hand lead dust loading (µg/m2)
Hand lead dust loading (µg/m2)
1200
Day 3
900
600
300
Post-play
WA Govt lead clean-up value (400 µg/m2)
Pre-play
2800
2400
2000
1600
1200
800
400
0
0
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
Figure 4. Lead loadings on hands pre- and post-play for each of the four playgrounds sampled (see Figure 1). Post-play hand wipes had significantly higher loadings than pre-play
for all metals (see Table 3 for data). The dashed line represents the Government of Western Australia’s (2011) value of 400 µg/m2 for surfaces accessible to children.
13
Sister Kenny Park
400
Headland Park
300
Post-play
Hand nickel dust loading (!g/m2)
Hand nickel dust loading (!g/m2)
500
Pre-play
300
200
100
0
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Post-play
Pre-play
200
100
0
Day 5
Day 1
Day 2
Soroptimist Park
400
Pre-play
100
50
0
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
Day 4
Day 5
Reid Park
Post-play
Hand nickel dust loading (!g/m2)
Hand nickel dust loading (!g/m2)
150
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
Post-play
Pre-play
300
200
100
0
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Figure 5. Nickel loadings on hands pre- and post-play for each of the four playgrounds sampled (see Figure 1). Post-play hand wipes had significantly higher loadings than pre-play
for all metals (see Table 3 for data).
14
3.4 Lead Isotopic Composition of Dust Wipe Samples
Two surface wipes collected from Headland Park and Reid Park on 26th September 2014 were
analysed for their lead isotopic composition. The four post-play dust wipes collected from day 1
and day 5 of the playground sampling (n = 8) were also analysed for their lead isotopic composition
(Figure 6). The data show that the majority of samples are clustered towards the isotopic
composition of Mount Isa type ores (Figure 6). The hand wipes collected on day 5 show the greatest
similarity to the probable source materials, Mount Isa type ores, which are transported through the
Port in concentrate form.
1.22
Surface dust
1.20
1.18
Post-play hand wipe Day 5
1.16
Mount Isa type ores
1.14
206Pb/207Pb
Post-play handwipe Day 1
Townsville aerosols (1998)
Present-day crustal average
1.12
1.10
1.08
1.06
1.04
1.02
2.30
2.32
2.34
2.36
2.38
2.40
208Pb/207Pb
2.42
2.44
2.46
2.48
Figure 6. Lead isotopic composition of selected surface dust wipes and post-play hand wipes from this Townsville dust
study. Other relevant values for Townsville are also included: Mount Isa type ore lead isotopic compositions (which
include Cannington Mine ore, David Huston, Geoscience Australia, pers. com.; Mount Isa Mine ore, Gulson, 1985);
Townsville aerosols from 1998 (Bollhöfer and Rosman, 2000) and the present-day crustal average (Stacey and
Kramers, 1975).
4. DISCUSSION
4.1. Atmospherically Sourced and Deposited Dust Metals
Metal contamination found in the dust in Townsville playgrounds, particularly with respect to lead,
demonstrates a potential risk to the health of children living in the city. Minus the single sample at
Anzac Memorial Park, which had a substantive grass cover, soil metal loadings were below
Australian levels of concern (NEPM, 2013). The data show that, with the exception of the Anzac
Memorial Park site, the longer-term accumulation of surface lead dust exceeded the Government of
Western Australia’s (2011) benchmark for lead on surfaces accessible to children of 400 µg/m2. The
daily (24-hour) sampling carried out over 5-days between September 27th and October 1st 2014
15
showed the short-term elevated measures were largely limited to lead and nickel (Table 2), when
benchmarked against trigger values used elsewhere in Queensland (Taylor et al., 2014a) or
international standards (TA Luft, 2002). The most dust metal-contaminated playground sites were
those close to the Port but not sheltered from the prevailing wind (as is Soroptimist Park) during the
study period (Bureau of Meteorology, 2014a). The Bureau of Meteorology (2014b) average annual
wind rose data show the 9 am wind direction is from the south-east, with the prevailing wind at 3
pm coming from the north-east across the Port and then the city. These winds, which are dominated
by air speeds of 20-30 kmph, would have the capacity to entrain and transport dusts generated at the
Port during unloading and loading activities.
Data from the pre- and post-play hand wipes provide a direct measure of the dust metal exposure
risk available to children during the use of the play facilities. All playgrounds were found to have
lead dust on surfaces in excess of the Government of Western Australia’s (2011) goal of 400 µg/m2
for surfaces accessible to children on at least one day of the 5-day sample period. Reid Park had the
highest average post-play hand wipe lead loadings, with an average of 1981 µg/m2 over the study
period, but did not have the highest long-term loadings on surface wipes. Overall, Soroptimist Park
returned the lowest values in post-play wipes across the week compared with the other playgrounds.
Soroptimist Park is partly sheltered by the headland at the end of The Strand, which may account
for its lower values.
Reviewing the data as whole, it is clear that the values returned for the dust metals analysed are
elevated by comparison with Queensland State dust deposition limits and trigger values and
international standards. The values returned in this study, albeit with its limitations due to the short
time period of sampling, are a cause for concern with respect to young children who frequent the
playground facilities and for whom susceptibility to metal toxicity is greatest (Jarup, 2003;
Needleman, 2004). The research literature is replete with studies of arsenic, cadmium and lead
human toxicity effects (e.g. Calderón et al. 2001; Rosado et al. 2007; von Ehrenstein, 2007; Roy et
al. 2011; Ciesielski et al. 2012; NTP, 2012). Nickel is less well studied by comparison but the
highly respected USA Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, for example, has
established clearly that nickel exposures are potentially damaging to human health in terms of
respiratory health and function, are associated with an increased occurrence of contact dermatitis
and are also considered to be a possible human carcinogen (ATSDR, 2011). Certainly, exposures to
nickel dust cannot be considered neutral and, in the absence of sufficient causal relationships, it
would not be unreasonable to apply the precautionary principle, particularly where vulnerable
members of the community (young children and pregnant women) are at risk of exposure. Young
16
children are more susceptible to metal exposure and toxicity due to their persistent hand-to-mouth
behaviours, developing skeletal and neurological systems and the fact that they are closer to the
ground where dust is generated. In addition, because children are small, they have a high surface
area to volume ratio compared with adults, which increases their potential for dermal loading and
exposure. In this regard, Queensland Health (Queensland Government, 2010) noted that with
respect to lead “it is a basic principle that lead exposure be maintained as low as possible” and by
deduction, the same would apply to exposures to other potentially toxic metals deposited in dust
across residential environments.
The elevated total metal loading values returned in the surface and hand wipes, the prevailing wind
and the known operations at the Port of Townsville point strongly to the source of the dust. Indeed,
there are no other alternative sources in the city of Townsville and the daily lead loading values
returned in this study are not inconsistent with some of the Queensland Government values reported
at the Townsville Coast Guard site (Queensland Government 2014). In this Queensland
Government report, values from October 2013 show a maximum daily lead dust deposition rate of
714 µg/m2/day at the Coast Guard site, equalling a total lead dust deposition loading of 22,134
µg/m2 over that month. The annual average lead dust deposition rate reported in the Queensland
Government (2014) air quality bulletin for the Coast Guard site is 180 µg/m2/day or 5,400 µg/m2
month, meaning that the Australian Standard for outdoor lead dust of 8000 µg/m2 (Standards
Australia, 1998) would be exceeded, on average, every 44.4 days. Our study shows that the
deposition of lead and other metals is not limited to the Coast Guard site, but depositions blanket
large parts of the inner city, including the most important tourist area, known as The Strand, along
Townsville city’s waterfront.
While this study does not examine aerosol metal concentrations (expressed as µg/m3), it is noted
that these are well described and detailed in recent reports (Queensland Government, 2010; 2014).
Specific understanding of the concentrations of aerosol metals in particulate matter less than 10
microns (PM10) in the Queensland Government (2010) report was not possible because the field
sample method used only allowed for analysis of metals in total suspended particulates (TSP). The
field sample method and sensitivity of the laboratory analytical technique was most problematic
with respect to nickel aerosol concentrations because, unlike the other metals analysed, the 12month average TSP values at the Coast Guard and North Ward (Figure 1) monitoring sites were
greater than Queensland’s Environmental Protection (Air) Policy 2008 (EPP (Air)) PM10 objective
for nickel of 20 ng/m3 (Queensland Government, 2010).
17
With respect to lead dust deposition rates, the Queensland Government (2010) study showed that
the monitoring sites of Coast Guard and North Ward in the months of September to December
returned the four highest values over the study period (maximum of 839 µg/m2/day at Coast Guard,
October 2009 and a maximum at North Ward of 233 µg/m2/day (October 2008) at the North Ward
site, see Figure 1 for site locations). The Coast Guard lead dust deposition values for 2008-2009 are
not dissimilar to those reported in the most recent North Queensland Air Bulletin (Queensland
Government, 2014). However, it is worth noting that for the North Ward site, the data show that
between July 2013 and June 2014 values were below the limit of reporting obtainable from the
sampling equipment and laboratory method used by Queensland Government (2014).
The data reported in the Queensland Government (2010, their Figure 34; Table 18) study show
quite clearly that lead dust deposition increases at the Coast Guard and North Ward sites when the
predominant wind direction is from north-east or east, the general direction of the Port. The same
relationship between prevailing wind direction from the Port and a range of metal aerosol
concentrations (µg/m3) is also evident, in particular with respect to this study: arsenic, cadmium and
lead, but not nickel (see below for discussion). These factors point to a common source of dust
metals measured in previous studies and also in this study.
The relationship between surface dust metal loadings and those recovered from post-play hand
wipes was also undertaken. Our data returned positive and significant relationships (Pearson
Correlation Coefficient, p = <0.05) for arsenic, cadmium and lead, but not for nickel (p = 0.7185),
indicating the importance of atmospheric dust deposition for contaminating playgrounds. These
findings corresponded to those reported in the Townville Dust Monitoring program (2008-2009),
(Queensland Government, 2010), which focused largely on aerosols as opposed to dust metal
deposition, with the exception of lead. It is likely that similar dust deposition loadings will also be
impacting neighbouring residential and commercial environments.
The absence of a relationship between surface nickel dust deposition and that in post-play hand
wipe values is not readily explained, though it is worth noting that the Townville Dust Monitoring
program (Queensland Government, 2010) showed that there was no relationship between the
proportion of winds coming from the Port and TSP nickel air values recorded across Townsville.
This suggests that nickel deposition is more complicated than the other dust metals and may be
influenced by different processes and sources, possibly including the fact that ore is moved out of
Townsville to the Yabulu smelter in open rail wagons. Although nickel is enriched in regional soils
(e.g. Greenvale Nickel Mine), soil samples collected in this study returned low concentrations with
18
a mean of 31 mg/kg nickel (Supplementary Table S1). The loss of metalliferous minerals from rail
wagons is not well established in the peer-reviewed literature but two Australian studies show that
significant amounts of lead and zinc concentrate were lost from uncovered rail wagons moving ore
from Broken Hill to Port Pirie (Body, 1996; Kristensen et al., in review). In 1996, after a series of
complaints, the New South Wales Environment Protection Authority ordered that the rail ore
wagons were to be covered to prevent ore dust from being blown into the surrounding environment.
In 1997, fiberglass covers were introduced for ore wagons carrying lead and zinc ores to eliminate
product loss and reduce the environmental risk of ore wagon dust emissions (Kristensen et al., in
review).
4.2 Lead Isotopic Fingerprinting of Dust Wipe Samples
The lead isotopic composition analysis conducted as part of this study provides strong evidence that
the dust lead is derived predominantly from operations at the Port (Figure 6). The dust collected in
the Day 5 post-play wipes (Figure 6) are most similar in composition to the various Mount Isa type
ores that are shipped out as concentrate from the Port. Of the four wipes collected on the final day
of play, the sample most different from the Mount Isa type ores is that from Soroptimist Park,
which returned
208
Pb/207Pb and
206
Pb/207Pb ratios of 2.3567 and 1.0776. This suggests Soroptimist
Park is less impacted by lead sourced from the Port operations, a fact that is mirrored by the total
post-play hand lead loading values, which are the lowest in the study (Supplementary Tables S2S5).
4.3 Blood Lead and Exposure Risks from Metal-Contaminated Dust Deposition
Queensland Health (Queensland Government, 2010) undertook blood lead modelling estimates
arising from dust lead loading values recorded in Townsville during the period March 2008 to
December 2009. The returned estimates of blood lead levels ranged between 1 and 3 µg/100 mL
(commonly expressed as µg/dL [decilitre] i.e. 1 and 3 µg/dL), which was well below the then
National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC, 2009) blood lead goal for all Australians
of 10 µg/dL. Since that time, the NHMRC has been recommended that the blood lead level for
intervention and investigation level should be lowered to 5 µg/dL (NHMRC, 2014). Queensland
Health (2014) responded to the NHMRC (2014) review of blood lead levels by recommending in
July 2014 that the blood lead notification level for Queensland be lowered to 5 µg/dL. The
Queensland Health (Queensland Government, 2010) modelling relied on the former World Health
Organization Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake (PTWI) for lead of 25 µg/kg body weight/week.
This value has now been withdrawn because “it was not possible to establish a new PTWI that
would be health protective” (WHO, 2010). Similarly, the PTWI for cadmium was also effectively
19
adjusted downward from a PTWI of 7 µg/kg body weight/week to a Provisional Tolerable Monthly
Intake value of 25 µg/kg body weight/month. This equates to an 18 % reduction in acceptable
exposure levels for cadmium. In light of the shift to a new, lower intervention level for blood lead
along with the Townsville dust metal data reported herein and elsewhere, it would be prudent for
the relevant stakeholders to revisit dust control protocols associated with the import and export of
minerals from the Port of Townsville.
Given the potential risk of exposure to children’s health identified in the present study, coupled to
the near universal acceptance that there is no safe exposure limit for lead, it would be prudent to
consider strategies to mitigate any risks. Treating the source of the emissions would represent the
best outcome (primary prevention). In the interim, additional and improved frequency of
playground cleaning along with covering play equipment where this is not already the case (e.g.
Reid Park) should be instigated until measures to lower dust metal deposition rates to acceptable
levels are achieved. Signs encouraging hand-washing after play, along with regular cleaning of
contaminated playgrounds, occurs at Port Pirie in order to reduce exposure hazards (Port Pirie
Regional Council, 2013). However, Taylor and co-workers have demonstrated in unpublished data,
that significant re-contamination of playground surfaces occurs within 24 hours of washing. This
indicates that limiting source emissions is crucial to reducing permanently dust metal hazards.
Washing should not be considered a long-term solution to the problem of daily dust contamination
because the dust found at the playgrounds will also be affecting neighbouring residences, schools
and kindergartens and commercial properties. Therefore, a more sustainable mitigation strategy in
the longer-term would need to review and address directly the source(s) of contamination from the
Port and losses associated with the movement and transport of nickel ore in uncovered rail wagons.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The environmental evidence presented in this report indicates that:
1.
Elevated loadings of arsenic, cadmium, nickel and lead is found in surface dusts and
on hands after using public playgrounds in Townsville’s inner city area.
2.
The similarity of the lead isotope composition of dust wipes to those of Mount Isa
type ores confirms that the Port is the most likely source of surface dust
contamination. There are two likely primary sources of nickel – the open air
unloading of ore and its transport in uncovered rail wagons to Queensland Nickel at
Yabulu, 25 km north-west of Townsville city. Regional soil contributions to dust
metals also need to be evaluated to exclude this as a possible other source.
20
3.
Deposition of atmospheric metal-rich dust containing arsenic, cadmium, lead and
nickel is ongoing and re-contamination to unacceptable levels occurs daily.
4.
The amount of metal-contaminated dust identified on surfaces close to children’s
play areas and also on hands after play on four Townsville playgrounds sampled in
this study frequently exceeds State trigger values and international benchmarks for
metal dust loadings.
5.
At all playgrounds, at least once during the study, hand lead loading values exceeded
the Government Western Australia’s (2011) clean-up value for lead (400 µg/m2) on
surfaces accessible to children.
6.
Although playgrounds were used to measure environmental dust-metal exposures,
similar dust metal hazards are likely to be occurring concurrently in neighbouring
properties. Consequently, clean-up of the dust in playgrounds will not protect all
children because contaminated dust deposition will be impacting areas beyond the
study sites examined in this study.
In the interests of public health, it is recommended that action should be taken as soon as possible to
mitigate against the immediate risk. Subsequent efforts need to focus on identifying point and
diffuse sources of re-contamination in order to eliminate or reduce significantly metal-rich dust
emissions and subsequent depositions.
6. RECOMMENDATIONS
1.
The cause contamination at the Port must be identified, significantly reduced and
preferably eliminated.
2.
Effective treatments are likely to also involve covering the trains transporting ore to
Queensland Nickel, fully enclosing loading and unloading operations and/or
checking the effectiveness of existing dust cover and mitigation programs.
3.
In the interim, daily washing of playgrounds may help reduce metal loading and the
risk of exposure from playground use. The provision of hand-washing facilities
(including soap) along with appropriate signage would also be advantageous in
encouraging adults and children to wash hands after playground use.
4.
All playgrounds should be washed on a more regular basis to reduce the immediate
risk to children’s health. The focus should be on playgrounds that are closest to and
most exposed to wind blowing from the direction of the Port.
5.
The effectiveness of any remedial treatments should be evaluated for the efficacy.
21
6.
The community should be kept informed of mitigation measures taken and
subsequent contamination measures.
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
M.P. Taylor would like to thank the North Queensland Conservation Council for funding the dust
wipe analysis costs and for travel to present the findings of the study to stakeholders on the 4th
December 2014. M.P. Taylor also acknowledges funding support from the Department of
Environment and Geography, Macquarie University, for fieldwork travel costs in September 2014.
Macquarie University’s PACE (Professional and Community Engagement) program is thanked for
travel support to Ali Maadh, Audrey Quicke, Emilia Rupsys and Paris Spellson, who undertook the
majority of the field sampling.
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25
Supplementary Tables S1-S5
Sample name
TVD_14_S_D2_S1
TVD_14_S_D2_S1_C
TVD_14_S_D2_S1_D
TVD_14_S_D2_S2_C
TVD_14_S_D2_S2_D
TVD_14_S_D2_S3
TVD_14_S_D2_S3_C
TVD_14_S_D2_S3_D
TVD_14_S_D2_S4
TVD_14_S_D2_S4_C
TVD_14_S_D2_S4_D
TVD_14_S_D3_S5_C
TVD_14_S_D2_S5_D
TVD_14_S_D2_S6_C
TVD_14_S_D2_S6_D
Location
Zn (mg/kg) ± Pb (mg/kg)
15.6
2
12.9
Sister Kenny Park (3 Soil Samples)
97
3
60
75
3
35.9
89
3
43.3
124
3
36.9
Headland Park (2 Soil Samples)
14.4
2
5.1
137
4
45
136
4
48.8
Soroptimist Park (3 Soil Samples)
13
2
9.2
152
4
31.5
101
3
32.7
Reid Park (3 Soil Samples)
148
4
42.6
273
5
98
Queens Park Oval (2 Soil Samples)
456
6
126
3459
20
1294
Anzacc Memorial Park (2 Soil Samples)
± Ni (mg/kg)
1.4
32
2
32
1.7
20
1.8
29
1.7
1.1
1.9
26
2
15
1.2
34
1.6
1.7
24
1.8
16
2
19
3
9
95
±
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
Cu (mg/kg) ±
16
21
18
25
7
11
20
2
3
2
3
2
2
3
28
24
12
41
76
440
3
3
2
3
3
7
Cr (mg/kg)
16
±
4
As (mg/kg) ±
25.8
34.5
9.2
37.4
Cd (mg/kg) ±
2
2
1
2
Location
Sister Kenny Park (3 Soil Samples)
Headland Park (2 Soil Samples)
Soroptimist Park (3 Soil Samples)
27
4
Reid Park (3 Soil Samples)
Queens Park Oval (2 Soil Samples)
59
4
6.3
43
2
6
19
5 Anzacc Memorial Park (2 Soil Samples)
Table S1. Soil analysis results from playground and surface wipe sample sites. The value in bold and underlined indicates value about Australian guideline for open space, 600
mg/kg (NEPM, 2013). Where samples have the notation (gravel), this indicates that the sample consisted predominantly of fine gravel with little organic matter present.
26
Sister Kenny Park
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
Mean
Std Devn
n
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
Mean
Std Devn
n
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
Pre-play hand wipe metal loadings
Arsenic
Cadmium
Lead
µg/m 2
µg/m 2
µg/m 2
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
31.06
0.00
2.11
34.16
0.00
0.00
49.69
0.00
0.00
37.27
0.00
0.42
30.43
0.00
0.84
16.48
5
5
5
Post-play hand wipes
0.00
3.11
40.37
34.16
29.81
2204.97
15.84
16.77
869.57
17.08
17.70
652.17
18.63
18.63
1055.90
17.14
17.20
964.60
12.12
9.49
791.78
5
5
5
2
Post-play increase (µg/m )
0.00
3.11
40.37
34.16
29.81
2173.91
15.84
14.66
835.40
17.08
17.70
602.48
18.63
18.63
1018.63
Nickel
µg/m 2
0.00
37.27
34.16
43.48
55.90
34.16
18.63
5
86.96
403.73
208.07
170.81
341.61
242.24
128.78
5
86.96
366.46
173.91
127.33
285.71
Table S2. Data showing pre- and post-play hand metal loadings for Sister Kenny Park.
27
Headland Park
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
Mean
Std Devn
n
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
Mean
Std Devn
n
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
Pre-play hand wipe metal loadings
Arsenic
Cadmium
Lead
µg/m 2
µg/m 2
µg/m 2
5.59
10.56
152.17
8.07
9.01
229.81
4.97
3.73
74.53
4.04
4.04
68.32
3.42
4.04
108.70
5.22
6.27
126.71
1.61
2.91
59.56
5
5
5
Post-play hand wipes
10.56
16.15
304.35
14.91
24.22
559.01
26.71
26.71
1149.07
18.01
29.19
496.89
9.32
30.75
714.29
15.90
25.40
644.72
6.97
5.74
317.91
5
5
5
2
Post-play increase (µg/m )
4.97
5.59
152.17
6.83
15.22
329.19
21.74
22.98
1074.53
13.98
25.16
428.57
5.90
26.71
605.59
Nickel
µg/m 2
105.59
74.53
37.27
52.80
65.22
67.08
22.96
5
93.17
167.70
236.02
133.54
99.38
145.96
58.51
5
-12.42
93.17
198.76
80.75
34.16
Table S3. Data showing pre- and post-play hand metal loadings for Headland Park.
28
Soroptimist Park
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
Mean
Std Devn
n
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
Mean
Std Devn
n
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
Pre-play hand wipe metal loadings
Arsenic
Cadmium
Lead
µg/m 2
µg/m 2
µg/m 2
3.42
7.45
99.38
5.28
8.07
130.43
4.35
5.28
167.70
4.04
4.97
80.75
0.00
9.01
136.65
3.42
6.96
122.98
1.81
1.58
30.28
5
5
5
Post-play hand wipes
25.47
9.32
403.73
13.98
7.45
248.45
11.80
5.90
251.55
13.35
6.21
236.02
8.70
7.45
204.97
14.66
7.27
268.94
6.38
1.35
77.57
5
5
5
2
Post-play increase (µg/m )
22.05
1.86
304.35
8.70
-0.62
118.01
7.45
0.62
83.85
9.32
1.24
155.28
8.70
-1.55
68.32
Nickel
µg/m 2
68.32
55.90
52.80
40.37
49.69
53.42
9.09
5
121.12
77.64
74.53
80.75
77.64
86.34
19.57
5
52.80
21.74
21.74
40.37
27.95
Table S4. Data showing pre- and post-play hand metal loadings for Soroptimist Park.
29
Reid Park
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
Mean
Std Devn
n
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
Mean
Std Devn
n
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
Pre-play hand wipe metal loadings
Arsenic
Cadmium
Lead
µg/m 2
µg/m 2
µg/m 2
3.42
3.73
93.17
5.28
6.83
121.12
4.04
3.73
130.43
4.97
2.70
52.80
11.80
5.59
102.48
5.90
4.52
100.00
3.02
1.49
27.03
5
5
5
Post-play hand wipes
29.19
46.58
869.57
43.48
68.32
2795.03
30.75
30.75
1366.46
34.16
46.58
1863.35
28.88
62.11
3012.42
33.29
50.87
1981.37
6.07
14.77
915.60
5
5
5
2
Post-play increase (µg/m )
25.78
42.86
776.40
38.20
61.49
2673.91
26.71
27.02
1236.02
29.19
43.88
1810.56
17.08
56.52
2909.94
Nickel
µg/m 2
46.58
55.90
59.01
37.27
52.80
50.31
7.71
5
121.12
208.07
341.61
263.98
186.34
224.22
83.20
5
74.53
152.17
282.61
226.71
133.54
Table S5. Data showing pre- and post-play hand metal loadings for Reid Park.
30