What Is
Aggression?
“Any form of behavior directed
toward the goal of harming or
injuring another living being
who is motivated to avoid such
treatment.”
(Baron and Richardson, 1994)
Criteria for Aggression
(Violence)
Aggression is a behavior.
Aggression involves harm or injury.
Aggression is directed toward another
living organism (who doesn’t want pain).
Aggression involves intent to harm.
Aggression usually involves norm
violation
* “assertiveness” vs. violence
Types of Aggression
Hostile or reactive aggression
The primary goal is to inflict injury or
psychological harm to another.
Instrumental aggression
Aggression occurring in the quest of
some competitive goal.
4
Spectator Aggression
associated with:
– small-scale, on-the-field
aggressive acts;
– aroused conditions;
– alcohol use; and
– younger, disadvantaged male
spectators (e.g., soccer gangs).
5
A special case of spectator aggression
6
Aggression in Sport
Game reasoning and aggression
Many athletes view aggression as
inappropriate in general but appropriate
in the sport environment. This is called
“bracketed morality.”
7
Aggression in Sport
Athletic performance and aggression
No clear pattern has been found, but
professionals must decide if they value
“winning at all costs” at the cost of
increased aggression.
8
Causes of Aggression
Instinct Theory
Individuals have an innate instinct to be
aggressive, which builds up until it must
be expressed (directly or via catharsis).
[no support in sport]
variant: “athletes have too much
testosterone”
Causes of Aggression
Frustration–
Aggression Theory
Frustration causes aggression.
[no support]
Causes of Aggression
Social Learning Theory
Aggression is learned through observing
others (modeling) and then having similar
behavior reinforced.
[supported]
rivalry and retaliation…
Causes of Aggression
Revised Frustration–
Aggression Theory
Combines elements of the frustrationaggression theory with the social
learning theory.
[supported]
Causes of Aggression
Implications for Practice
Recognize when aggression is
most likely to occur—when individuals
are frustrated and aroused, often
because they
–
–
–
–
are losing,
perceive unfair officiating,
are embarrassed,
are physically in pain, or
– are playing below capabilities.
Implications for Practice
Control aggression via stress or emotionalmanagement training (logs; ABCs etc..)
Keep winning in perspective.
Distinguish between aggression (VIOLENCE)
and assertive or intense play.
Teach nonviolent conflict
resolution skills.
Teach appropriate behavior.
(continued)
Implications for Practice
Control spectator aggression.
1. Develop strict alcohol-control policies.
2. Immediately penalize spectators for
aggressive acts…legal charges?
3. Hire officials who don’t tolerate
aggression.
4. Inform coaches that aggression
won’t be tolerated.
5. Work with media not to glorify
aggressive acts. (no coverage)