Assessment of Student Learning
Module
4
Module 4
ASSESSING KNOWLEDGE AND SIMPLE UNDERSTANDING
Objectives

Differentiate the different methods of assessing knowledge and simple
understanding

Discuss the specific guidelines in constructing completion, short answer
and selected-response items

Critique sample test items and improve the noted limitations of the test
items

Construct sample items for completion, short answer and selectedresponse items
Introduction
In this lesson, you will see how different learning targets can be
conceptualized and how assessment methods can be used to measure each type of
learning. The logic here is that the nature of the learning target is what influence
which assessment method is used. As was pointed in the last lesson, some
assessment methods measure certain targets better than others. Your job is to
refine your learning targets, select the most appropriate type of assessment,
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prepare the assessment so that it will meet the criteria of high quality, administer
it, and then score and interpret the results.
Knowledge and understanding learning targets are the ones most
commonly assessed in tests and quizzes given after instruction. As you can recall
from your own experiences, most tests require students to remember facts,
definitions, concepts, places and so on.
Some tests go beyond simple
memorization and assess understanding.
We will begin the module with some important considerations for preparing
for any type of assessment of any type of target. This is to review what you think
you want to do in light of the criteria for ensuring high-quality assessments and
therefore answer the following questions:
1. Do I have clear and appropriate learning targets?
2. What method of assessment will match best with the targets?
3. Will I have good evidence that the inferences from the assessments will be
valid?
4. How can I construct an assessment that will minimize error?
5. Will my assessment be fair and unbiased? Have students had the
opportunity to learn what is being assessed?
6. Will the assessment be practical and efficient?
Types of Knowledge and Understanding Targets
The simple phrase “what students should know” is used frequently as a concept
for inclusion of important learning outcomes and standards. But this phrase is also pretty
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vague. We need to be more specific about what is meant by “know” and “Knowledge”,
so that appropriate assessment methods can be selected to foster as well as measure the
type of learning target that is desired.
With Bloom’s taxonomy, knowledge is the first and lowest level of categories in
the cognitive domain, in which knowledge is defined as remembering something. This
requires students to recall or recognize facts, definitions and terms but in the
contemporary view of knowledge or “knowledge representation”, remembering is only
part of what occurs when students learn.
There are three types of knowledge
representations but only two have direct application to assessment: declarative and
procedural knowledge.
Declarative Knowledge and Understanding
Declarative knowledge is information that is retained about something and is
similar to Bloom’s first level- remembering and is represented by simple association,
such as rote memory.
At a higher level, declarative knowledge consists of concepts,
ideas and generalizations that are more fully understood and applied. This type of
knowledge involves “understanding” in the form of comprehension or application, the
next two levels in Bloom’s taxonomy. Thus, declarative knowledge can exists as recall
or understanding, depending on the intent of the instruction and how the information is
learned. For example in Geometry, students learn the concept of “rectangle” at the level
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of recall, and then they simply memorize a definition or identify rectangles from a set of
different shapes. If students “understand” the concepts of rectangle, however, they will
be able to give original examples and identify rectangles of different sizes and shapes
they have never seen before.
Procedural Knowledge and Understanding
Procedural knowledge is “knowing how to do something”. What is demonstrated
is knowledge of strategies, procedures, and skills students must engage in, and this can be
demonstrated at different levels. At the recall level, students simply identify or repeat the
needed steps.
Understanding is indicated as students explain in their own words
(comprehension) and actually use the steps in executing a solution (application)
Table 1 presents the definitions and examples of the two major types of knowledge and
examples
Level
Recall knowledge
Declarative
Procedural
Defines, identifies “specific facts, Defines, identifies “ correct procedure,
concepts, principles or theories
steps, skills or strategies
Ex. Is able to define democracy
Understanding
(comprehension)
Ex. Is able to identify, in correct order ,
steps in scientific method
Converts, translates, distinguishes, Converts,
translates,
distinguishes,
explains, provides examples of explains, provides examples of “ correct
“essential meanings of concepts procedure, steps, skills or strategies
and principles”
Ex. Is able to give three examples Ex. Is able to explain whether a set of
of countries that are democracies. procedures follows the scientific method
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Understanding
(application)
Uses existing knowledge of
concepts, principles and theories in
new situations, to solve problems,
interpret
information,
and
construct responses
Uses existing knowledge of correct
procedures, steps, skills, or strategies in
new situations, to solve problems,
interpret information, and construct
responses
Ex. Is able to determine whether a
new country is a democracy by its Ex. Is able to demonstrate in writing the
description
correct use of the scientific method to
solve a novel problem
ASSESSING RECALL KNOWLEDGE
Both declarative and procedural recall knowledge are best assessed with
completion, short-answer, and selected response items (e.g., matching items, binarychoice items, and multiple choice items).
Each type has its own strengths and
weaknesses in relation to your teaching situation and personal likes and dislikes. You
need to be comfortable with whatever method you will use, and this consideration is
probably more important that other factors like ease of construction and scoring.
Completion and Short-Answer Items
The most common and effective way to assess recall knowledge is simply to ask a
question and require the students to answer it from memory. Items for which the students
respond to an incomplete statement are completion items; a brief response to a question
is a short-answer item.
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Completion items. This type offers the least freedom of student response, calling for
one answer at the end of the sentence. Responses may be in the forms of words, numbers
or symbols.
Strengths:
1.
They are easy to construct
2. Their short response time allows a good sampling of different facts
3. Guessing contributes little to error
4. Scorer reliability is high
5. They can be scored quickly that short-answer or essay items
6. They provide more valid results that a test with an equal number of selectedresponse items (e.g., multiple choice)
Limitations:
1.
It is difficult to phrase statement so that only one answer is correct
2. Scoring is contaminated by spelling ability when responses are verbal.
3. Scoring is tedious and time consuming
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Guidelines in constructing completion items
1.
Paraphrase sentences from textbooks and other instructional materials.
Statements in textbooks, when taken out of context are often too vague or too
general. Likewise, students tend to memorize phraseology in the text. Paraphrase
or restate facts in words that are different from those students have read.
Example: the textbook statement is “The criterion that refers to the extent to which the
test yields consistent, dependable and stable scores is called reliability”.
Poor item:
The criterion that refers to the extent to which the test yields consistent,
dependable and stable scores is called _____________.
Improved:
The test yields consistent, dependable and stable scores, the test is said to
be _.
2.
Word the sentence so that only one brief answer is correct. The single greatest
error in writing completion items is to use sentences that can be legitimately
completed with more than one response. This is true when the sentence is openended.
Poor:
Columbus first landed on “ America” _________.
Improved:
Columbus first landed on “America” in _______.
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Columbus first landed on “America” in the year _______.
Better:
3.
Place one or two blanks at the end of the sentence. If blanks are placed at the
beginning or at the middle, it may be difficult for the students to understand what
response is called for. It is easier to first read the sentence and then determine
what will complete it correctly. (That is why it is called completion item.
Poor:
In 1945, ______ decided to have the atomic bomb dropped on Japan.
Improved:
The name of the president who decided to have the atomic bomb dropped
on Japan in 1945 was ___________.
4.
Do not include several blanks in a single sentence. This will confuse students
and measure reasoning skills as much, if more, than recall.
Poor:
5.
The name of the ______________ who decided to have the
___________________ dropped on ___________ in 1945 was
_________________.
If answered in numerical units, specify the unit required.
Poor:
The distance between the moon and the Earth is __________.
Improved:
The distance between the moon and the earth is ___________miles.
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6.
Do not include clues to the correct answer. The common wording errors are
using single or plural verbs and wording the sentence so that blank is preceded by
“ a “ or “an”.
Poor:
The supply –type used to measure the ability to organize and integrate
material is called an _____.
Improved:
Supply-type items used to measure the ability to organize and integrate
materials are called ______.
Short –Answer Items. This type, in which students supply an answer consisting of one
word, a few words, or a sentence or two, is generally preferred to completion items for
assessing recall targets. First, this type is similar to how teachers phrase questions and
direct student behavior during instruction, making questions more natural for the
students. Second, it is easier for teachers to write these items to more accurately measure
knowledge.
Short-answer items are usually stated in the form of a question (e.g., “Which state
is surrounded by three large bodies of water?”). They can also be stated in general
directions (e.g., “Define each of the following terms’), and they can require responses to
visual stimulus materials (e.g., “Name each of the countries identified with arrows A-D’).
Strengths:
Similar with the completion items.
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Limitations:
1. Scoring takes longer
2. Scoring is more subjective.
Guidelines in constructing short-answer items
1.
State the item so that only one correct answer is correct. Be sure that the
question or directions are stated so that what is required in the answer is clear.
Poor:
Where if Eifel Tower located? (answers could be Europe, Paris, France)
Improved:
In what country is the Eifel Tower located?
2. State the item so that the required answer is brief. Keep students responses to a
word or two, or a short sentence or tow if necessary, by properly wording the
item, offering clear directions and providing spaces or blanks that indicate the
length of the responses.
Poor:
What does the term reptile mean?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
________________________
Improved:
Name three characteristics of reptiles.
1. ________________
2. ________________
3. ________________
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3.
Do not use questions verbatim from the textbooks and other instructional
materials. This will discourage students from rote memorization
4. Designate units required for the answer. This will avoid the time students may
take to try figure out what is wanted.
Poor:
When was Dr. Jose Rizal shot at Bagumbayan?
Improved:
In what year Dr. Jose Rizal was shot at Bagumbayan?
5. State the items succinctly with words students understand. Avoid using words or
phrases that may be difficult for some students to understand.
Poor:
What was the name of the extraordinary president of the United States
who earlier had used his extensive military skills in a protracted was with
exemplary soldiers from another country?
Improved:
What United States general defeated British and later became president?
Matching Items. Matching items effectively and efficiently measure the extent to which
students know related facts, associations, and relationships. In a matching item, the items
on the left are called the premises or the question column, and the right is the responses
or the option column. The students’ task is to match the correct response with each of the
premises.
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Strengths:
1.
The teacher can obtain a very good sampling of recall knowledge.
2. It is easily and objectively scored.
3. Easier to construct than multiple choice items
4. Reading and response time is short
Limitations:
1. This item type is largely restricted to simple knowledge outcomes based on
association
2. When there is insufficient material to include in the item, the items are weak
measures because irrelevant information is added.
Guidelines in constructing matching items
1.
Make sure directions are clear to students. It is helpful to indicate in writing the
basis for the matching and where and how responses should be recorded.
Generally, letters are used for each response in the right-hand column. It is also
important in the directions to indicate that each response may be used once, more
than once or not all. This will lessen guessing.
2. Include homogeneous premises and responses. It is not a good idea to contain
both dates and men’s names as responses. Testing homogeneous material with
matching is effective for fairly fine discrimination among facts.
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3. Limit matching exercises to 10-15 items only. Use for to eight premises. A
relatively short list will probably be more homogeneous and will be perceived by
students as more fair.
4. Keep responses short and logically ordered. Students will be more accurate in
their answers if the responses are in logical order. Thus, if responses are dates
they should be rank ordered by years; words or names should be alphabetized.
5. Avoid grammatical clued to correct answers. As with completion items, you need
to be careful that none of your matches are likely because of grammatical clues,
such as verb tense agreement.
6. Put the entire matching item on the same page. This will prevent the distraction
of flipping pages back and forth, and prevent students from overlooking responses
on another page.
Example:
The following is an example of a good matching set. Notice the complete
directions, responses on the right in logical order, and homogeneous content (Hollywood
actors and roles)
Directions: Match an actor’s name in Column A with a film role of the actor played in
Column B. Write the letter of the film role next to the number of the corresponding
actor. Each film in Column B may be used once, more than once, or not at all.
Column A
___1. Anthony Hopkins
___2. Jim Carrey
___3. Wesley Snipes
___4. Mike Myers
___5. Dustin Hoffman
Column B
a. Ace Ventura
b. The Jackal
c. Captain Jack Aubrey
d. Hannibal Lecter
e. Austin Powers
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___6. Jack Black
___7. George Lazenby
___8. Robin Williams
___9. Sigourney Weaver
___10. Michelle Yeoh
___11. Rusell Crowe
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
m.
Blade
Yu Shu
Dewey Finn
Professor Brainard
Benjamin Braddock
James Bond
Ellen Ripley
John Book
True or False and Other Binary-Choice Items
When students select and answer from only two response categories, they are
completing a binary-choice item o sometimes called alternative response. The most
popular binary-choice item is true/false question; other types of options can be
right/wrong’ correct/incorrect, yes/no, fact/opinion, agree/disagree, and so on. Binarychoice items are constructed in a form of a propositional statement and one of the two
choices must be absolutely true or false, correct or incorrect, and so on.
Strengths:
1.
Students are familiar with the items because such questions are similar to
what is asked in class.
2. Short binary items provide for an extensive sampling of knowledge because
students are able to answer many items in a short time
3. Items can be written in short, easy-to-understand sentences.
4. Scoring is objective and quick.
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Limitations:
1.
It is susceptible to guessing.
2. It is difficult to write items beyond the knowledge level that are free from
ambiguity
3. No diagnostic information is provided by the incorrect answers.
Guidelines in constructing binary-choice items
1.
Include only one central idea in each statement.
The decision should not
depend on some subordinate point or trivial detail because students tend to be
confused and the answer is more apt to be influenced by reading ability than
the intended outcome.
Poor:
T
F*
called an
Improved: T*
item.
F
The true-false item, which is favored by test experts, is also
alternative-response item.
The true-false item is also called an alternative-response
2. Keep the statement short and use simple vocabulary and sentence structure.
This will increase the likelihood that the point of the item is clear.
Poor:
T*
F
The true-false item is more subject to guessing but it should
be used in place of a multiple-choice item, if well constructed, when there
is a dearth of distracters that are plausible.
Improved:
T*
F
The true-false item should be used in place of a multiple
choice item when only two alternatives are possible.
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3.
Word the statement so precisely that can be unequivocally be judged true or
false. Specific determiners that are most likely to be true (some, may,
possible, etc.) and most likely to be false (no, none, never, etc.) should be
avoided because it provides clues.
Poor:
T*
F
Some objective tests are prone to guessing.
Improved:
T*
F
Objective test such as alternative-response items is prone to
guessing.
4.
Use negative statement sparingly and avoid double negatives. The “no”
and/or “not” in negative statement are frequently overlooked and they are read
as positive statement. Statements including double negatives tend to be so
confusing that they should be restated in positive form.
Poor:
T*
F
Correction-for-guessing is not a practice should never be
used in testing.
Improved:
5.
T*
F
Correction-for-guessing is a practice that should sometimes
be used in testing.
When cause-effect relationships are being measured, use only true
propositions. When used for this purpose, both propositions should be true,
and only the relationship judged true or false.
Poor:
T
F*
True-false items are classified as objective items because
students must supply the answer.
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Improved:
6.
T
F*
True-false items are classified as objective items because
there are only two possible answers.
Do not try to trick students. This happens when a word that changes the
meaning of an idea is included. This practice undermines your credibility,
frustrate students, and provide less valid measures of knowledge.
Poor:
T
F*
“The Raven” was written by Edgar Allen Poe.
Improved:
T*
F
“The Raven” was written by Edgar Allan Poe.
7.
Commands cannot be true or false. They do not state or assert anything; they
simply direct.
Poor:
T
F
Eat the four basic foods.
Improved:
T
F
To keep us healthy, eating the four basic food is helpful.
Multiple-Choice Items
Multiple choice items are used widely in schools, even though they may not be
the best method for assessing recall knowledge. Multiple-choice items have a stem, in
the form of a question or incomplete statement, and there are three or more alternatives.
The alternatives contain one correct or best answer and two or more distracters. For
measuring recall knowledge, it is usually best to use a direct question as the stem because
it is easier to write and its format is familiar to students.
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Strengths:
1.
Learning outcomes from simple to complex can be measured.
2. Highly structured and clear tasks are provided.
3.
A broad sample of achievement can be measured
4. Incorrect alternatives provide diagnostic information.
5. Scores are less influenced by guessing that true-false items.
6. Scoring is easy, objective and reliable.
Limitations:
1.
Constructing good items is time consuming.
2. It is frequently difficult to find plausible distracters.
3. Scores can be influenced by reading ability.
Guidelines in constructing multiple-choice items
1.
Write the stem as a clearly described question or task. It is best to put as much
information as possible in the stem and not the responses, as long as the stem does
not become too wordy. The stem is longer than the alternatives but in the end, a
good indicator of an effective stem is if students have a tentative answer in mind
quickly, before reading the options.
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Poor:
Validity refers to
a. the consistency of test scores
b. the inference made on the basis of the test scores
c. measurement error as determined by standard deviation
d. the stability of test scores
Improved:
2.
The inference made on the basis of the test scores refers to
a. Reliability
b. Validity
c. Stability
d. Measurement error
Avoid the use of negative in stem. Using words like not and except will confuse
students and create anxiety and frustration. So try to word the stem positively. If
negative statement cannot be avoided, emphasized it by boldface or underline.
Poor:
Which of the following is not a mammal?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Improved:
Which of the following is a mammal?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
3.
Bird
Dog
Horse
Whale
Cat
Bird
Frog
Whale
Fish
Lizard
Write the distracters to be plausible yet clearly wrong. If the distracters are
obviously wrong, they are useless because the intent of a multiple-choice items is
to have students discriminate among plausible answers.
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Poor:
Which of the following is the largest city in the United States?
a. Michigan
b. London
c. New York
d. Berlin
Improved:
Which of the following is the largest city in the United States?
a. Los Angeles
b. Chicago
c. New York
d. Miami
4. Avoid using “all of the above”, “none of the above”, or other special distracters.
When test makers are having distracters, they frequently resort to the use these
distracters. Since students are to select only one answer, they can detect “ all of
the above” as the correct answer simply by noting two of the alternatives are
correct.
5.
Each question should have only one answer, not several possible answers.
Example 1:
Poor:
What are the differences between invertebrates and vertebrates?
( There are many differences between them, according to structure, etc.)
Improved:
Animals with backbones are vertebrates. Which of the following is an
invertebrate?
a. Dog
b. Snake
c. Lizard
d. Cockroach
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Example 2:
Poor:
Mosquitoes and flies are disease carriers. How can we protect ourselves
from them?
a. Spray insecticides
b. Destroy their young
c. Clean the surroundings
d. Use mosquito nets and cover our food
Improved:
Which is the correct way of protecting ourselves from mosquitoes and
flies which are disease carriers?
a. Cover stagnant places
b. Leave garbage cans open
c. Leave empty cans around
6.
Arrangement of correct answers should not follow any pattern. This happens
when your purpose if to facilitate scoring. Students have the tendency to look for
pattern of answers (like a,b,c,d,..a,b,c,d or a,a,a,b,b,b,c,c,c,d,d,d, etc.). If this
happens, students may get the correct answers even though they do not even read
the items.
ASSESSING SIMPLE UNDERSTANDING: Comprehension and Application
As stated earlier, comprehension and understanding are two type s of knowledge
through which students demonstrate their understanding of something.
Assessing comprehension
Comprehension is demonstrated when students understand, in their own words,
the essential meaning of a concept, principle or procedure. They show this by providing
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explanations and examples, by converting and translating and by interpreting and
predicting – mental operation which is hierarchically categorized into three levels:
translation, interpretation and extrapolation.
Example 1:
Recall Knowledge (short-answer): Define hypothesis:
_________________________________.
Comprehension (translation, completion): Sunlight is used by plants to make energy in a
process called ______.
Comprehension (interpretation, short answer): Explain how plants get energy from the
sun.
Comprehension (extrapolation, short answer): What would happen to plants if they did
not receive any sunlight for a long time?
Example 2:
Recall knowledge (multiple choice): Which of the following is the process by which
plants use light to make glucose?
a. Respiration
b. Photosynthesis
c. Energizing
d. Growing
Comprehension (translation, multiple choice): In plants, sugar is made by energy from
the sun from which of the following?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Respiration
Photosynthesis
Energizing
Growing
Comprehension (extrapolation, multiple-choice): Which of the following is most
consistent with the process of photosynthesis?
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a. Plants that get light do not need to make glucose.
b. Plants that get less light make less glucose.
c. Glucose is produced from plants before photosynthesis.
d. Energy is stored in plants as glucose.
Assessing application
Understanding is demonstrated through application when students are able to use
what they know to solve problems in a new situation. Knowing something well enough
to apply it successfully to new situations is called learning for transfer. Your goal in
assessing application is to construct items that contain new data or information that the
student must work with to obtain the answer to create new problems or applications in
which students must extend what they know in a novel way.
Examples:
Application
1.
Rica has decided to make two magnets by wrapping wire around a nail and
attaching the wires to a battery so that electric current can create a magnetic force.
One magnet (A) uses thin wire and one magnet (B) uses thick wire. Which
magnet will be strongest?
a. A
b. B
c. A and B will be the same.
d. Cannot be determined from the information provided
2.
T
F
Other things being equal, an electric stove with greater resistance
will be hotter than a stove with less resistance.
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3. To increase the heat produced from his electric iron, Mr. Reyes would _____ the
resistance.
PUTTING TESTS TOGETHER
After you have developed test items, they need to be put together in the form of a
test. The following guidelines should be considered:
a.
Test directions- test directions should include the purpose, time allowed for
completing the test, basis for responding, procedures for recording answers, what
to do with guessing and how constructed-response items will be scored.
b. Test arrangement – arranging the items from easiest to most difficult has little
effect on the results. The most important consideration is item type. Items
answered more quickly would generally come first, and keep all items in one
section of the whole test.
c. Physical layout of the test- test items should be formatted in such as way that they
are easy to read and answer. Do not crowd too many items onto a page.
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Activity1
1.
Identify each of the following descriptions as declarative (D) or procedural (P)
and as recall (R) or understanding (U).( Note that each item requires two answers)
a.
Define procedural knowledge
b. What is the sequence of steps in preparing an objective test?
c. Give an example of a multiple-choice item that measures application.
d. List three suggestions for constructing matching items.
e. Predict whether students will have questions about how to answer the items in the
test.
f. Review the strategy a teacher has used to construct binary-choice test items to
determine if they can be improved
2.
Match the suggestions or descriptions from Column A with the type(s) of
objective tests in Column B. Each type of item may be used once, more than
once, or not at all; each suggestions or descriptions may have more than one
correct match.
Column A
__1. Generally more time-consuming to construct
__2. Scoring may be a problem
__3. Effectively measures relations
__4. Conveniently constructed from instructional materials
__5. Responses ordered logically
__6.
__7.
__8.
__9.
Column B
a. Completion
b. Short answer
c. Matching
d. Binary choice
e. Multiple
choice
Correct answers spread equally among all possible choices
Verbatim language from textbooks is avoided
Uses clear, concise statements
Uses blanks of equal length
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3.
Using the checklist for writing objective items, evaluate each of the following
items and revise it so it will be improved.
a.
Earth is the fourth planet from the sun and is called the living planet
b.
Match the planets with each characteristics
Column A
__1. Earth
__2. Venus
__3. Jupiter
__4. Mercury
__5. Saturn
Column b
a. Nearest planet from the sun
b. The ringed planet
c. Largest planet
d. Third planet from the sun
e. Brightest planet
c. Circle the correct answer.
Biodegradable substances are
a. Nonrenewable resources
b. Materials that can be broken down into substances that are simpler
and do not result in environmental pollution
c. Becoming less popular
d. Like fossil fuels
d. ______ is the father of educational psychology.
e. How does energy from the sun affect the Earth?
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Activity 2
Using the content of this module, construct sample items as directed.
a. 5 binary-choice items
b. 5 multiple-choice items
c. 3 completion items
d. 3 short-answer items
e. 1 matching type (5 items)
Note: Include in the test the directions and provide the answer key to the items.
Remember that all the items will assess knowledge and simple understanding only.
Activity 3
Write a brief reflection on the following:
a.
On critiquing test items
b. On writing test items
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