PENCEMARAN UDARA
Soemarno,bahan kajian kompendium KLP 2010
Definition
Air pollution may be defined as the presence
in the air (outdoor atmosphere) of one or
more contaminants or combinations
thereof in such quantities and of such
durations as may be or tend to be injurious
to human, animal or plant life, or property,
or which unreasonably interferes with the
comfortable enjoyment of life or property
or conduct of business.
Air Pollutant
It is a substance or effect dwelling temporarily
or permanently in the air , which adversely
alters the environment by interfering with the
health, the comfort, or the food chain, or by
interfering with the property values of
people.
A pollutant can be solid (large or submolecular), liquid or gas
Air Pollutant
It may originate from a natural or
anthropogenic source (or both).
It is estimated that anthropogenic sources
have changed the composition of global air
by less than 0.01%.
However, it is widely accepted that even a
small change can have a significant adverse
effect on the climate, ecosystem and species
on the planet.
Examples of these are acid rain, ozone in the
lower atmosphere, and photochemical smog.
Composition of
dry atmosphere, by volume
ppmv: parts per million by volume
Gas
Volume
Nitrogen (N2)
780,840 ppmv (78.084%)
Oxygen (O2)
209,460 ppmv (20.946%)
Argon (Ar)
9,340 ppmv (0.9340%)
Carbon dioxide
375 ppmv
(CO2)
Neon (Ne)
18.18 ppmv
Helium (He)
5.24 ppmv
Methane (CH4)
1.745 ppmv
Krypton (Kr)
1.14 ppmv
Hydrogen (H2)
0.55 ppmv
Not included in above dry atmosphere:
Water vapor
typically 1%
(highly variable)
Mean Atmospheric Water Vapor.
Source for figures above: NASA. Carbon dioxide and methane updated (to 1998) by IPCC TAR table 6.1 [1]. The NASA total was 17 ppmv
over 100%, and CO2 was increased here by 15 ppmv. To normalize, N2 should be reduced by about 25 ppmv and O2 by about 7 ppmv.
Minor components of air not listed above include:
Gas
nitrous
oxide
xenon
ozone
nitrogen
dioxide
iodine
carbon
monoxide
Volume
0.5 ppmv
0.09 ppmv
0.0 to 0.07 ppmv
0.02 ppmv
0.01 ppmv
trace
National Ambient Air Quality Standards
Pollutant
Primary Stds.
Averaging Times
Carbon Monoxide
9 ppm (10
3
mg/m )
35 ppm
3
(40 mg/m )
3
1.5 µg/m
8-hour
1
1-hour
1
0.053 ppm
3
(100 µg/m )
3
50 µg/m
65 ug/m
0.08 ppm
Annual (Arithmetic
Mean)
2
Annual (Arith.
Mean)
1
24-hour
3
Annual (Arith.
Mean)
4
24-hour
5
8-hour
0.03 ppm
0.14 ppm
-------
Annual (Arith. Mean)
1
24-hour
1
3-hour
Lead
Nitrogen Dioxide
Particulate Matter
(PM10)
3
Particulate Matter
(PM2.5)
150 ug/m
3
15.0 µg/m
3
Ozone
Sulfur Oxides
1
Quarterly Average
Secondary
Stds.
None
None
Same as
Primary
Same as
Primary
Same as
Primary
Same as
Primary
Same as
Primary
------------0.5 ppm
3
(1300 ug/m )
Not to be exceeded more than once per year.
2
To attain this standard, the 3-year average of the weighted annual mean PM 10 concentration at
3
each monitor within an area must not exceed 50 ug/m .
3
To attain this standard, the 3-year average of the weighted annual mean PM 2.5 concentrations
3
from single or multiple community-oriented monitors must not exceed 15.0 ug/m .
4
To attain this standard, the 3-year average of the 98th percentile of 24-hour concentrations at
3
each population-oriented monitor within an area must not exceed 65 ug/m .
5
To attain this standard, the 3-year average of the fourth-highest daily maximum 8-hour average
ozone concentrations measured at each monitor within an area over each year must not exceed
0.08 ppm.
Index
Value
PSI
Descriptor
General
Cautionary
Statements
Health
Effects
Up to 50
Good
None for the
general population.
None required.
50 to 100
Moderate
Few or none for
the general
population.
None required.
100 to
200
Unhealthful
Mild aggravation of
symptoms among
susceptible people,
with irritation
symptoms in the
healthy population.
Persons with
existing heart or
respiratory
ailments should
reduce physical
exertion and
outdoor activity.
General population
should reduce
vigorous outdoor
activity.
200 to
300
Very
Unhealthful
Significant
aggravation of
symptoms and
decreased exercise
tolerance in
persons with heart
or lung disease;
widespread
symptoms in the
healthy population.
Elderly and
persons with
existing heart or
lung disease
should stay
indoors and reduce
physical activity.
General population
should avoid
vigorous outdoor
activity.
Over 300
Hazardous
Early onset of
certain diseases in
addition to
significant
aggravation of
symptoms and
Elderly and
persons with
existing diseases
should stay
indoors and avoid
physical exertion.
Health Effects of Nitrogen Oxides
• Short-term exposure at concentrations greater than 3
parts per million (ppm) can measurably decrease lung
function.
• Concentrations less than 3 ppm can irritate lungs.
• Concentrations as low as 0.1 ppm cause lung irritation
and measurable decreases in lung function in asthmatics.
• Long-term lower level exposures can destroy lung tissue,
leading to emphysema.
• Children may also be especially sensitive to the effects of
nitrogen oxides.
In-out balance control of chemical substances
Other Effects
• Seriously injure vegetation at certain
concentrations. Effects include:
– Bleaching or killing plant tissue.
– Causing leaves to fall.
– Reducing growth rate.
• Deteriorate fabrics and fade dyes.
• Corrode metals (due to nitrate salts formed
from nitrogen oxides).
• Reduce visibility.
Other Effects (Continued)
• Oxides of nitrogen, in the presence of
sunlight, can also react with hydrocarbons,
forming photochemical oxidants or smog.
• Also, NOx is a precursor to acidic
precipitation, which may affect both
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
Sulfur Dioxide
Ninety-five percent of pollution related sulfur oxide
emissions are in the form of sulfur dioxide (SO2),
a heavy, colorless gas with an odor like a struck
match.
This gas combines easily with water vapor, forming
aerosols of sulfurous acid (H2SO3), a colorless,
mildly corrosive liquid.
This liquid may then combine with oxygen in the
air, forming the even more irritating and
corrosive sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
Other sulfur-containing compounds
• Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas - rotten eggs.
• Mercaptans - skunk spray or decayed garbage.
(Added in trace amounts to natural gas,
providing a leak-detecting warning odor.)
Note: The amount of SO2 released from coal fired
power plants depends on the sulfur content of
coal, normally 0.7% to 2% by weight. High sulfur
coal sometimes contains as much as 6% sulfur
by weight. In India, sulfur content is quite low.
Health Effects of Sulfur Oxides
• Sulfur dioxide not only has a bad odor, it can
irritate the respiratory system.
• Exposure to high concentrations for short
periods of time can constrict the bronchi and
increase mucous flow, making breathing difficult.
• Children, the elderly, those with chronic lung
disease, and asthmatics are especially
susceptible to these effects.
Sulfur dioxide can also:
• Immediately irritate the lung and throat at
concentrations greater than 6 parts per million
(ppm) in many people.
• Impair the respiratory system's defenses against
foreign particles and bacteria, when exposed to
concentrations less than 6 ppm for longer time
periods.
• Apparently enhance the harmful effects of ozone.
(Combinations of the two gases at
concentrations occasionally found in the
ambient air appear to increase airway resistance
to breathing.)
Air Pollution
general
• Sulfur dioxide tends to have more toxic
effects when acidic pollutants, liquid or solid
aerosols, and particulates are also present.
(In the past, thousands of excess deaths
occurred in areas where SO2 concentrations
exceeded 1 ppm for a few days and other
pollutants were also high.) Effects are more
pronounced among mouth breathers, e.g.,
people who are exercising or who have head
colds.
These effects
include:
• Health problems,
such as episodes
of bronchitis
requiring
hospitalization
associated with
lower-level acid
concentrations.
These effects include:
• Self-reported respiratory conditions, such as
chronic cough and difficult breathing,
associated with acid aerosol concentrations.
(Asthmatic individuals are especially
susceptible to these effects. The elderly and
those with chronic respiratory conditions
may also be affected at lower concentrations
than the general population.)
These effects include:
• Increased respiratory tract infections,
associated with longer term, lower-level
exposures to SO2 and acid aerosols.
• Subjective symptoms, such as headaches
and nausea, in the absence of pathological
abnormalities, due to long-term exposure.
Sulfur oxides Effects on Plants
• Sulfur dioxide easily injures many plant
species and varieties, both native and
cultivated. Some of the most sensitive
plants include various commercially
valuable pines, legumes, red and black
oaks, white ash, alfalfa and blackberry.
Sulfur oxides Effects on Plants
• The effects include:
• Visible injury to the most sensitive plants at
exposures as low as 0.12 ppm for 8 hours.
• Visible injury to many other plant types of
intermediate sensitivity at exposures of 0.30 ppm
for 8 hours.
• Positive benefits from low levels, in a very few
species growing on sulfur deficient soils.
Other Effects
• Increases in sulfur dioxide concentrations
accelerate the corrosion of metals,
probably through the formation of acids.
(SO2 is a major precursor to acidic
deposition.) Sulfur oxides may also
damage stone and masonry, paint, various
fibers, paper, leather, and electrical
components.
Other Effects
• Increased SO2 also contributes to impaired
visibility. Particulate sulfate, much of
which is derived from sulfur dioxide
emissions, is a major component of the
complex total suspended particulate
mixture.
Health Effects of
Ozone
• Ozone acts as a
powerful
respiratory irritant
at the levels
frequently found
in most of the
nation's urban
areas during
summer months.
Health Effects of Ozone
• Ozone exposure may lead to:
– Shortness of breath.
– Chest pain when inhaling deeply.
– Wheezing and coughing.
Long-term, repeated exposure to high
levels of ozone may lead to large
reductions in lung function, inflammation
of the lung lining, and increased
respiratory discomfort.