THEROLEOFOBSERVATIONALLEARNINGINDEVELOPING
ECOTOURISTS’ENVIRONMENTALLYRESPONSIBLEBEHAVIORAL
INTENTIONS
by:
BenjaminA.B.Morse
Athesissubmittedinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthe
degreeofMasterofScience(NaturalResourcesandEnvironment)at
theUniversityofMichigan
April2017
FacultyAdvisors
ProfessorMichaelaT.Zint
ProfessorRebeccaHardin
ABSTRACT
ThisstudyappliedBandura’s(1986)four-stepobservationallearningprocess(i.e.,
engagement,observation,reproductionandreinforcement)toinvestigatehowtour
guides,peerecotouristsandlocalcommunitymembersinfluenceecotourists’
environmentallyresponsiblebehavioral(ERB)intentions.Atotalof207completed
questionnaires(59%responserate)wereobtainedfromecotouristsimmediately
aftertheirecotourismexperienceinKorea.Apathanalysisindicatedthatthe
hypothesizedmodelpredictedecotourists’ERBintentionsmoderatelywell.Positive
reinforcementandreproductionofobservedERBsduringtheecotourism
experiencewereimportantpredictorsofparticipants’ERBintentionsattheendof
theirexperience.Reproductionoccurred,inturn,fromobservationandengagement
oftourguides,peerecotourists,andlocalcommunitymembers.Resultssupported
Bandura’s(1986)four-stepobservationallearningprocessanditsabilitytoexplain
ecotourists’ERBintentions.Implicationsincludethattourguidesshouldmodel
ERBsforparticipants,ensureopportunitiesforparticipantstoengageinERB’s
duringtheecotourismexperience,andprovidepositivefeedbackfordoingso.
Insightsfromthisstudyandourmodelmayhelpothers,outsideofthetourism
sector,withwaystoencourageERBsandtobuildamoreenvironmentally
responsibleconstituency.
KEYWORDS:Observationallearning,Ecotourism,RoleModel,
EnvironmentallyResponsibleBehaviors,Korea,SocialLearningTheory
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ThispaperwassupportedbytheNamCenterforKoreanStudies,boththroughthe
NamCenterResearchFellowship,aswellastheSeAH-HaimArtsandSciences
Scholarship.AdditionalfundingforthisresearchcamefromtheRackhamGraduate
SchoolandtheSchoolofNaturalResourcesandEnvironment.
First,Iamextremelygratefulformythesisadvisor,Dr.MichaelaZint,forher
steadfastsupportduringmytimeatSNRE.Withoutherexpertiseandguidance,this
studywouldnothavebeenpossible.Dr.Zinthelpedmakemethescholarandsocial
scientistthatIamtodayandIamforevergratefulforhavingtheopportunityto
workwithher.IalsothankJenniferCarmanforherinvaluablesupportwiththe
statisticalmethodsandanalysisforthisstudy.IwanttoalsothankDr.Rebecca
Hardinforhersupportduringthisprocess.
IalsowanttoextendaverywarmthankyoutoCatherineGermier-Hamel,CEOof
MillenniumDestinationsinKorea,forherin-countrysupportandessential
communicationskills.Additionally,IthankDr.MiheeKang,SeoulNational
University,forherin-countrysupportandforsharingherlocalecotourismexpertise
withme.
Severalstudentresearchassistantshelpedmewithfieldresearch,analysis,
translationandlogisticswhileIwasinKorea.Iwouldliketogiveabigthanksto
bothHyunjiJennyKimandJaeyongJofortheirinstrumentalsupportinKorea.I
wouldalsoliketothankJanetLeefromtheUniversityofMichiganforhersupport
withdatainputandorganization.IwouldalsoliketothankNikkiMuenchforher
supportwithdataanalysisandorganization.
Thankyoutomyfamilyandfriends,particularlymywife,MaryMorse,forher
continuedpatienceandencouragementthroughoutthisprocess.
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TABLEOFCONTENTS
ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…ii
ACKNOWLEGEMENTS……………………………………………………………………………………………..…iii
INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………………………………………….…1
METHOD………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…10
RESULTS………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…16
DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…20
APPENDICIES……………………………………………………………………………………………………….…..24
Appendix1:SupplementalTablesandFigures……………………………………….....……..24
Appendix2:DataCollectionInstrument……………………………………………………………25
Appendix3:CompleteReplicationSyntax………………………………………………..……….32
Appendix4:IRBHumanSubjectsApprovalDocumentation………………………………35
BIBLIOGRAPHY………..………………………………………………………………………..…………………..…44
iv
TABLEOFFIGURES
Figure1.Bandura’s(1986)observationallearningmodel……………………………………………5
Figure2.Thisstudy’sEcotouristObservationalLearningModel……………………………….9
Figure3.EcotouristObservationalLearningModelresults……………………………………….17
TABLEOFTABLES
Table1.EcotouristProfile……………………………………………………………………………………..….12
Table2.Confirmatoryfactoranalysisresultsforallfactors……………………………………..15
Table3.DescriptiveStatisticsforallfactors……………………………………………………………..16
Table4.Summaryofdirectandtotaleffectsforfactorsinthefinalpathmodel.........18
Table5.Pairwisecorrelationsofpathmodelfactors………………………………………………..24
v
INTRODUCTION
Asecotourismcontinuestogrow,thereismountinginterestintherelationship
betweenparticipatinginecotourismandecotourists’subsequentenvironmentally
responsiblebehaviors(ERB).Mismanagementofecotourismactivitiesinsensitive
naturalareascanexacerbateenvironmentaldegradation,whichcanleadtoanarray
ofnegativeimpactsonentireecosystemsorindividualspecies(Boo,1990;
Stephenson,1993;Ceballos-Lascurain,1996;InternationalUnionforConservation
ofNature[IUCN],2005;Weaver,2008;Wearing&Neil,2009).Despitethistrend,
however,manyexpertsalsosuggestthattheindustryisbeginningtomeettherising
demandformoreenvironmentallyandsociallyresponsibletourism(CREST,2016).
Thisshiftinawarenessanddemandhasalsopromptedresearcherstoexplorethe
nexusbetweentourismandsustainability.Agrowingnumberoftheseresearchers
havebeenespeciallyinterestedintheeffectsofecotourismparticipationon
ecotourists’consequentERB(Lee&Moscardo,2005;Powell&Ham,2008;Lee,
2011;Chiu,Lee&Chen,2014).Whilethesestudiesexplorearangeoffactorsthat
influenceenvironmentalbehaviors,includingindividualcharacteristics,cognition,
affectandsocialnorms(Cottrell,2003;Hungerford&Volk,1990)andapplyseveral
well-researchedbehavioraltheories(i.e.AjzenandFishbein’s(1980)Theoryof
ReasonedActionorAjzen’s(1991)TheoryofPlannedBehavior),thereisagapin
understandingthelearningprocessesthatoccurduringanecotourismexperience.
ToaddressthisgapweappliedBandura’s(1986)four-stepobservationallearning
processtoexploretowhatextentvariousrolemodels(i.e.tourguides,peer
ecotouristsandlocalcommunitymembers)mayinfluenceecotourists’ERB
intentions.Wemeasuredintentionbecauseitisthebestproxymeasureforbehavior
insituationswhereitisnotpossibletomeasurerevealedbehavior(Parcel,1984).
Ecotourism
Whatqualifiesasecotourismiscontestedamongacademicscholars,tourism
providersandtourists.Manyhaveoffereddefinitionsofecotourism(Bjork,2000;
Blamey,2001;Weaver,2002;Buckley,2009),butanaccepteddefinitionremains
elusive.Proponentsarguethatecotourismisamoresustainableformoftravelwhen
comparedtomasstourismandisanappropriateformofruraldevelopment,
especiallywhenassociatedwithnaturalresourceprotection(Budeanu,2000;Ham
&Weiler2012).Furtheringthisposition,PowellandHam(2008)describe
ecotourismasabalancingactbetweentourismdevelopmentandresource
protection.Bjork(2000)goesfurtherstill,heportraysecotourismasacollaborative
partnershipbetweenauthorities(i.e.stateandlocalgovernment),thetourism
industry,ecotouristsandthelocalcommunity;allofwhommakeitpossiblefor
touriststoadmire,enjoyandlearnaboutnatureinamannerthatdoesnotexploit
theresource,butinstead,engenderssustainabledevelopment.Bjork(2000)also
emphasizestheassociatedlearningandenjoymentopportunitiesthatecotourism
experiencestendtoaffordtovisitors.Consistentwiththeaboveauthors,wedefine
ecotourismastraveltoapredominantlynature-baseddestinationthatemphasizes
environmentaleducation,enjoyment,andappreciationofanaturalorcultural
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resourceinamannerthatpromotesecological,socio-culturalandeconomic
sustainability.
Ourdefinitionisconsistentwiththreecoreprinciplesofecotourismthatare
emergingacrosstheliterature;i.e.thatecotourismshouldbenature-based,
education-focusedandsustainability-based(Blamey,2001;Weaver,2002;Weaver
&Lawton,2007;Lee,Lawton,&Weaver,2012).“Nature-based”referstoasitethat
featuresanecotourismexperienceinarelativelyundisturbednaturalsetting.We
concedethatvirtuallyno“natural”areasremainthatareuntouchedorunchanged
byhumans(Cronon,1996).Wealsoacknowledgethatculturalattractionsareoften
consideredasecondarycharacteristicofanecotourismsite,butmaystilladhereto
ourpresenteddefinition(Weaver,2008).“Learning-based”suggeststhateducation
isatthecenterofanyecotourismexperience.Duringanecotourismexperience,
learningcanoccurinavarietyofways,rangingfromstructurededucational
programstounstructured,spontaneousinformalinteractions.Thelastofthethree
principles,“sustainability-based,”emphasizesecological,socio-culturaland
economicsustainability.
Thethreecoreprinciplesofecotourismofferaconceptualframeworktowhichwe
cancompareanecotourismsiteorexperienceforauthenticity.Itisalsoimportant
tonotethatecotourismissociallyconstructed,meaningthatecotourismmaytake
onmanydifferentformsacrosscultures,perspectivesandgeographicalcontexts
(Conway&Cawley,2016).Conway&Cawley(2016)furthersuggestthat
ecotourismdefinitionsaretypicallycreatedbytouroperators,policy-makerswho
aredirectlyinvolvedinecotourismdevelopment,internationalorganizationssuch
astheUnitedNationsWorldTourismOrganization(UNWTO)orTheInternational
EcotourismSociety(TIES),oracademicswhoseektodefinethetermasitrelatesto
specificresearchprojects.Itisforthesereasonsthatauniversallyaccepted
definitiondoesnotexisttoday.
KoreanEcotourism
TheKoreanGovernmentviewsecotourismasawaytomanagenaturalareas,which
isanideaechoedacrossexistingresearch.Fennell,BuckleyandWeaver(2001)
describeecotourismasa“managementphilosophy”thatusesnaturalandcultural
attractionstogeneraterevenuethatcanthenbeusedinenvironmentalprotection
andmanagementplanning.Stein,ClarkandRickards(2003)alsoregardecotourism
asanimportantcomponentofdevelopmentforruralcommunities,butsuggestthat
policy-makersshouldusecollaborativeplanningmethodsinordertoaddress
competingpriorities(i.e.economicbenefitsversusenvironmentalconservation).
UnderstandingthisneedforbalancewithintourismdevelopmenttheKorean
MinistryofEnvironment(MOE)hasallocatedsignificantresourcesandeffortinto
developingecotourismsitesthroughouttheircountrysince2001(Kim&Park,
2016).TheKoreangovernmentviewsecotourismdevelopmentasavehicleto
protectnaturalandculturalwonders,andasaviableeducationalopportunity.
BasedonaCriticalDiscourseAnalysis(CDA)of206SouthKoreanpeer-reviewed
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academicarticles,Leeetal.(2012)describedtheSouthKoreanmodelofecotourism
usingthethreeprinciplesofecotourismpresentedearlier.TheCDAsuggestedthat
“nature-based”tourismattractionsreflectunitybetweenhumansandthe
environment,asentimentthatstemsfromConfucian,ZenBuddhistandTaoist
philosophies.Thesecondprincipleofecotourism,“learning-based,”revealsadeep
connectiontotheConfucianconceptofself-cultivationforworldlydevelopment;
highlightingthecollectiverolethateducationplaysinthedevelopmentofKorea.
Thethirdprincipleofecotourism,“sustainability-based,”canbeseeninthe
Confucianideaofcreativetransformationforharmony,aviewthatemphasizesthe
roleofplanningandmanagementtomitigatethenegativeimpactsofecotourism.
Onceagain,itisimportanttonotethatecotourismismanifesteddifferentlyacross
culturesandgeographicallocations.TheKoreanModelofecotourismisinherently
differentfromsomeofthemoreWestern-basedmodelsusedinmanypartsofthe
world.Forexample,large-scaledevelopmentanddrasticphysicalalterationstoland
areacceptedandoftencelebratedinEastAsianecotourismsettings.Thisdiverges
sharplyfromWesternconservationethicswhereanylarge-scaledevelopmentin
natureremainsculturallyinappropriate(Buckleyetal.,2008).Theecotourismsites
inthispresentstudyalignwiththeKoreanmodelofecotourism,whichfeatures
severallarge-scaledevelopments(i.e.informationcenters,viewingplatformsand
establishedwalkingpaths)andemphasizesnature,educationandsustainability.
Eachstudysiteisalsoconsistentwiththepresenteddefinitionaboveasa
predominantlynature-baseddestinationthatemphasizesenvironmentaleducation,
enjoyment,andappreciationofnaturalorculturalresourcesinamannerthat
promotesecological,socio-culturalandeconomicsustainability.
EnvironmentallyResponsibleBehavior(ERB)
ERBsaredefinedhereasbehaviorsthatseektominimizenegativeimpactsonand
arecomparativelybetterfortheecologicalenvironment(Stern,2000;Bambergand
Möser,2007;Krajhanzl,2010;Osbaldison&Schott,2012).EarlyresearchonERB
testedthepopular,simplisticassumptionthatenvironmentalknowledgepredicts
ERB,(seeCottrell&Graefe,1997,forafullreviewofthisliterature).Hinesetal.
(1986-87)wereamongthefirsttoshowthatthisisnotthecaseandtheirmetaanalysisidentifiednumerousadditionalpredictorsofERBincluding:attitudes,locus
ofcontrol,personalresponsibility,knowledgeofissuesandactionstrategies,action
skills,intentiontoactandsituationalfactors.Amorerecentmeta-analysis
(Bamberg&Möser,2007)confirmedandextendedthislistofpredictorstoinclude
attitude,problemawareness,perceivedbehavioralcontrol,intention,socialand
moralnorm,guilt,andattribution.IntentionstoengageinERB,ourstudy’s
dependentvariableofinterest(seeFigure1),are,inturn,ecotourists’self-reported
planstoengageinarangeofspecificERBsafteranecotourismexperience(Powell&
Ham,2008;Powell,etal.,2009)andcanbeunderstoodasasubjectivewillingnessto
engageinspecific,statedbehaviors(Hinesetal.,1987;Hungerford&Volk,1990).
Anumberofstudieshavefoundthatecotourismparticipationcanleadtovarious
ERBs.Singhetal.(2007)exploredindividualecotourist’slevelofenvironmental
3
commitment,attitudestowardtheenvironment,environmentalknowledgeand
environmentalbehaviorsduringtwobirdingfestivalsinasouthernstateoftheUSA.
Basedontheirfindings,participationinastructuredecotourismexperience(i.e.
organized,service-oriented)canfoster“activism”behaviorsthatsupport
environmentalconservationthroughthreespecificactivities:volunteeringat
wildlifeand/ornaturevenues,contributingfinanciallytoconservationeffortsand
educatingothersabouttheimportanceofwildlifeandnature.PowellandHam
(2008)suggestthatwell-designedanddeliveredenvironmentalinterpretation
duringanecotourismexperiencecanincreaseenvironmentalknowledgeofa
naturalarea,attitudestowardsenvironmentalissuesaffectinganaturalareaand
ERBintentionsincludingphilanthropicsupportofconservationefforts.
Furthermore,Lee(2011)measuredERBbasedonplaceattachment(i.e.apositive
ornegativerelationshipthatapersonhaswithaspecificlocation),recreation
involvement(i.e.thedegreetowhichanecotouristengagesinaspecificactivity)
andconservationcommitment(i.e.willingnesstosupportconservationeffortsover
aspecifictimeperiod).Lee’s(2011)studyofecotouristsvisitingwetlandsinTaiwan
foundthatallthreevariablesdirectlyorindirectlypredictedERBs.Chiuetal.(2014)
proposedabehavioralmodelinwhichperceivedvalue,satisfaction,andactivity
involvementduringanecotourismexperiencedirectlyinfluencedecotourists’ERB.
Chiuetal(2014)measuredERBusingsevenitemssuchasacceptanceofrulesand
regulationsofthewetland,localeconomiccontributions,recycling,ormaintaining
localenvironmentalquality.Chiuetal.’s(2014)studyfoundthatthesepredictors
ledtoERB,emphasizingthatperceivedvalueisastrongpredictorofsatisfaction
andactivityinvolvement,andisanecessaryfirststeptowardsERB.
AlthoughtheabovestudiesfoundlinksbetweenecotourismparticipationandERB,
otherstudieshavenot.Forexample,Kersetter,HouandLin(2004)exploredthe
motivationsoftouristsduringanecotourismexcursioninthewetlandsofTaiwan.A
factoranalysisrevealedthreetypesofmotivationsthatwereusedtoprofilethree
distinctgroupsoftourists(i.e.experience-tourists,learning-touristsandecotourists).TheythencomparedthesegroupsusingnineERBintentions.Theresults
showedthatexperience-touristswerelesslikelytoindicatetheirintentionto
engageinERBs(e.g.purchaseenvironmentallyfriendlyproductsorhelpmaintain
localenvironmentalquality)whencomparedto“eco”seekers(Kersetteretal.,
2004).Theirresultsalsosuggestthatdomestic(Taiwanese)touristsmaynotview
environmentalconservationeffortsatthelocalsiteastheirresponsibility.Similarly,
LeeandMoscardo(2005)exploredecotourists’environmentalknowledge,
awareness,attitudesandbehavioralintentionsduringanecotourismexperiencein
Australia.Usingapre-andpost-testdesign,theirstudyfailedtofindevidencethat
ecotourisminfluencedecotourists’environmentalattitudes,beliefs,orbehavioral
intentionstoengageinenvironmentallyfriendlytravelchoices(Lee&Moscardo,
2005).
Finally,Ardoin,Wheaton,Bowers,HuntandDurham(2015)conductedasystematic
reviewof30empiricalstudiesthatexplorednature-basedtourism’sabilitytofoster
participants’long-termstewardshipbehavior.Thisreviewfocusedonthe
4
relationshipsbetweenknowledge,attitudes,intentionsandactualbehavior.The
resultsshowedthatoutof17studiesthatmeasuredERBintentions,sixstudies
reportedpositivechangesandninestudiesreportedpartiallypositivechanges
(Ardoinetal.,2015).ItisimportanttonotethatArdoinetal.(2015)wereonlyable
tocode17of21studiesthatmeasuredERBintentionsbasedontheinformation
presentinthesestudies,andofthese21studies,sevenreportednochangeinERB
intentions.Thisfurtherhighlightstheneedforadditionalresearchintothelink
betweenecotourismparticipationandERBintentions.Finally,Ardoinetal.(2015)
foundthatoutof10studiesthatmeasuredovertenvironmentalbehavior,none
reportedpositiveoutcomesacrossallmeasureditemsoratallpointsintime(i.e.
pre-,post-andfollow-upassessments);however,sevenstudiesfoundpartial
positivefindings.
Ardoinetal.(2015)suggeststhatknowledgeisbuiltonpreviousexperiences
outsideofanisolatedecotourismtripandisconstructedandreconstructedthrough
socialprocessesthatoccurbefore,duringandafteranecotourismexperience.Their
reviewcallsforresearcherstoexplorehowbothsocialandplace-basedpractices
impactanecotourismexperienceand,inturn,influencevisitor’sERB.Tobetter
understandecotourism’slinktoERBintentions,ourstudylookstoexplorethese
socialinteractionsduringanecotourismexperiencebyexploringtowhatextent
Bandura’s(1986)four-stepobservationallearningprocess,akeyelementofSocial
LearningTheory(alsocalledSocialCognitiveTheory)(Bandura,1977),explains
ecotourists’intentionstoengageinERBafteranecotourismexperience.Figure1
providesanoverviewofthehypotheticalmodelourstudysoughttotestandthe
followingparagraphsdescribeitsfeatures.
ObservationalLearning
Bandura(1986)suggeststhatbothtimeandresourceavailabilitylimitthenumber
ofsituationsandactivitiesthatindividualscandirectlyexperience.Fortunately,
however,mostpeoplealsolearnthroughobservation,includingvariousformsof
modeling(Bandura,1986).Byobservingthebehaviorofothersinagivensituation,
individualslikeecotouristscanbuildcognitivemodelsthatcaninfluencetheir
futureactionsincludingERBs.Atthesametime,ecotouristscannotmastera
behavior,suchascompostingsolelybyobservingothers.Sociallearningoriginates
fromworkbyMillardandDollard(1941),whoseresearchpositsthatlearnersmust
beprovidedwithexamplesofbehaviorandmustalsohavetheopportunityto
emulatethisexampleandreceivepositivereinforcementinreturn.Bandura
continuestoexpanduponsociallearningresearchandtheoryfrom1962tothe
present.Specifically,Bandura(1986)proposesafour-stepprocessforacquiring
newskillsthroughobservationallearning,hereferstothesestepsasattentional,
retention,productionandmotivational.
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Figure1:Bandura’s(1986)observationallearningmodel
Inthepresentstudy,wedescribeeachstepusinglanguageconsistentwithexisting
ecotourismandenvironmentalinterpretationliterature.Thus,fromthispoint
forward,thisstudywillrefertothisfour-stepprocessusingthefollowingterms
respectively:engagement,observation,reproductionandreinforcement(seeFigure2
forthehypothesizemodel).Itisimportanttonotethatforthepurposeofthisstudy,
“observationallearning”referstotheprimarytheoreticalprocessunderlyingthe
study’shypotheticmodel,whereas“observation”referstothesecondstepinthe
observationallearningprocess.Eachofthefourobservationallearningstepsare
describedingreatdetailnext:
Engagement
Individualscannotacquirenewinformationthroughobservationallearningifthey
donotrecognizeandengagewiththeessentialfeaturesofamodeledbehavior
(Bandura,1977).Ecotouristsmustthereforepayattentionandengageinselfdirectedlearningtobuildanddevelopnewmentalmodelsorperceptionsofagiven
situation.Theseperceptionsareoftenguidedbypastexperiencesorpreconceptions
ofaparticularevent(Kaplan&Kaplan,1989).Pastexperiencesdeterminewhatis
selectivelyobservedbasedonindividuals’memoryofagivensituation.Forexample,
individualsmayrememberseeingtheirtourguiderecycleduringaprevious
ecotourismexperience.Thismemorymaydeterminethedegreetowhichthey
recognizeandengageinrecyclingbehaviorsduringfutureecotourismexperiences.
InaprojectreportfortheU.S.NationalParkService,Sternetal.(2012)examined
whichenvironmentalinterpretationpracticesweremostconsistentlyassociated
withthedesiredoutcomesofparkprogramvisitors.Thereportrecommendedthree
maintypesofengagementinalistof‘bestpractices’toinforminterpretivetraining,
assessmentandmonitoringoftheprogramsavailableatU.S.NationalParks:
physical,cognitiveandverbal(Sternetal.,2012).Physicalengagementistheextent
towhichindividualecotouristsphysicallyengageinparticipatoryexperienceswith
nature(i.e.touchingorinteractingwithnaturalresources)(Sternatal.,2012).
Physicalinteractionisoftencitedasa“bestpractice”withinenvironmental
interpretationliterature(Tilden,1957;Moscardo,1999;Beck&Cable,2002;
Knudsonetal.,2003).ConsistentwithBandura’s(1986)theory,engagementcanbe
increasedbyphysicallyaccentuatingtheessentialfeaturesofanexperience,which
mayoccurwhilehikingorduringademonstration.Verbalengagementistheextent
towhichindividualecotouristsverballyengagewithtourguides,localcommunity
membersorpeerecotourists(i.e.dialogueoratwo-wayconversationsaboutan
environmentalissue)(Tilden,1957;Moscardo,1999;Beck&Cable,2002;Knudson
6
etal.,2003).Bandura(1986)suggeststhatattention-directingnarrationcanhelp
fosterengagementtowardamodeledbehavior.Cognitiveengagementistheextent
towhichindividualecotouristscognitivelyengagewiththeirexperiencebeyond
simplylistening(i.e.,useimagination,reflectionormindfulness)(Tilden,1957;
Sharpe,1976;Moscardo,1999;Beck&Cable,2002;Knudsonetal.2003;Veverka,
2011).Forexample,anecotouristmaystoptothinkabouttheenvironmental
behaviorsofothersortheymayimaginewhataspecificecotourismsiteorfeature
lookedlikeinthepast.Ourhypothesizedmodelsuggeststhatthesethreecategories
ofengagementarecriticalbecausetheyleadtotheobservationofERB.
Observation
Individualscannotbeinfluencedbymodeledbehaviorsiftheyhavenorecollection
ormemoryofthesebehaviorsoccurring(Bandura,1977).Thereareseveralways
thatanindividualrecallsimaginativesymbolsforfutureusewithinthelearning
process.Bandura(1986)presentstwosub-categoriesofobservation:imaginaland
verbal.Inimaginalobservation,whenobserversareexposedtomodeledbehaviors,
theystarttoproducestimulithroughaprocessofsensoryconditioning;through
thisprocess,vividimagesareusedforcognitiverehearsal(Bandura,1986;Bandura,
2001).Forexample,anecotouristmightrecallanimageofaspecificactivity(e.g.
hikingorrecycling),aplace(e.g.JejuIslandorBusan)orathing(e.g.litterora
waterbottle).Theseimaginativesymbolsareabstractionsofactualeventsrather
thanstoredmentalimagesofpastexperiencesorobservations(Bandura,1986)and
througharepetitiveprocess,observersbegintoformcomplexbehavioral
intentions.Thesecondsub-categoryofobservationisverbalcodingofobserved
behaviors;whichincertainsituationscanoverpowervisualprocesses(Bandura,
1986).Forexample,atouristmightobserveacompostingdemonstrationduring
theirexperience.Thedetailsofthestep-by-stepprocessdemonstratedbyarole
modelcanbelearnedandreplicatedatalatertimethroughaverbalcodedescribing
theseriesofsteps(e.g.shred,mix,waterandmove)ratherthanrecallingvisual
imagesthatoftenincludeirrelevantdetails(Bandura,1986).
Forobservationtotakeplace,theremustbearolemodeltodemonstrateadesired
behavior.Asthecentralrolemodelinmostecotourismexperiences,tourguidesare
oftendescribedasinformationproviders,sourcesofknowledge,mentors,teachers,
surrogateparents,pathfinders,leaders,mediators,culturalbrokersandeven
entertainers(McKean,1976;DeKadt,1979;Nettekoven,1979;Schuchat,1983;
Cohen,1985).Itisbecauseoftheserolesthattourguidesplaysuchimportantroles
duringanecotourismexperience(Moscardoetal.,1998;McIntosh&Prentice,1999;
Moscardoetal.,2004).Severalstudiessuggestthatecotourismparticipationthat
combinestheservicesofatourguidewithanenvironmentalinterpretationprogram
canincreaseenvironmentalawareness,knowledge,positiveattitudes,behavioral
intentionsandevenovertERBs(Powell&Ham,2008;Powelletal.,2009;Sternet
al.,2012;Skibinsetal.,2012).Existingtourismandenvironmentalinterpretation
researchfocusesprimarilyontourguidesasthekeyfacilitatorsbetweenecotourists
andtheenvironment.Ourhypotheticalmodelthereforeincludestourguidesasone
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oftherolemodelsshapingvisitorbehavior.Atthesametime,tourguidesarenot
theonlypotentialrolemodelsduringanecotouristexperience.Ourmodel
hypothesizesthatpeerecotouristsandlocalcommunitymembersmayalsoserve
theseroles.
Reproduction
Duringreproduction,conceptualmodelsofobservedbehaviorsguidelearners’
actionandtheyhavetheopportunitytorehearsemodeledbehaviors.Forexample,
ecotouristsmusthavetheopportunitytoobserveanotherecotouristrecycling
beforetheymaychoosetopracticerecycling.Learnersmustpracticethesemodeled
behaviorsiftheyaretoreplicatethematalaterpointintime(Bandura,
1977).Duringanecotourismexperience,theprocessofobservationallearning
reliesheavilyonindividuals’abilitytoreconstructandperformmodeledbehaviors
thatwillthenbecomparedwiththeirconceptualmodelforaccuracy(Bandura,
2001).Thiscomparisoncancomeintheformofreinforcement(i.e.,positiveor
negativefeedback)fromtheoriginalrolemodelorotherrolemodels.Itisimportant
tonotethatwhileourstudymeasuredself-reportedreproductivebehavior,weare
specificallyinterestedinhowtheoverallprocessofobservationallearningandits
underlyingvariablesinfluenceERBintentions.
Reinforcement
Reinforcementsuggeststhatindividualsmayacquiretheknowledgeorskills
necessaryforaccuratereproductionofmodeledbehaviors,butthislearningalone
maynotbeenoughtoadoptthesebehaviorsiftheindividualreceivesnegative
feedbackafterperformanceofthisbehavior(Bandura,1977).AccordingtoBandura
(1986),peopledonotalwaysturnknowledgeorskillsintoaction,especiallywhen
thebehaviorhaslittlerelevancetoindividuals’dailylife.However,when
individualsreceivepositivereinforcement,modeledbehaviorsthatwouldotherwise
notbeengagedin,mayturnintoaction(Bandura,1986).Ecotouristsofteninteract
withawiderangeofactorsthroughouttheirexperience(i.e.tourguides,local
communitymembers,peerecotourists)andtheseexchangesresultinvarioussocial
reactions.Socialreactionscanrangefromanegative(i.e.disapprovalorexpressed
angertowardsomeonewholitters)topositive(i.e.praiseofsomeoneusinga
reusablewaterbottle).Inthepresentstudy,socialreactionsweremeasuredto
assessthereinforcementorfeedbackecotourists’receivedforERBsduringtheir
ecotourismexperience.
Aspartofourhypothesizedmodel,weexploretheextenttowhichreproductionmay
directlyinfluencereinforcementaswellastheextenttowhichreproductionand
reinforcementmaydirectlyinfluenceERBintentions.Evenwithoutreinforcement,
reproductionmayleadtoERBintentionsaftertheecotourismexperience.Consistent
withresearchontemporalspillovereffects,anERBperformedintime1mayaffect
thesamebehaviorattime2,resultinginincreased(ordecreased)actionofthe
originalbehavior(Nilsson,Berquist&Schultz,2016).Furtherresearchsuggeststhat
8
ifindividualsdevelopasenseof‘pro-environmentalidentity’afterperformingan
ERB,thenpositivespilloversaremorelikelytooccurinthefuture(VanderWerff,
StegandKeizer,2014).Forexample,aftercontributingfinanciallytoalocal
conservationprojectduringanecotourismexperience,anecotouristmayidentifyas
a‘pro-environmentalecotourist,’whichmayresultinapositivetemporalspillover
(i.e.contributingfundstootherconservationprogramsinthefuture.)Incontrast,
thesameecotouristmayfeelasiftheydidtheir‘share’ofworktowardprotecting
theenvironmentthroughtheiroriginalfinancialcontributionandwilltherefore
abstainfromcontributingfundstowardconservationprogramsinthefuture,
causingnegativetemporalspillover.Thepresentstudyacknowledgesthepotential
effectoftemporalspilloveronourhypothesizedmodelthroughtheinclusionofa
directpathfromreproductiontoERBintentions.
PresentStudy
Observationallearningwithinthecontextofecotourismhasnotbeenexplicitly
exploredtodate.Toaddressthisgapandimportantly,inlightofthepotentialthe
four-stepobservationallearningprocesshasforinforminghowecotourism
programscanfosterERBsduringandaftertheseexperiences,ourstudysetoutto
investigatethehypothesizedrelationshipsbetweenengagement,observation,
reproduction,reinforcementandERBintentions(Figure2).Theprimarypurposeof
thisstudyistoapplyBandura’s(1986)four-stepprocessforobservationallearning
withinanecotourismsettingtoexaminetowhatextentthisprocesspredicts
ecotourists’environmentallyresponsiblebehavioralintentions.
Bandura (1986)
Attentional
Retention
H1
Physical
Engagement
Production
TourGuide
Observa5on
Motivational
Reinforcement
H2
H3
H10
H13
H14
H4
Verbal
Engagement
Community
Observa5on
H5
H11
Reproduc5on
H15
H6
H12
H7
Cogni5ve
Engagement
Environmentally
Responsible
Behavioral
Inten5on
H8
H9
Ecotourist
Observa5on
Figure2:Thisstudy’sEcotouristObservationalLearningModel
9
METHOD
StudySites
FivestudysitesinKoreawereselectedfordatacollection.Thesesitesareconsistent
withthestudy’sdefinitionofecotourismastraveltoapredominantlynature-based
destinationthatemphasizesenvironmentaleducation,enjoyment,andappreciation
ofanaturalorculturalresourceinamannerthatpromotesecological,socio-cultural
andeconomicsustainability.ThreesiteswerelocatedonJejuIslandandtwositesin
thesouthernregionofmainlandKorea.JejuIslandisdesignatedasaUNESCO
WorldNaturalHeritageSite,recognizedunderUNESCO’sManandtheBiosphere
(MAB)ProgrammeandiscertifiedasoneoftheUNESCOGlobalGeoparks.
OneofthethreeJejusitesisDongBaekDongSan,alsoknownasSeaonheul
Gotjawal.Saeonheulisdesignatedasan“ecotourismvillage”byEcotourismKorea
andisalsoadesignatedRamsarConventionWetland.Itisknownforcommunitybasedecotourismcenteredonthewetlandecosystemandtheculturalhistoryofthe
area.
AnotheroneofthethreeJejusitesisGeomunOreum.AlsodesignatedaUNESCO
WorldNaturalHeritageSite,GeomunOreumisknownforitsancientvolcanicrock
formations,pristineforestsandpopularbreedinggroundsforlocalbirds.The
MinistryofEnvironmentselectedGeomunOreumasoneofthe“20Ecotourism
Destinations”in2009andasoneofthe“10KoreanEcotourismModels”in2010.
Thislocationisfamousfortrekkingamongancientvolcaniccratersandthrough
archaiclavacaves.
ThethirdJejulocationistheJeojioreuminJeoji-ri.ThissiteispartoftheJejuIsland
UNESCOcertificationsandfeaturesscenichikingopportunitiesthroughanetwork
ofpublictrails.
Thefourthstudysite,NakdonggangRiverEstuary,alsoknownasElsukdoMigratory
BirdPark,islocatednearthecityofBusan,inthesouthernpartoftheKorean
mainland.ElsukdoiscertifiedbyEcotourismKoreaasan“ecotourismsite”andwas
designatedasoneofthe25WondersofNatureatthe2012IUCNWorld
ConservationCongressinKorea(2012WorldConservationCongress&Korean
MinistryofEnvironment,2012).Elsukdoiscomprisedofreedbeds,mudflatsand
sanddunes,whichprovideshelterandhabitatforawiderangeofmigratorybirds.
UpoWetlands,thefifthstudysite,islocatedinChangnyeounginthesouthernpart
oftheKoreanPeninsula.UpowasdesignatedanEcologyProtectionAreain1997
andregisteredasaRamsarConventionWetlandin1998(Ramsar,2016).Itisalsoa
WetlandsProtectionArea,aNaturalMonumentandwasnamedoneofthe25
WondersofNatureatthe2012IUCNWorldConservationCongress.Many
ecotouristsvisitthissiteforbirdwatchingandhikinginthislargestKoreanwetland
10
Sample
Dataforthisstudywerecollectedfromaconveniencesampleofecotouristsdrawn
fromthefivestudysitesoverthreemonthsduringsummer2015.Ecotourists
willingtoparticipateinthestudyreceivedandcompletedthequestionnaireatthe
endoftheireco-tour.Intotal,391ecotouristswereapproachedand232
questionnaireswerecollected,resultingina59%responserate.Afterremoving
incompletequestionnaires,thefinalsamplesizewas207.
Table1summarizesselectrespondentcharacteristics.Themajorityofrespondents
werefemale.Withonlyoneexception,ourentiresamplewasKorean.Theages
variedgreatly,butthepluralityofrespondentswerebetween35-44yearsold.
Incomerangedfromlessthan$30,000togreaterthan$100,000withthemajorityof
respondentsfallingbetween$30,001and$100,000peryear.Themajorityhada
bachelor’sdegreeandalmostallofourparticipantsweremembersofan
environmentalorganization.Formany,thiswastheirfirstecotourismexperience,
butthemajorityhadparticipatedinanecotourismexcursiononeormoretimes.
Abouthalfofoursampletookadaytripandtherestweredistributedbetween1-6
ormoredays.
11
Table1:EcotouristProfile
Variables
Gender(n=205)
Male
Female
I'drathernotsay
CountryofOrigin(n=205)
Korea
UnitedStatesofAmerica
Other
Age(n=205)
18-24
25-34
35-44
45-54
55andolder
Income(n=200)
<$30,000
$30,001-50,000
$50,001-100,000
>$100,001
Education(n=201)
Secondaryschool
Highschooldiploma
Bachelor'sdegree
Master'sdegree
Doctoratedegreeorhigher
EnvironmentalOrg.Membership(n=207)
Yes
No
PreviousEcotourismExperience(n=203)
Firsttime
1time
2times
3-4times
5-6times
7ormoretimes
DurationofExperience(n=207)
DayTrip
1night,2days
2nights,3days
3nights,4days
4nights,5days
5nights,6saysorlonger
Other
12
Frequency
Percentage(%)
84
119
2
41
58
1
203
1
1
99
<1
<1
25
41
70
41
28
12
20
34
20
14
50
62
59
29
25
31
30
14
4
37
126
25
9
2
18
63
12
5
188
19
91
9
52
33
50
42
7
19
26
16
25
21
3
9
112
16
22
17
8
17
15
54
8
11
8
4
8
7
MeasurementScales
ThequestionnairewedevelopedwasoriginallyinEnglish,andthentranslatedinto
Korean.Itwasalsoback-translatedintoEnglishtoensurethateachitemwas
translatedconceptuallyandculturally,ratherthanliterally(Sperber,2004).
ThedraftquestionnairewassharedwithfiveecotourismprofessionalsinKoreaand
revisedbasedonfeedbackregardingcontentandculturalcompatibility.The
instrumentconsistedprimarilyofclosed-endedquestions.
Nineitemsweredevelopedtomeasurethelevelofphysicalengagement(i.e.
physicallyinteractingwitharesource),cognitiveengagement(i.e.thinkingaboutthe
environmentalbehaviorsofothers)andverbalengagement(i.e.havinganinformal
conversationaboutenvironmentalissues)ofecotouristsvisitingthestudysites.
TheseitemswerebasedonthefindingsofSternetal.(2012).Elevenitemswere
createdtomeasuretour-guide,communityandecotouristobservation(i.e.observing
demonstratedERBsfromthreetypesoftourguides,localcommunitymembersand
ecotouristsrespectively).Ninereproduction(i.e.producingERBsduringecotourism
participation)itemswereadaptedfromstudiesofERBinecotourism(Lee&
Moscardo,2005;Powell&Ham,2008;Chiuetal.,2014;Kiletal.,2014).The29
engagement,observationandreproductionitemsweremeasuredusingaseven-point
Likertscalerangingfrom(1)neverto(7)frequently(Wade,2006).Thesix
reinforcement(i.e.whetherornotecotouristsreceivedpositivereinforcementfrom
others)itemswerealsodevelopedbasedonexistingstudiesofERBinecotourism
(Lee&Moscardo,2005;Powell&Ham,2008;Chiuetal.,2014;Kiletal.,2014).This
factorwasmeasuredusingaseven-pointLikertscale,rangingfrom(1)strongly
disagreeto(7)stronglyagree.Environmentallyresponsiblebehavioralintentions(i.e.
intentiontoengageinERBswithinoneyearofcompletingtheecotour)included14
itemsbasedonstudiesbySmith-SebastoandD’Costa(1995),Lee&Moscardo,
(2005),Powell&Ham(2008),Chiuetal.(2014),andKiletal.(2014).Aseven-point
Likertscalewasusedtomeasurerespondents’likelihoodofengaginginthese
specificERBsoverthenextyear.Thisscalerangedfrom(1)extremelyunlikelyto
(7)extremelylikely.Severalsustainabletourismstudiessuggestacorrelation
betweenERBintentionsandERB(Smith,Broad,&Weiler,2008;Ballantyne,Packer,
andFalk,2011;Hughes,2013).
Analysis
AfterPearson’scorrelationcoefficientsbetweenthestudy’sfactorsverifiedthatthe
respectiveconstructs’measureswerecorrelatedwitheachother(seeAppendix1,
Table5),confirmatoryfactoranalyseswereconductedusingStatav.14.The
observedvariableswerefoundtomeasurethestudy’slatentvariablesofinterest
(Harrington,2008),withfactorsloadingsrangingfrom0.48to0.97(Table2).
ReliabilitieswerealsostrongwithCronbach’sαrangingfrom0.78to0.92.Factor
meanswereincludedinthesubsequentpathanalysis,whichwasalsoconducted
usingStatav.14.Thepathanalysisexploredtowhatextenttheconstructsinthe
13
hypothesizedmodeldirectlyandindirectlyexplainedtourist’senvironmentally
responsiblebehavioralintentions.Modificationindiceswereusedtodevelopthefinal
model.ModelfitwasassessedusingComparativeFitIndex(CFI),TuckerLewis
Index(TLI)andRootMeanSquareErrorofApproximation(RMSEA)(Kline,2011).
TheCFIshouldbeabove0.95andRMSEAlessthan0.08foragoodmodelfit(Hu&
Bentler,1999)andTLIshouldnotbebelow0.9(Hu&Bentler,1999).
14
Table2.Confirmatoryfactoranalysisresultsforallfactors
PhysicalEngagement(FactorName:PhysEngagement)
Howoftendidyouexperiencethefollowingactivitiesduringyoucurrentecotourismexperience...
…Hikedwithatour-guidewithinanaturalarea
…Hikedwithotherecotouristswithinanautralarea
…Hikedwithinanaturalareawherelocalcommunitymemberswerepresent
Chronbach'sAlpha
VerbalEngagement(FactorName:VerbEngagement)
Howoftendidyouexperiencethefollowingactivitiesduringyoucurrentecotourismexperience…
…Aninformaldiscussionwithatourguideaboutenvironmentalissues
…Aninformaldiscussionwithotherecotouristsaboutenvironmentalissues
…Aninformaldiscussionwithlocalcommunitymembersaboutenvironmentalissues
Chronbach'sAlpha
CognitiveEngagement(FactorName:CogEngagement)
Howoftendidyouexperiencethefollowingactivitiesduringyoucurrentecotourismexperience…
…Thoughtabouttheenvironmentalbehaviorsdemonstratedbtthetourguide
…Thoughtabouttheenvironmentalbehaviorsdemonstratedbyotherecotourists
…Thoughtabouttheenvironmentalbehaviorsdemonstratedbylocalcommunitymembers
Chronbach'sAlpha
TourGuideObservation(FactorName:GuideObservation)
Howoftendidyouobservethefollowingbehaviorsduringyoucurrentecotourismexperience…
…Thetourguiderecycling
…Thetourguideteachingothersabouttheenvironment
…Thetourguideconservingwater(e.g.usingminimalwatertowashhands)
…Thetourguidedemonstratingcompostingtechniques
…Thetourguideconservingenergy(e.g.turingingofflightswhenleavingaroom)
Chronbach'sAlpha
CommunityObservation(FactorName:CommObservation)
Howoftendidyouobservethefollowingbehaviorsduringyoucurrentecotourismexperience…
…Localcommunitymembersconservingwater
…Localcommunitymembersrecycling
…Localcommunitymembersgardening(e.g.vegetablesorflowers)
Chronbach'sAlpha
OtherEcotouristObservation(FactorName:TouristObservation)
Howoftendidyouobservethefollowingbehaviorsduringyoucurrentecotourismexperience…
…Otherecotouristsusingresusablecontainersforwater
…Otherecotouristspickinguplitter
…Otherecotouristsreadingbooks,publicationsandothermaterialaboutenvironmentalissues
Chronbach'sAlpha
Reproduction(FactorName:Reproduction)
Howoftendidyouengageinthefollowingbehaviorduringyourcurrentecotourismexperience…
…Readbooks,publicationsandothermateralaboutenvironmentalissues
…Pickeduplitterofftheground
…Recycled
…Compostedbiodegradablewaste
…Conservedwater(e.g.turningoffthetapwhilebrushingteeth)
…Conservedenergy(e.g.turningoffthelightswhenleavingaroom)
...Financiallycontributedtolocalconservationefforts
…Encouragedotherecotouriststoprotecttheenvironment
…Encouragedlocalcommunitymemberstoprotecttheenvironment
Chronbach'sAlpha
Reinforcement(FactorName:Reinforcement)
Towhatextentdoyouagreewiththefollowingstatementsaboutyourcurrentecotourismexperience:
…Thetourguideofferedpositiverecognitiontothosewhousedreusablewaterbottles
…Thetourguideofferedpositiverecognitiontothosewhorecycled
…Localcommunitymembersofferedpositiverecognitiontothosewhoconservedresources(e.g.waterandenergy)
…Localcommunitymembersofferedpositiverecognitiontothosewhopickeduplitter
…Otherecotouristsofferedpositiverecognitiontothosewhofinanciallycontributedtolocalconservationefforts
…Otherecotouristsofferedpositiverecognitiontothosewhoreadbooks,publicationsandothermaterialabout
enviornmentalissues
Chronbach'sAlpha
Environmentallyresponsiblebehavioralintention(FactorName:Intention)
Howlikelyisitthatyouwillengageinthefollowingbehaviorswithinthenextyear…
…Readbooks,publicationsandothermateralaboutenvironmentalissues
…WatchTVprogramsordocumentariesaboutenvironmentalissues
…Enrollinanature-basededucationalprogram
…Sortmytrashtoseparateno-recyclablematerialfromrecyclablematerial
…Usereusablecontainers(e.g.waterbottles)
…Encourageotherstoprotectthenaturalenvironment
…Encourageotherstoengageineco-friendlytravel
Chronbach'sAlpha
15
FactorScore
0.87
0.86
0.48
0.78
0.81
0.99
0.74
0.87
0.85
0.92
0.89
0.92
0.76
0.69
0.88
0.81
0.78
0.89
0.78
0.8
0.97
0.89
0.69
0.77
0.79
0.78
0.65
0.65
0.66
0.72
0.64
0.59
0.74
0.72
0.65
0.89
0.88
0.91
0.92
0.72
0.69
0.7
0.92
0.66
0.76
0.68
0.72
0.7
0.76
0.8
0.89
RESULTS
Descriptivestatistics
Participatingecotouristsreportedamoderatelevelofphysicalandcognitive
engagementandslightlylowerlevelofverbalengagementduringtheirecotourism
experience(means=3.48,3.65,2.94respectively).Thethreeobservationfactors
wereratedmoderatelyaswell,withcommunityobservationandecotourist
observationratedslightlyhigherthantourguideobservation(means=3.84,3.68and
3.15,respectively).Reproductionwasreportednearthemiddleofthescale(mean=
3.91).Reinforcementandenvironmentallyresponsiblebehavioralintentionwere
higher(means=5.67and4.92respectively)(see).
Table3:DescriptiveStatisticsforallfactors
FactorName
PhysicalEngagement
VerbalEngagement
CognitiveEngagement
TourGuideObservation
CommunityObservation
EcotouristObersvation
Reproduction
n
196
190
198
192
192
195
205
Mean
3.48
2.94
3.65
3.15
3.84
3.68
3.91
StandardDeviation
1.63
1.68
1.85
1.61
1.75
1.61
1.42
Reinforcement
207
5.67
1.12
EnvironmentallyResponsible
BehavioralIntention
207
4.92
1.32
ResponseOptions
Never(1)-Frequently(7)
Never(1)-Frequently(7)
Never(1)-Frequently(7)
Never(1)-Frequently(7)
Never(1)-Frequently(7)
Never(1)-Frequently(7)
Never(1)-Frequently(7)
StronglyDisagree(1)-
StronglyAgree(7)
ExtremelyUnlikely(1)-
ExtremelyLikely(7)
16
R2=.43
Physical
Engagement
.29***(.09)
.1(.09)
R2=.06
TourGuide
Observa5on
.22*(.01)
Reinforcement
.32***(.06)
.29***(.06)
.25***(.07)
R2=.42
.25**(.09)
Verbal
Engagement
Community
Observa5on
.02(.09)
.12(.08)
R2=.53
R2=.19
Reproduc5on
Environmentally
Responsible
Behavioral
Inten5on
.26***(.06)
-.06(.1)
.18*(.09)
R2=.31
Cogni5ve
Engagement
.56***(.08)
.42***(.1)
.4***(.07)
Ecotourist
Observa5on
CFI=.97,TLI=.94,RMSEA=0.07,χ2=30.25,p=0.01
OIMstandarderrorsarepresentedinparentheses.
Thepathsizeissta5s5callysignificantat*p<0.05**p<0.01***p<0.001H0:Standardizedpathcoefficient=0.
Figure3.EcotouristObservationalLearningModelresults
Goodness-of-fitindicesindicatedastrongmodelfit(CFI=0.97,TLI=0.94,
RMSEA=0.07,χ2=30.25,p=0.01)(Figure2).Almostallfactorswerepredictedquite
well(R2range:.31-.53),withtheexceptionofreinforcement(R2=.06).Onlyfourof
the15hypothesizeddirectpathswerenotstatisticallysignificant(i.e.,physical
engagement->communityobservation,verbalengagement->community&
ecotouristobservation,communityobservation->reproduction.)(Figure3,Table4).
Table4providesanoverviewofthefactors’directandindirecteffectsinthepath
model.Thefollowingparagraphsaddressresultstheseresultsingreaterdetail.
17
Table4:Summaryofdirectandtotaleffectsforfactorsinthefinalpathmodel
DIRECTEffects
Standardized
p
Coefficient
OutcomeVariable
<-PredictorVariable
CommunityObservation
<-PhysicalEngagement
0.1
0.26
<-VerbalEngagement
0.02
0.83
<-CognitiveEngagement
0.56
0.000***
TourGuideObservation
<-PhysicalEngagement
0.29
0.001***
<-VerbalEngagement
0.25
0.01**
<-CognitiveEngagement
0.18
0.04*
EcotouistObservation
<-PhysicalEngagement
0.22
0.02*
<-VerbalEngagement
-0.06
0.59
<-CognitiveEngagement
0.42
0.000***
Reproduction
<-CommunityObservation
0.12
0.13
<-TourGuideObservation
0.32
0.000***
<-EcotouristObservation
0.4
0.000***
<-PhysicalEngagement
n/a
n/a
<-VerbalEngagement
n/a
n/a
<-CognitiveEngagement
n/a
n/a
Reinforcement
<-CommunityObservation
n/a
n/a
<-TourGuideObservation
n/a
n/a
<-EcotouristObservation
n/a
n/a
<-PhysicalEngagement
n/a
n/a
<-VerbalEngagement
n/a
n/a
<-CognitiveEngagement
n/a
n/a
<-Reproduction
0.25
0.000***
EnvironmentallyResponsibleBehavioralIntention
<-CommunityObservation
n/a
n/a
<-TourGuideObservation
n/a
n/a
<-EcotouristObservation
n/a
n/a
<-PhysicalEngagement
n/a
n/a
<-VerbalEngagement
n/a
n/a
<-CognitiveEngagement
n/a
n/a
<-Reproduction
0.26
0.000***
<-Reinforcement
0.29
0.000***
2
OverallR
*p<0.05**p<0.01***p<0.001
H0:Standardizedmeancoefficient=0
18
INDIRECTEffects
Standardized
p
Coefficient
R2
0.42
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
0.43
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
0.31
0.53
n/a
n/a
n/a
0.19
0.06
0.29
n/a
n/a
n/a
0.003**
0.4
0.000***
0.06
0.03
0.08
0.1
0.05
0.01
0.07
n/a
0.13
0.000***
0.000***
0.02*
0.4
.006**
n/a
0.19
0.04
0.11
0.13
0.06
0.02
0.1
0.08
n/a
0.13
0.000***
0.000***
0.000***
0.41
0.001***
0.000***
n/a
0.55
Engagement
EcotourismEngagementsub-factors(i.e.Physical,VerbalandCognitive)mostly
predictedObservationsub-factors(i.e.Community,TourGuideandPeerEcotourists)
withsixsignificantpathsandthreenon-significantpaths.Ecotourists’levelof
CognitiveEngagementhadarelativelystrongrelationshipwiththeirlevelof
CommunityObservation(β =0.56,p<0.001)andEcotouristObservation(β =0.42,p
<0.001),andarelativelysmallassociationwithTourGuideObservation(β = 0.18,p
>0.04).Themodelindicatedthatecotourists’levelofPhysicalEngagementis
moderatelyassociatedwithbothTourGuideObservation(β =0.29,p<0.001)and
EcotouristObservation(β =0.22,p<0.02).Ecotourists’levelofVerbalEngagementis
alsomoderatelyassociatedwithTourGuideObservation(β =0.25,p<0.01),buthas
nostatisticalassociationwithCommunityObservationorEcotouristObservation.
ThemodelalsoshowedthatEngagementsub-factors(i.e.Physical,Verbaland
Cognitive)indirectlypredictedReproduction,ReinforcementandERBIntentions.
CognitiveEngagement(indirecteffectsβ=0.29,p<0.000)andPhysicalEngagement
(indirecteffectsβ=0.19,p<0.003)indirectlypredictedReproduction.Similarly,
PhysicalEngagement(indirecteffectsβ=0.05,p<0.02)andCognitiveEngagement
(indirecteffectsβ=0.07±0.006)hadaverysmall,butpositive,indirectassociation
withReinforcement,whichweremediatedbyEcotouristObservation,TourGuide
ObservationandReproduction.Finally,PhysicalEngagement(indirecteffectsβ=
0.06,p<0.000)andCognitiveEngagement(indirecteffectsβ=0.1,p<0.001)also
hadaverysmallindirectassociationwithERBIntentions.
Observation
TwoofthreedirectpathsfromObservationsub-factorstoReproductionwere
significant.Ecotourists’levelofEcotouristObservation(β =0.4,p<0.001)andTour
GuideObservation(β =0.32,p<0.001)hadamoderateassociationwiththeirlevel
ofReproduction.CommunityObservation’sdirectpathtoReproductionwasnot
significant.ThemodelalsoindicatedthatbothTourGuideObservation(indirect
effectsβ=0.08,p<0.001)andEcotouristObservation(indirecteffectsβ=0.1,p<
0.001)hadasmallindirectassociationwithReinforcementmediatedby
Reproduction.Additionally,thesametwoObservationfactorsindirectlypredicted
ERBIntentionswithTourGuideObservation(indirecteffectsβ=0.11,p<0.001)and
EcotouristObservation(indirecteffectsβ=0.13,p<0.001)havingsimilarlysmall
andindirectassociationswithERBIntentions.CommunityObservationdidnothave
anysignificantindirectpaths.
Reproduction
Ecotourists’levelofReproductionmoderatelypredictedReinforcement(β=0.25,p<
0.001).Additionally,ecotourists’levelofReproduction,bothdirectly(β=0.26,p<
19
0.001)andindirectly(indirecteffectsβ=0.08,p<0.001),predictedERBIntentions,
resultinginamoderatetotalrelationship(β=0.34,p<0.001).
Reinforcement
Ecotourists’levelofReinforcementmoderatelypredictedtheirlevelofERB
Intentions(β=0.29,p<0.001).
EnvironmentallyResponsibleBehavioralIntentions
Ourstudy’smaindependentvariable,ERBIntentionswasdirectlyandindirectly
predictedbymanyofthefactorsinthefinalmodel(seeFigure3andTable4).As
discussedearlier,bothReproduction(β=0.26,p<0.001)andReinforcement(β=
0.29,p<0.001)directlypredictedERBIntentions.Additionally,therearefive
predictorvariablesthathadsmallindirectrelationshipswithERBIntentions:
PhysicalEngagement(indirecteffectsβ=0.06,p<0.000),CognitiveEngagement
(indirecteffectsβ=0.1,p<0.001),TourGuideObservation(indirecteffectsβ=0.11,
p<0.001),EcotouristObservation(indirecteffectsβ=0.13,p<0.001)and
Reproduction(indirecteffectsβ=0.08,p<0.001).Theseindirecteffectsstemfrom
allpriorsignificantanddirectpathspresentedinthefinalmodel(seeFigure3and
Table4).
DISCUSSION
TheprimarypurposeofthisstudywastoapplyAlbertBandura’s(1986)four-step
processforobservationallearningwithinanecotourismsetting,andtoexamineto
whatextentthisprocessmaypredictecotourists’environmentallyresponsible
behavioral(ERB)intentions.Resultsshowedthatobservationallearning(i.e.
engagement,observation,reproductionandreinforcement)isakeydeterminantof
ecotourists’ERBintentions.Ourfindingslendadditionalevidencetoresearch
suggestingthatecotourismcanleadtoERBandfillanimportanttheoreticalgapby
explaininghowtheseexperiencescanleadtoERBs;i.e.throughobservational
learning(Bandura,1986).Ourstudyaddsadditionalinsighttoagrowingbodyof
literaturethatexploresthelinkbetweenecotourismparticipationandERB(Lee&
Moscardo,2005;Powell&Ham,2008;Lee,2011;Chiu,Lee&Chen,2014,Ardoinet
al.,2015).ThesestudiesexploredarangeoffactorsthatinfluenceERBs,including
individualcharacteristics,cognition,affect,andsocialnorms(Cottrell,2003;
Hungerford&Volk,1990)andappliedseveralwell-researchedbehavioraltheories
(i.e.AjzenandFishbein’s(1980)TheoryofReasonedActionorAjzen’s(1991)
TheoryofPlannedBehavior).OurEcotouristObservationalLearningModel
providesadditionalinsightintotheprocessesthatdrivethedevelopmentofERBs
throughecotourismparticipation.Specifically,ourstudysoughttofillatheoretical
gapwithinecotourismscholarshipbyoperationalizingBandura’s(1986)
observationallearningprocesswithinthecontextofecotourism.
20
Fillingthetheoreticalgap,observationallearninginecotourismanditsrolein
predictingERBintentions
AssuggestedbyBandura’s(1986)observationallearningtheoryandconfirmedby
ourempiricalresults,ecotourists’intentiontoengageinERBsafteranecotourism
experienceisinfluencedthroughtheirobservationallearningofERBsduringthe
experience.Furthermore,resultsshowedtheneedforecotouriststobeactively
engagedinERBsduringtheirexperienceiftheyaretolearnthroughobservation.
ThesefindingssupportBandura’s(1986)claimthatindividualsmustbeengaged
withtheessentialfeaturesofamodeledbehavioriftheyaretolearnfromit.The
levelofphysicalengagement(i.e.physicallyinteractingwithanaturalresource)had
apositiveassociationwithecotourists’self-reportedobservationofbothtourguides
andpeerecotouristsdemonstratingERBs.Thefinalmodelalsosuggestedthat
verbalengagement(i.e.havinganinformaldiscussionaboutenvironmentalissues)
significantlyinfluencedself-reportedobservationoftour-guidesdemonstrated
ERBs.Thismaybeduetothespecialrelationshipbetweenecotouristsandtheirtour
guide,ashighlightedbyWeilerandHam(2002).Furthermore,cognitiveengagement
(i.e.thinkingaboutERBsofothers)wasastrongpredictorofallthreetypesof
potentialobservations(i.e.,guides,peers,communitymembers),suggestingthat
ecotouristswhoactivelythinkaboutothers’ERBsareprimedtoobservedthem
whentheyaremodeled.Itshouldbenotedthatallformsofengagement(i.e.,
physical,verbal,cognitive)weresignificantpredictorsofobservingtourguides’and
peers’actions.ThesefindingsmaybeattributabletoKoreanculture(>99%ofour
samplewereKoreanecotourists).AsLeeetal.(2012)suggest,Koreanvisitorsare
highlymotivatedtolearn,tohelpthemadvanceinthiscompetitiveEastAsian
society.Koreanecotouristslikelyviewtheirtourguideasateacherandpeer
ecotouristsascompetition,astheyfirmlybelievethatlearningwillhelpthem
advancesocially(Leeetal.,2012).Thisculturalmanifestationmaybeonepossible
explanationforthepowerfulrolethatobservationplayedinourmodel.Atthesame
time,researchalsosuggeststhatinterpretivetourguides’behaviorscaninfluence
participants’ERBintentionsandovertERBsintheUSA(Sternetal,2012).
Contrarytoexpectations,observingcommunitymembersdidnothavestatistically
significantrelationshipswithecotourists’levelofphysicalorverbalengagementor
withtheirreproductionofERBsduringtheirexperience.Onepossibleexplanation
forthisfindingisthatsinceourpathmodelincludedinteractionswithtourguides
andecotourists(i.e.tourguideobservationandecotouristobservation),the
observationsoflocalcommunitymembers(communityobservation)mayhavebeen
overshadowed.Asstatedearlier,thereisaspecialrelationshipexistsbetweentour
guidesandecotourists(WeilerandHam,2002),whichmayofferanotherpossible
explanationastowhyinteractionswithlocalcommunitymemberswerenotas
influentialonecotourists’ERBintentionsastheirrelationshipwithtourguidesand
eachother.
21
ImplicationsforEcotourismPrograms
Proponentsofecotourismbelievethatwhentravelispredominantlynature-based
andemphasizesenvironmentaleducation,enjoyment,andappreciationofnaturalor
culturalresources,itcanpromoteecological,socio-culturalandeconomic
sustainabilityinthatecotourismsetting(Blamey,2001;Weaver,2002;Weaver&
Lawton,2007;Leeetal.,2012).Toachievesustainableoutcomesasaresultof
ecotourismandbuildamoreenvironmentallyresponsibleconstituency,itis
importantthatecotourismstakeholders,includingprogrammanagersandtour
guidesunderstandtheimplicationsthatvariousrolemodelshaveonecotourists’
ERBsduringecotourismparticipationandplanaccordingly.How,forexample,can
programmanagersensurethatpotentialrolemodelsforecotouristsaremodeling
desiredERBs?Inaddition,itappearstobeespeciallyimportantthattourguidesbe
encouragedtomodelERBsthroughouttheecotourismexperience,encourage
ecotouriststoengageinsimilarERBs,andofferpositivereinforcementwhen
ecotouristsperformtheseERBs.Lastly,ourstudysuggeststhatengaging
participantsinmultisensory(i.e.physical,cognitive&verbal)playsanimportant
roleinultimatelyleadingtoERBintentions.Tourguidesthereforewillrequire
professionaldevelopmentthatwilleffectivelypreparethemfordoingsoeffectively.
Limitations
Thepresentstudyhastwonotablelimitations.First,althoughwepresentedanovel
approachtoexplaininghowecotourismmayleadparticipantstoformERB
intentions,themodel’smoderatecoefficientofdetermination(R2=.19)suggests
thatobservationallearningalonedoesnotaccountforallofthevarianceinERB
intentions.Second,ourstudymeasuredbehavioralintentions,notovertbehavior.
Intentiontoactisoneofthebestpredictorsofovertbehavior(Hinesetal.,
1986/87),withameancorrelationofabout0.52(BambergandMöser,2007).
Nonetheless,becausewedidnotmeasureovertbehavior,wecannotaddressthe
extenttowhichobservationallearninginfluencesthispotentiallonger-term
outcome.
FutureDirections
Inarecentarticle,Bandura(2016)pointsoutthatacommonmisconceptionof
observationallearningisthatmodelingstiflesinnovation;hesuggeststhatthe
oppositeistrue.Learningthroughobservationcanpromotecreativityandfoster
innovativestylesofthinkingandprocessinginformation.Afterpeopleextractthe
keyfeaturesofamodeledbehavior,theyareabletoconstructnewformsofthat
behavior.Thesenewformsofbehavioroftengobeyondtheoriginalmodeled
behavior.Withinthecontextofecotourism,forexample,anecotouristmayobserve
arolemodelusingareusablewaterbottle.Throughtheprocessofobservational
learning,theecotouristextractsthekeyfeaturesofthisbehavior(i.e.reusinga
container)andmayconstructanewformofthatbehavior(i.e.usingreusablebags
22
atthegrocerystore).AsexplainedbyBandura(2016),observationallearninggoes
deeperthansimplemimicry;italsoincludesalearner’sabilitytobuildonmodeled
behaviorsandextendortranslatethosebehaviorstoothersettings.Futureresearch
shouldfurtherexploresuchpositivetemporalspillovereffects,liketheprevious
example,tobetterunderstandhowobservationallearningpredictsERBsafter
ecotourismparticipation.
Ourinitialstudy’sfindingsarepromisingwithregardtotheroleofobservational
learning(i.e.EcotouristObservationalLearningModel)inexplainingecotourists’
ERBintentions.Additionalstudiesareneededtotestthemodelwithindifferent
manifestationsofecotourismacrosstheworld.Forexample,itwouldbevaluableto
explorethismodelwithadifferentpopulationofecotourists(i.e.outsideKorea),ina
differentgeographicallocationorwithinalternativeformsofecotourism(i.e.whale
watchingtours,trekkingtoursorwildlifesites).Furthermore,assuggestedby
Ardoinetal.(2015),futurestudiesshouldalsoaimtoempiricallydocumentactual
ERBinthecontextofecotourism.Lastly,althoughourpathmodeloperationalized
Bandura’s(1986)four-stepobservationallearningprocesswithinthecontextof
ecotourism,ourmodelmayalsoholdpromiseforthoseoutsideoftheecotourism
sectorlookingforwaystoempiricallymeasuretheroleofsociallearningprocesses
inthedevelopmentofERBs.
23
APPENDICIES
Appendix1:SupplementalTablesandFigures
Table5.Pairwisecorrelationsofpathmodelfactors
#
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
FactorName
1
VerbalEngagement
-
CognitiveEngagement
PhysicalEngagement
TourGuideObservation
CommunityObservation
EcotouristObservation
Reproduction
Reinforcement
Environmentally
ResponsibleBehavioral
Intentions
2
3
4
5
6
7
0.74
-
0.72
0.74
-
0.6
0.61
0.57
-
0.51
0.51
0.64
0.62
-
0.47
0.43
0.54
0.58
0.7
-
0.5
0.5
0.49
0.61
0.59
0.66
-
0.04
0.02
0.09
0.09
0.17
0.17
0.26
0.32
0.33
0.31
0.35
0.33
0.3
0.34
8
9
-
Boldfaceindicatesthevalueisstatisticallyatp<0.001
Underlineindicatesthevalueisstatisticallyatp<0.01
Italicsindicatesthevalueisstatisticallyatp<0.05
Othervaluesarenotstatisticallysignificant
24
Appendix2:DataCollectionInstrument
[Q1] Are you a member of an environmental organization (e.g World Wildlife Fund for
Nature, Federation for Environmental Movement, Green Korea United, The Forest of
Life)?
n= 207
m Yes (9%)
m No (91%)
[Q2] Ecotourism is “Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment
and improves the well-being of local people.” Examples include: Upo Wetland or
Suncheon Bay. How many times have you participated on ecotourism experiences like
the current one?
n= 203
m 0 (This is my first time) (26%)
m 1 time (16%)
m 2 times (25%)
m 3-4 times (21%)
m 5-6 times (3%)
m 7 or more times (9%)
What was the duration of your current ecotourism experience?
n= 207
m Day Trip (54%)
m 1 night, 2 Days (8%)
m 2 nights, 3 Days (11%)
m 3 nights, 4 Days (8%)
m 4 nights, 5 Days (4%)
m 5 nights, 6 Days or longer (8%)
m Other (7%)
Did you use an ecotourism company or organization during your present ecotourism
experience?
n= 192
m Yes (3%)
m No (97%)
25
[Q5] How often did you experience the following activities during your current ecotourism experience?
26
[Q6] How often did you observe the following behaviors during your current ecotourism experience?
n
Never
(1)
2
3
4
5
6
Frequently
(7)
Mean
The tour-guide recycling
178
39%
12%
12%
20%
7%
7%
3%
2.77
The tour-guide teaching others
about the environment
183
30%
10%
9%
19%
14%
8%
10%
3.41
The tour-guide conserving
water (e.g. using minimal
water to wash hands)
181
27%
10%
12%
21%
12%
8%
11%
3.46
The tour-guide demonstrating
composting techniques
175
43%
11%
10%
19%
6%
5%
5%
2.70
The tour-guide conserving
energy (e.g. turning off the
lights when leaving a room)
177
27%
12%
12%
22%
9%
6%
12%
3.40
Local community members
conserving water
185
25%
9%
12%
25%
12%
6%
11%
3.51
Local community members
gardening (e.g. vegetables or
flowers)
188
13%
11%
12%
24%
14%
9%
19%
4.15
Local community members
recycling
185
17%
10%
11%
27%
14%
9%
12%
3.84
Other ecotourists using
reusable containers for water
188
12%
13%
11%
24%
13%
10%
17%
4.12
Other ecotourists picking up
litter
186
22%
17%
9%
24%
10%
9%
10%
3.49
Other ecotourists reading
books, publications and other
material about environmental
issues
181
22%
15%
13%
24%
12%
8%
7%
3.39
27
[Q7] How often did you engage in the following behavior during your current ecotourism experience?
n
Never (1)
2
3
4
5
6
Frequently
(7)
Mean
Read books, publications and
other material about
environmental issues
195
17%
15%
9%
35%
10%
7%
8%
3.58
Picked up litter off the ground
194
7%
15%
8%
29%
12%
11%
18%
4.26
Recycled
196
7%
11%
7%
31%
13%
12%
20%
4.49
Composted biodegradable waste
180
33%
14%
11%
23%
11%
3%
4%
2.91
Conserved water (e.g. turning off
the tap while brushing your
teeth)
194
7%
8%
10%
30%
13%
10%
22%
4.51
Conserved energy (e.g. turning
off the lights when leaving the
room)
194
7%
7%
9%
23%
13%
11%
30%
4.82
Financially contributed to local
conservation efforts
179
32%
15%
10%
22%
8%
8%
5%
3.03
Encouraged other ecotourists to
protect the environment
186
21%
11%
25%
12%
8%
9%
3.68
Encouraged local community
members to protect the
environment
187
25%
11%
25%
12%
8%
9%
3.46
12%
10%
28
[Q8] To what extent do you agree with the following statements during your current ecotourism experience:
n
Disagree
(2)
Somewhat
Disagree
(3)
Neither
Agree nor
Disagree
(4)
Somewhat
Agree (5)
Agree
(6)
Strongly
Agree (7)
Mean
The tour-guide offered
positive recognition to those
who used reusable water
bottles
207
1%
1%
2%
12%
17%
31%
34%
5.73
The tour-guide offered
positive recognition to those
who recycled
206
2%
2%
1%
13%
14%
34%
34%
5.72
Local community members
offered positive recognition
to those who conserved
resources (e.g. water and
energy)
205
2%
1%
2%
9%
17%
36%
34%
5.78
Local Community members
offered positive recognition
to those who picked up litter
205
0%
2%
1%
10%
16%
34%
36%
5.87
1%
1%
3%
20%
18%
27%
29%
5.47
1%
2%
4%
21%
15%
29%
28%
5.46
Other ecotourists offered
positive recognition to those
who financially contributed
to local conservation efforts
Other ecotourists offered
positive recognition to those
read books, publications and
other material about
environmental issues
Strongly
Disagree
(1)
207
207
29
[Q9] How likely is it that you will engage in the following behaviors within the next year?
n
Extremely
unlikely (1)
2
3
4
5
6
Extremely
likely (7)
Mean
Donate money to environmental
organizations
207
16%
18%
10%
38%
9%
2%
5%
3.33
Support candidates who have a proenvironmental policy
204
15%
11%
9%
27%
16%
10%
13%
4.00
Write a letter to a politician about
environmental issues
204
42%
15%
10%
24%
5%
2%
1%
2.50
Read books, publications and other material
about environmental issues
206
8%
14%
12%
26%
14%
14%
13%
4.16
Watch TV programs or documentaries about
environmental issues
205
4%
7%
8%
22%
18%
21%
19%
4.83
Enroll in a nature-based educational program
204
13%
13%
9%
29%
13%
10%
13%
3.97
Sort my trash to separate non-recyclable
material from recyclable material
206
2%
2%
5%
10%
13%
20%
49%
5.82
Compost my biodegradable waste
206
3%
3%
4%
16%
13%
18%
44%
5.62
Use reusable containers (e.g. water bottles)
205
2%
2%
5%
17%
13%
19%
42%
5.61
Build a vegetable garden at your house
206
15%
6%
9%
26%
12%
13%
19%
4.31
Encourage others to protect the natural
environment
206
6%
4%
6%
24%
15%
18%
28%
5.03
Encourage others to engage in eco-friendly
travel
206
5%
4%
6%
24%
15%
18%
28%
5.03
Select an eco-friendly tour operator in the
future
204
8%
6%
7%
23%
16%
16%
24%
4.74
Purchase carbon offsets when traveling by
airplane in the future
207
9%
10%
8%
38%
13%
10%
12%
4.15
30
[Q10] What is your gender?
n= 205
m
Male (41%)
m
Female (58%)
m
I'd rather not say (1%)
[Q11] In what country have you spent the majority of your life?
n= 205
m
Korea (99%)
m
China
m
Japan
m
Russia
m
United States of America (>1%)
m
England
m
Australia
m
Other: ____________________
[Q12] What is your age (Western Age)?
n= 205
m
18-24 (1997-1991 birth year) (12%)
m
25-34 (1990-1981 birth year) (20%)
m
35-44 (1980- 1971 birth year) (34%)
m
45-54 (1970- 1961 birth year) (20%)
m
55 and older (1960 birth year or earlier) (14%)
[Q13] What category best describes your income in 2014 before taxes?
n= 200
m
<$30,000 (< ₩33,000,000) (25%)
m
$30,001 - $50,000 (₩33,000,001 ~ ₩55,000,000) (31%)
m
$50,001 - $100,000 (₩55,000,001 ~ ₩110,000,000) (30%)
m
$100,001 (> ₩110,000,001) (15%)
[Q14] What is your highest level of education?
n= 201
m
Grade school (0%)
m
Secondary school (2%)
m
High school diploma (18%)
m
Bachelor’s degree (63%)
m
Master’s degree (12%)
m
Doctorate degree or higher (4%)
31
Appendix3:CompleteReplicationSyntax
Table1:EcotouristProfileusingStataV.4
*Frequenciesofallquestions
tab1Q1Q2Q3Q4Q5_1-Q5_10Q6_1-Q6_11Q7_1-Q7_9Q8_1-Q8_7Q9_1-Q9_14Q10Q11
Q12Q13Q14
*Meansforallquestions
foreachvarinQ1Q2Q3Q4Q5_1Q5_2Q5_3Q5_4Q5_5Q5_6Q5_7Q5_8Q5_9Q5_10Q6_1
Q6_2Q6_3Q6_4Q6_5Q6_6Q6_7Q6_8Q6_9Q6_10Q6_11Q7_1Q7_2Q7_3Q7_4Q7_5Q7_6
Q7_7Q7_8Q7_9Q8_1Q8_2Q8_3Q8_4Q8_5Q8_6Q8_7Q9_1Q9_2Q9_3Q9_4Q9_5Q9_6
Q9_7Q9_8Q9_9Q9_10Q9_11Q9_12Q9_13Q9_14Q10Q11Q12Q13Q14{
sum`var'ifinrange(`var',0,7)
}
Table3:DescriptiveStatisticsforallfactorsusingStataV.4
*Frequenciesofallfactors
tab1PhysEngagementVerbEngagementCogEngagementGuideObservation
CommObservationTouristObservationReproductionReinforcementIntention_EcoKorea
sumPhysEngagementVerbEngagementCogEngagementGuideObservation
CommObservationTouristObservationReproductionReinforcementIntention_EcoKorea
setmoreoff
Table5:PairwisecorrelationsofpathmodelfactorsusingStataV.4
*PairwiseCorrelationsbeforePath
pwcorrPhysEngagementVerbEngagementCogEngagementGuideObservation
CommObservationTouristObservationReproductionReinforcementIntention_EcoKorea
******Pathanalysis:Factorcreation
*FACTOR1:Engagement.Thisiscomprisedofthreesub-factors:
*Physical,VerbalandCognitiveEngagement
*Sub-factorsEngagementtogether
sem(PhysEngagement->Q5_1Q5_2Q5_3)(VerbEngagement->Q5_4Q5_5Q5_6)///
(CogEngagement->Q5_7Q5_8Q5_9),nocapslatentlatent(PhysEngagement
VerbEngagementCogEngagement)
sem,standardized
estatgof,stats(all)
alphaQ5_1Q5_2Q5_3Q5_4Q5_5Q5_6Q5_7Q5_8Q5_9,itemlabelasisstd
alphaQ5_1Q5_2Q5_3,itemlabelasisstd
alphaQ5_4Q5_5Q5_6,itemlabelasisstd
alphaQ5_7Q5_8Q5_9,itemlabelasisstd
egenPhysEngagement=rowmean(Q5_1Q5_2Q5_3)
egenVerbEngagement=rowmean(Q5_4Q5_5Q5_6)
egenCogEngagement=rowmean(Q5_7Q5_8Q5_9)
*FACTOR2:Observation.Thisiscomprisedofthreesub-factors:
*Guide,TouristandCommunity
32
*Sub-factorObservationrantogether
sem(GuideObservation->Q6_1Q6_2Q6_3Q6_4Q6_5)(CommObservation->Q6_6Q6_7
Q6_8)///(TouristObservation->Q6_9Q6_10Q6_11),nocapslatent
latent(GuideObservationCommObservationTouristObservation)
sem,standardized
estatgof,stats(all)
alphaQ6_1Q6_2Q6_3Q6_4Q6_5Q6_6Q6_7Q6_8Q6_9Q6_10Q6_11,itemlabelasisstd
alphaQ6_1Q6_2Q6_3Q6_4Q6_5,itemlabelasisstd
alphaQ6_6Q6_7Q6_8,itemlabelasisstd
alphaQ6_9Q6_10Q6_11,itemlabelasisstd
egenGuideObservation=rowmean(Q6_1Q6_2Q6_3Q6_4Q6_5)
egenCommObservation=rowmean(Q6_6Q6_7Q6_8)
egenTouristObservation=rowmean(Q6_9Q6_10Q6_11)
*FACTOR3:Reproduction
sem(Reproduction->Q7_1Q7_2Q7_3Q7_4Q7_5Q7_6Q7_7Q7_8Q7_9),nocapslatent
latent(Reproduction)///
cov(e.Q7_2*e.Q7_3)cov(e.Q7_5*e.Q7_6)cov(e.Q7_8*e.Q7_9)
sem,standardized
estatgof,stats(all)
alphaQ7_1Q7_2Q7_3Q7_4Q7_5Q7_6Q7_7Q7_8Q7_9,itemlabelasisstd
egenReproduction=rowmean(Q7_1Q7_2Q7_3Q7_4Q7_5Q7_6Q7_7Q7_8Q7_9)
*FACTOR4:Reinforcement
sem(Reinforcement->Q8_1Q8_2Q8_3Q8_4Q8_5Q8_6),nocapslatent
latent(Reinforcement)
sem,standardized
estatgof,stats(all)
alphaQ8_1Q8_2Q8_3Q8_4Q8_5Q8_6,itemlabelasisstd
egenReinforcement=rowmean(Q8_1Q8_2Q8_3Q8_4Q8_5Q8_6)
*FACTOR5:DV:Intention
*FactorIntention_EcoKorea
sem(Intention_EcoKorea->Q9_4Q9_5Q9_6Q9_7Q9_9Q9_11Q9_12),///
nocapslatentlatent(Intention_EcoKorea)cov(e.Q9_11*e.Q9_12)cov(e.Q9_4*e.Q9_5)
sem,standardized
estatgof,stats(all)
alphaQ9_4Q9_5Q9_6Q9_7Q9_9Q9_11Q9_12,itemlabelasisstd
egenIntention_EcoKorea=rowmean(Q9_4Q9_5Q9_6Q9_7Q9_9Q9_11Q9_12)
Figure3:EcotouristObservationalLearningModelresultsusingStataV.4
******FinalPathAnalysis*******
33
sem(PhysEngagement->CommObservation,)(PhysEngagement->GuideObservation,)
(PhysEngagement->TouristObservation,)(VerbEngagement->CommObservation,)
(VerbEngagement->GuideObservation,)(VerbEngagement->TouristObservation,)
(CogEngagement->CommObservation,)(CogEngagement->GuideObservation,)
(CogEngagement->TouristObservation,)(CommObservation->Reproduction,)
(GuideObservation->Reproduction,)(TouristObservation->Reproduction,)
(Reproduction->Reinforcement,)(Reproduction->Intention_EcoKorea,)(Reinforcement
->Intention_EcoKorea,),method(mlmv)cov(PhysEngagement*VerbEngagement
PhysEngagement*CogEngagementVerbEngagement*CogEngagement
e.GuideObservation*e.CommObservation
e.GuideObservation*e.TouristObservatione.TouristObservation*e.CommObservation)
nocapslatent
sem,standardized
estatgof,stats(all)
Table4:SummaryofdirectandtotaleffectsforfactorsinthefinalpathmodelusingStata
V.4
estatteffects,standardized
estateqgof
34
Appendix4:IRBHumanSubjectsApprovalDocumentation
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
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