DEVELOPMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGY
The study of the changes that occurs
as we grow and mature
Infancy and Childhood
Nature vs. Nurture
► Is
our behavior the result of genetics or the
result of our experiences and learning?
“Mom may be holding a full house while Dad has
a straight flush, yet when Junior gets a random
half of each of their cards his poker hand may
be a loser.” David Lykken (2001)
NEWBORNS
► Development
begins before birth
► Capacities:
 See, hear, smell, respond to their environment
 Adapt to a drastic change in their environment
at birth (light, noise, temp.)
 REFLEXES:
►Grasping
and rooting
 The capabilities of newborns are measured by
measuring observable behaviors while
stimulating the child (heart rate, smiles, eyes)
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
► Average
weight? 7.5 lbs. Height? 18 – 22 inches
► MATURATION: gives doctors and parents a
timetable to measure progress
 see the chart on p. 64
 Important to remember that every child is unique and that
charts are just a timetable
PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT
► Figure
3.3 p. 65 (visual
preferences)
► Depth perception
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
► Studies
have been done with chimpanzees
 Sign language (87 signs)
 Computer keyboard with special keys
► Reinforced
behavior vs. inborn
 Wrong reinforcement leads to speech therapy
► “The
Case of Genie” p. 69
Table 10.2
Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers
Cognitive (Intellectual) Development
► The
development of an individual’s mental
abilities
► For many years this was measured mainly
by using the results of intelligence (I.Q.)
tests
► A Swiss psychologist named Jean Piaget
changed this
 He became interested in reasons instead of
right or wrong answers
Schemas
Figure 4.10 Pouring experience into mental molds
Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers
Schemas
►
►
►
Look at the object below for a few seconds…
Now try and draw the object.
This is called the Devil’s tuning fork. It is an impossible
object for which we have no schema, therefore it is difficult
to draw.
Figure 4.9 An impossible object
Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers
Piaget’s Four Stages of Intellectual
Development
1.
Sensory-Motor Stage: (birth – 2 years)
-
Use their senses and various muscular movements
to interact w/ the environment
Develop an appreciation of cause and effect
(mobile moves, toy rattles) (limited)
Between 6 and 9 months they develop a sense of
object permanence
Figure 4.7 Infant at work
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Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers
Figure 4.8 Scale errors
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Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers
Figure 4.11 Object permanence
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Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers
Figure 4.12 Baby math
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Figure 4.14 Testing children’s theory of mind
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Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers
Piaget’s Four Stages of Intellectual
Development
2. Pre-operational Stage (2 – 7) years of age
- they learn to use symbols (know the meaning
of the word “ball” w/o having it right in front of
them) Representational Thought
- Egocentric: do not recognize other’s points of
view
- Lacks conservation (quantities do not change
just because appearance changes)
(beaker test)
Figure 4.13 Piaget’s test of conservation
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Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers
Piaget’s Four Stages of Intellectual
Development
3. Concrete Operation Stage (7 – 11)
- begins to think logically and realize
conservation
- lacks abstract thinking ability
Piaget’s Four Stages of Intellectual
Development
4. Formal Operational Period (11 – up)
- can grasp very abstract principles
(algebra)
- develop improved critical thinking skills
and problem solving abilities
Figure 4.15 Piaget’s stages (a) Sensorimotor stage (b) Preoperational stage (c) Concrete/formal operational stage
Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers
Criticisms of Piaget
1.
2.
3.
4.
Ages of stages vary quite a bit
Research has shown that only about 30-40% of
adolescents and adults have reached the formal
operational stage in the U.S.
Formal operations are almost absent in many
non-literate cultures
Individuals who have taken science courses
(scientific procedures) are always in formal
operations
Emotional Development
► Refers
to an individual’s awareness and expression
of an affective experience
► Imprinting: becoming attached to the first thing
that a newborn animal sees or that moves.
(Konrad Lorenz / geese)
 important for survival purposes
► Human




infants develop attachment at 6 months
Object permanence
Especially strong from 6 months to 3 years
Stranger anxiety / seperation anxiety
Mary Ainsworth’s research
Emotional factors that influence our
personality
► Types
of emotions that we experience
 Unhappy emotions = unhappy personality)
► How
we handle those emotions
 Basketball gets stolen >>> hustle back on ‘D’
or run up and trip opponent?
What emotions are present at birth?
► Specific
emotions can not be determined
► General state of excitement
► Distress and delight show up in infants
shortly after birth
 Distress = muscular tension / crying
 Delight = muscles relax / smiling
►6
months = fear, disgust, anger
► 1 year = elation and affection
Emotional behavior changes with
age
► Young
children show anger more openly,
hostile behavior
► As they grow older it is not socially
acceptable
► Middle age it less aggressive and hostile
► Later life it turns to distress, grief, self-pity,
and boredom
Patterns of fear
► Infants:
 Any possible dangers
► Young
children
 Strange people, unfamiliar animals, the dark
► Teens
 Social situations
► Adults
 Loss of security
► Elderly
 Uselessness, financial problems, death
Social Development
Attachment
► Stranger
Anxiety – beginning at about 8
months, fear of strangers is displayed.
► Attachment
– emotional tie with another
person, shown in children by seeking
closeness to the caregiver and showing
distress on separation.
Harlow’s Monkeys
► 1950’s
– Harry and Margaret Harlow bred
monkeys for a learning study.
► The monkeys were isolated from mom’s shortly
after birth to equalize their experiences.
► The monkeys became attached to the cheesecloth
blanket that was included in their sanitary cage.
► This reaction contradicted the idea that
attachment derives from the association with
nourishment.
Harlow’s Monkeys (cont’d)
► To
prove this more directly, they created
fake “mothers”. One providing nourishment
but no comfort and one providing comfort
but no nourishment.
► What were the results of their study?
Harlow’s Monkeys (cont’d)
► Monkeys
preferred the
cloth mother.
► Used her as a secure
base to explore.
► Other experiments
showed rocking,
warmth and feeding
made the cloth mother
even more appealing.
Attachment
► Secure
attachment – they play comfortably
and explore happily in mother’s presence,
cry when she leaves and seek contact when
she returns.
► Insecure attachment – less likely to explore,
cling to mothers, cry loudly and even
continue crying upon her return.
► Basic Trust (Erik Erikson) – the sense the
world is predictable and reliable. This is
seem in securely attached children.
Mary Ainsworth
► Studied
attachment.
► Sensitive, responsive mothers (noticed what
baby was doing and responded
appropriately) had babies that exhibited
secure attachments.
► Insensitive, unresponsive mothers (attended
to babies when they felt like it but ignored
them at other times) had babies that
exhibited insecure attachments.
Harlow’s Monkeys and Attachment
► Harlow’s
monkeys, when put in strange situations
without their artificial mothers, were terrified and
panic-stricken.
► Is
this study ethical?
Parenting styles
► Authoritarian
Families:
 parents in complete control, and do not believe they
have to explain their actions
 Parents believe that the child has no right to question
their desicions
► Democratic
/ Authoritative Families:
 Children participate in decision making
 Parents explain rules and expectations
 Children may make some decisions, but parents can
veto
Parenting styles
► Permissive:
(permissive indulgent)
 Children have the final say
 Parents are less controlling and non-punishing
► Uninvolved:
(permissive indifferent)
 Self-centered in child rearing
 Distant from child
Parenting styles
► Children
from authoritative families tend to
be more confident of their own values and
goals
 Establishment of limits / more responsive to
child
 Assume responsibility gradually
 Most likely to identify with parents
* Correlational not necessarily causal
Figure 4.19 The correlation between authoritative parenting and social competence in children
Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers
CHILD ABUSE
► Physical
or mental injury, sexual abuse,
negligent treatment, or mistreatment of
children under the age of 18 by an adult.
 Many cases go unreported
CHILD ABUSE
► CAUSES:
Parents were once victims
Little patience / unrealistic expectations
Stress
Low birth-weight, hyperactive, mentally or
physically disadvantaged children
 Unemployment
 Lack of family contact




CHILD ABUSE
► EFFECTS:







Loss of trust
Feelings of guilt
Anti-social behavior
Depression
Identity confusion
Low self-esteem
Emotional problems
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
► SOCIALIZATION
 Learning the rules of society, when to apply
rules, and when to bend them
 Acquiring an identity: member of society,
member of social categories, member of a
family
 Learning to live w/ other people
►Others
have rights and you have limitations
SIGMUND FREUD
Believed that we are all
born with powerful sexual
and aggressive urges, but
through socialization we
learn to control those
urges
► Process of socialization
often leads to conflict
between the parent and
child
► Immediate gratification vs.
delayed gratification
►
SIGMUND FREUD
►
Id: the lustful, impulsive, and fun (cookie monster)
 Immediate gratification of desires regardless of consequences
►
►
Superego: source of conscience, moral part of personality,
like a strict parent
Ego: in touch w/ reality
 Strives to satisfy the Id w/o offending the superego
►
►
If the Id is not satisfied the person feels a tension of
longing, anger, or desire
If the Superego is not obeyed the person feels guilty or
inferior
FREUD’S THEORY OF
PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
► Freud
believed that the id’s pleasure seeking
energies focus on distinct pleasure sensitive areas
of the body called erogenous ones.
► ORAL STAGE (0 – 18 months): pleasure centers
on the mouth…sucking, biting, chewing
 “give me food” stage
 Weaning from nursing can be difficult, because it is the
first time the child doesn’t get what it wants
FREUD’S THEORY OF
PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
► ANAL
STAGE (18-36
months): pleasure
focuses on bowel and
bladder elimination
 Curb freedom and
establish social control
FREUD’S THEORY OF
PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
► PHALLIC
STAGE(3 – 6): pleasure zone is now the
genitals as children are now aware of gender
differences
► Boys develop unconscious sexual desires for their
mother, and hatred and jealousy for their father
 They feel guilt and lurking fear of punishment
 Oedipus complex
► Some
psychoanalysts say that girls experience a
similar set of feelings referred to as the electra
complex
FREUD’S THEORY OF
PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
► PHALIIC
STAGE cont.
► Identification occurs: children identify with
the same sex (rival) parent.
 Children’s superego’s gain strength as they
incorporate many of their parent’s values
 Provides our gender identity (discussed later)
FREUD’S THEORY OF
PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
► LATENCY
STAGE (6 – puberty):
 Sexual desires are pushed into the background
(sublimation)
 Social and intellectual skills
► GENITAL
STAGE (puberty – on):
 Maturation of sexual interests
 Seek relationships with others
►Success
depends partly on how well we resolved the
Oedipus complex or Electra complex
Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial
Development
► Social
development
depends on how we
handle “crisis”/issues
and how others
respond to our
achievements
► Emphasis is on social
approval
Erikson’s stage theory
► 0-1
Trust vs. Mistrust
 If needs are met dependably, infants develop a sense of
basic trust
 If not they approach the world with fear
► 1-2
Autonomy vs. Doubt
 Toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for
themselves
 Or they doubt their abilities
► 3-5
Initiative vs. Guilt
 Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans
 Or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent
Erikson’s stage theory
► 6-Puberty
Competence vs. Inferiority
 Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to
tasks
 Or they feel inferior
► Adolescence
Identity vs. Role confusion
 Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing
roles and then integrating them to form a single identity
 Or they become confused about who they are
► Young
Adulthood Intimacy vs. Isolation
 Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to
gain the capacity for intimate love
 Or they feel socially isolated
Erikson’s stage theory
► Middle
Adulthood Generativity vs. Stagnation
 In middle age, people discover a sense of contributing
to the world, usually through family and work
 Or they may feel a lack of purpose
► Late
Adulthood Integrity vs. Despair
 When reflecting on his or her life, the older adult may
feel a sense of satisfaction
 Or failure
Learning Theorists
► Socialization
occurs through conditioning
and imitation
► Children imitate older people and get
rewarded
► The child is a piece of clay being shaped by
adults
Cognitive Approach
► The
child acts on their environment and
makes sense of their experiences (cognitive
processing)
► Emphasize game playing / role-playing
 Enables them to learn for themselves the
importance of agreeing on rules or structure
► The
child is the shaper
Lawerence Kohlberg’s Theory of
Moral Development
► Pre-conventional
 At first decisions are made based on avoiding
punishment
 Later on avoiding punishment and/or receiving reward
► Conventional
 At first decisions are based on social approval
 Later on law and order
► Post-conventional
 At first decisions are based on what is fair and just
 Later decisions are based on moral laws
Figure 4.22 Kohlberg’s moral ladder
Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers
Lawerence Kohlberg’s Theory of
Moral Development
► Criticisms
 Great deal of overlap
 Gender bias (girls are taught empathy, while
boys are taught justice)
 Cognitive abilities influence moral development
►See
other people’s point of view
 Understanding vs. action
ADOLESCENT
DEVELOPMENT
Physical Development
► Average
height from childhood to
adolescence
 Different for males and females
 Childhood: boys tend to be slightly taller than
girls
 Puberty: sexual maturation and rapid physical
changes
 Puberty begins earlier for females than males
causing females to be slightly taller than
females through the early years of puberty
Figure 4.20 Height differences
Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers
Puberty
► What
physical changes occur for males
during puberty?





Sex organs grow
Voice deepens
Physique changes
Muscle tissue increases
Facial, chest, and pubic hair develop
Puberty
► What
physical changes occur for females
during puberty?





Breasts grow
Hips widen
Fat tissue increases
Pubic hair develops
Menstrual cycle begins
Puberty
► Why
do physical changes during puberty
lead to stress in many adolescents’ lives?
 Doesn’t occur for the same time for everyone
 Those who enter puberty early or late will feel
out of place
 Creates new and sometimes unwelcome
responsibilities
Puberty
► How
does the age at which an adolescent reaches
maturity affect an adolescent’s social
development?
 Boys who mature early: social advantage, become
leaders, sports stars, more confidence
 Girls who mature early: often feel embarrassed, tend to
date older boys, often have a difficult time w/ boys their
own ages
 Boys who mature late: social disadvantage, more likely
to be picked on, feelings of inferiority
 Girls who mature late: tend to be less quarrelsome and
bossy, get along with peers more easily
Figure 4.24 Adolescence is being stretched from both ends
Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers
Personal Development
► Cognitive
Development (Which stage?)
 Adolescents can think in more abstract terms
(hypothetical situations)
 RATIONALIZATION:
►Explaining
why something happened in a way that
preserves their self-esteem (what else is that an
example of?)
 Egocentric
 Variations in cognitive maturity
►Individuals,
economic status, ethnic group, nations
Personal Development
► Adolescents
tend to be idealistic
 Compare the hypothetical to real life
► Why
not quit your job?
 Messiah complex
 Teens and work p. 103
 Problems adolescents develop p. 103
► Invulnerability
► Indecisive
► Adults
do not measure up
► 80% have committed crimes for which they could have been
arrested
Personal Development
► Moral
Development
 Advanced cognitive development allows for but
does not guarantee higher levels of moral
thinking
►High
school very little change
►College -> definite changes
Personal Development
► Identity
development
 Erikson’s theory of identity crisis
 Be unique vs. fitting in
 Include everything about themselves and
express it in a socially acceptable way
 Children live in the present / adolescents think
about the future
Personal Development
► Dr.
David Elkind
 SOCIAL EGOCENTRISM: teens overestimate
their impact on the environment
►Invincible
►“No
one understands how much we love each other”
Personal Development
► Critics
of Erikson
 Point out that he studied mostly troubled /
disturbed adolescents.
►Adolescents
chosen at random appear to be
progressing smoothly through adolescence and do
not experience a crisis.
Personal Development
► Social
Mead)
Learning View (Albert Bandura / Margaret
 Continuous process emphasizing interaction with others
 When a crisis develops in an individual’s life it usually
has an external cause (divorce, loss of a loved one,
etc.)
 Mead studied children in Samoa where adolescence
virtually doesn’t exist
► Claims
that stress is a by-product of industrialized society
Personal Development
► How
has the role of families changed in
regards to social development?
 More divorces
 More 2 income families
 Single parents
Personal Development
► The
Role of Peers
 Schools have well defined, easily recognizable,
predictable groups
 Early adolescence by gender
 Later by social class and activities
 Clique: group within a group
► Helps
adolescents establish identity
► Self-confidence, independence, values, new roles
 Conformity:
► fear
of being too different
► Acting in accordance with the rest of the group
Personal Development
► Parents
vs. Peers (who has more
influence?)
 Peers
►Fashion,
music, school related issues
 Parents
►Marriage,
religion, educational plans
 What can parents do?
►Judith
Harris-> live in a good neighborhood
(environment)
►Critics->parenting style is more important
Teenage Depression and Suicide
► Causes




of Depression
Loss of loved one
Family relocation
Divorce
Death
*Reaction is grief, guilt, panic, and/or anger
Teenage Depression and Suicide
► Symptoms
Anger
Rebellious -> skipping, running away, drugs
Hyperactive or frantic
Change in intensity and frequency of rebellious behavior
Withdrawal from friends, risk taking, talk about suicide,
self-criticism
*How to deal with: communication w/parent or friend,
and professional help





Eating Disorders
► More
common in females
► Significant rise in males recently
► Affect the physiology of the body
 Health risks
Eating Disorders
► Possible
causes
 Distorted body image
 Reaction to pressures of adolescence, and
trying to avoid growing up
 Way to feel in control
 Feelings of alienation and isolation
 To gain social approval
Eating Disorders
► Anorexia





Nervosa
Refusal to eat
Extreme weight loss
Lack of proper nutrition
Fear of gaining weight
Distorted body image
Eating Disorders
► Bulimia




Nervosa
Binge eating followed by purging
Excessive concern about body shape and weight
Hiding purging behaviors
Often experiences depression, anxiety, or mood
swings
Gender Roles
► Set
of behaviors that society considers
appropriate for each sex.
► Between 2 and 3 children learn to label
themselves as boys or girls
► By 5 most have learned the thoughts,
expectations, and behaviors of their gender
Gender Roles
► Males:
 Dominant
 Competitive
 Emotionally reserved
► Females:
 Submissive
 Cooperative
 Emotionally responsive
Gender Roles
► Varies
from society to society
► Can change within a society
► Gender Stereotypes: oversimplified or
distorted generalization about the
characteristics of men and women.
► Androgynous: combining or confusing
traditional male and female traits.
 Allows for more flexibility
Gender Roles
► More








differences
Males more confident and aggressive
Women more verbally aggressive
Men more physically aggressive
Men talk more than women and they are more likely to
interrupt
Women use more hedging statement
Women more likely to show submission and warmth
Men more confidence and status
Women are more sensitive to non-verbal cues
Origins of Gender Differences
► Biological
Theory:
 Emphasizes the role of anatomy, hormones, and
brain organization
 Behavior is biological
► Psychoanalytical
Theory
 Between 3 and 5 child identifies with same sex
parent
 Critics say that this is the result of gender
typing not the cause
Origins of Gender Differences
► Social
Learning Theory
 Learn gender roles through observation,
imitation, and reinforcement
► Cognitive-Developmental
Theory
 Children learn different sets of standards
through interacting with their environment
 Child develops a schema about gender roles.
Acting in accordance with that schema makes
them feel more confident.
Origins of Gender Differences
► Changing
gender roles
 More women in the workplace
 Women do not advance in position or pay as
quickly as men do. Why?
►Discrimination
►Time
off for child rearing
►Society has taught them to have different goals and
ambitions