Unit 4 Primary Resource Activities
What are Resources?
Resources; An Introduction
Necessary Conditions For a Resource
For a naturally occurring material to be considered a resource it must meet
all three of the following conditions.
1. Need or Want: A culture must have a need or a want for the natural
material itself or things requiring the natural material. For example
people desire gold (a natural resource) itself for its aesthetic value.
However, people don't desire tungsten but they desire the
incandescent lights produced from tungsten.
2. Technological Development: A culture must have technological
capabilities to extract and develop the natural material. For example
the oil off the coast of Newfoundland was not a resource until we
developed the capability to extract it from the Jean de Arc Basin, prior
to that it was a potential resource.
3. Profitability: A culture must be able to make a profit from the
material. If the cost of extracting and producing is too high it is not
profitable! If there is no desire for the natural material it will not sell
and is not profitable.
How Culture Affects Resources
As you can see from each of the three conditions listed above culture is very
important in determining if a material becomes a resource. The best way to
explain is to look at several examples.
Sea Urchins were not traditionally seen as a resource in Newfoundland
because we did not eat them or use them for any reason. There was no
need or want for sea urchins. However, in the cultures of South East Asia
sea urchins are a desired food source. With the opening of world markets,
sea urchins became a resource. Asia had the "want". We have developed
the harvesting "technology" because the demand was there. It is "profitable"
due to inexpensive technology and high demand. Consequently all three
conditions were met and sea urchins became a resource.
Sea weed or Kelp was not traditionally seen as resource in Newfoundland.
Some people would throw it on their vegetable gardens as a fertilizer but
there was no real demand for it. However, kelp is a highly desired food in
southern Asia. Furthermore, it is used to extract agar and other substances
for a variety of products like ice cream and make-up. With the variety of
demand for kelp some people have begun to harvest it off our shores and
others have tried to farm it (aquaculture). Once the desire was created, the
technology was developed in a way to make it profitable.
Due to religious reasons cows are treated very differently in India than in the
Western World. In India cows are not a food resource whereas here in the
western world beef is great resource.
In the two pictures below we can see another difference in resource use.
Developed nations use much greater amounts of resource than lesser
developed nations. Using the two pictures below determine what resource(s)
the developed nation is using in greater amounts than the lesser developed
nation.
Changing cultures can change the way resources are used, especially land
use. You will se a good example of that if you do the case study on p. 133.
Assigned activities




Read p. 132 and copy figure 8.1
Try this Interest Activity about resources; click here.
Complete questions 1-4 on p.132 of the text
Read the Case Study "Changing The Use of a Resource" (p. 133-134)
and answer question #5 on p.134
Test yourself
1. For a naturally occurring material to be considered a resource it must
meet three conditions. What are they?
2. In the case of kelp in Newfoundland, which of the three conditions
changed to make it a resource in Newfoundland?
3. In the case of oil off the coast of Newfoundland which of the three
conditions changed to make it a resource?
Test yourself ANSWERS
1. For a naturally occurring material to be considered a resource it must
meet three conditions. What are they? 1) Need or Want,
2)Technological Development, 3)Profitability
2. In the case of kelp in Newfoundland, which of the three conditions
changed to make it a resource in Newfoundland? WANT CHANGED,
PRIOR TO THE OPENING OF WORLD MARKETS THERE WAS NO
DEMAND FOR KELP.
3. In the case of oil off the coast of Newfoundland which of the three
conditions changed to make it a resource? TECHNOLOGICAL
DEVELOPMENT CHANGED TO ALLOW THE EXTRACTION OF THE
OIL.
Systems Model & Farming
Systems Model & Farming
Definitions:
Systems Model:

refers to a model of looking at any system (farming, oil production,
tire factory, schooling) and recognizing there are inputs, processes,
and outputs.
Inputs:


Refers to those things that are put into the system. For example in
farming the human inputs would include labour, equipment, fertilizer
and irrigation systems, whereas natural inputs would include rain,
sunshine, heat and soil type.
Given a case study of a farming operation you should be able to briefly
describe (inputs):
- the workers and their source;
- the kinds of tools and equipment used:
- the infrastructure:
- the capital invested in the operation:
- the types of seeds or young livestock used:
- the nature of the land:
- the quality of the soil:
- climatic conditions.
Outputs:

Refers to those things that are produced by the system. For example
in cattle farming the outputs could include beef and raw hide whereas
vegetable farm outputs could include carrots, potatoes and cabbage.
Processes:


Refers to those procedures that occur in the system to convert the
inputs to outputs. For example in vegetable farming the processes
would include, sowing seed, watering, fertilizing, weeding, aerating,
harvesting.
given a case study of a farming operation you should be able to briefly
examine (processes)
- the division of labour; who does what?
- the spatial movement of people and animals; Are the workers
migratory? Are the animals moved between grazing lands?
- how the crops are planted; crop rotation, contour plowing, is any
land left fallow?
- irrigation and soil maintenance practices; is there a need for
watering? how frequently do they fertilize? What do they fertilize
with?
- the annual cycle of farming activities
- how farming activities spatially arranged
These four definitions give you the basic understanding so you can apply that
knowledge to:



analyze the processes in a farming operation;
relate farming processes to inputs;
relate the outputs in a farming operation to the processes and inputs.
This is best done through examples. You do NOT need to memorize the
specifics of every farm type you look at, rather you must be able to apply the
"systems Model" to any farming situation and determine inputs, processes
and outputs. The case Case Study "A Mixed-Vegetable Farm In Canada" (p.
145-146)and the associated questions will help you apply your knowledge.
Assigned activities



Read p. 144
Complete Questions 1-2 p. 144
Read the Case Study "A Mixed-Vegetable Farm In Canada" (p. 145146)and complete questions #3-6.
Test yourself
1. _?_ refers to a model of looking at any system (farming, oil
production, tire factory, schooling) and recognizing there are inputs,
processes, and outputs.
2. _?_ refers to those things that are put into the system. For example
in farming the human inputs would include labour, equipment,
fertilizer and irrigation systems, whereas natural inputs would include
rain, sunshine, heat and soil type.
3. _?_ refers to those things that are produced by the system. For
example in cattle farming the outputs could include beef and raw hide
whereas vegetable farm outputs could include carrots, potatoes,
cabbage, etc..
4. _?_ refers to those procedures that occur in the system to convert the
inputs to outputs. For example in vegetable farming the processes
would include, sowing seed, watering, fertilizing, weeding, aerating,
harvesting.
5. In this picture name one input, process and output
6. Using the systems model how would classify the following aspects of a
farm?
o Seeds
o Sun light
o Mending fences
o spraying against bugs
o Cabbage
Test yourself ANSWERS
1. Systems Model refers to a model of looking at any system (farming,
oil production, tire factory, schooling) and recognizing there are
inputs, processes, and outputs.
2. Inputs refers to those things that are put into the system. For
example in farming the human inputs would include labour,
equipment, fertilizer and irrigation systems, whereas natural inputs
would include rain, sunshine, heat and soil type.
3. Outputs refers to those things that are produced by the system. For
example in cattle farming the outputs could include beef and raw hide
whereas vegetable farm outputs could include carrots, potatoes,
cabbage, etc..
4. Processes refers to those procedures that occur in the system to
convert the inputs to outputs. For example in vegetable farming the
processes would include, sowing seed, watering, fertilizing, weeding,
aerating, harvesting.
5. In this picture name one input, process and output that are rather
evident. Inputs include; sun, soil, water hay seed: Process=
Bailing Hay: Output = Hay
6.





Using the systems model how would classify the following aspects of a farm?
Seeds - Input
Sun light - Input
Mending fences - Process
spraying against bugs - Process
Cabbage - Output
Systems Model & Offshore Oil
Off-shore Oil; The Decision to Recover
The systems model is useful in helping determine the viability of an oil
reserve. The determination must be made whether cost of inputs and
processing will be offset by the value of the out-put oil. This lesson looks at
the physical and human factors that influence the decision to recover oil and
gas from an off-shore reserve.
Physical Factors Affecting Off-shore Oil Recovery




Ocean related factors include; 1) Ocean Depth 2) Ocean currents 3)
Icebergs & pack ice
Climate/weather related factors include; 1) Wind speeds 2)
Storms
Oil Related factors include; 1) size of the reserve 2) Oil quality
Environmental protection factors; How do these other physical
factors affect the chances of an oil spill? Other resources like fish
stocks, marine mammals, and spawning grounds would be affected in
the event of an oil spill.
Human Factors Affecting Off-shore Oil Recovery


Worker Safety; How safe can the drill rig and production platform be
for the workers?
Financial Factors include:
o cost of inputs like building a rig to withstand icebergs, building a
rig to drill at great depths or building a production platform that
can withstand hurricane winds;
o cost of processes like transporting the oil from off-shore to land,
maintaining the platform's equipment, and pressurizing the
reserve
o price of oil which is set by world markets and determines if
enough money is recovered from the oil to exceed the cost of
production.
The decision whether to drill or not often comes down to the question:
will the cost of overcoming the all other factors be offset by the price
oil can be sold for and make the venture financially viable?
Assigned activities


The topics covered in this lesson are spread throughout chapter 11 in
your book. Therefore a quick read through pages 182-196.
Click on "Hibernia start-up" open it, print it and complete it.
Test yourself
Physical & Human Factors & Off-shore Oil Recovery
1. List 3-4 Ocean related factors that affect the decision to recover offshore oil.
2. List 2-3 Climate/weather related factors that affect the decision to
recover off-shore oil.
3. List at least 2 Oil Related factors that affect the decision to recover offshore oil.
4. List at least 3 environmental concerns about drilling off-shore
5. Relate the systems model to determining the financial viability of
extracting oil from an off-shore oil well.
Test yourself ANSWERS
Physical & Human Factors & Off-shore Oil Recovery
1. List 3-4 Ocean related factors that affect the decision to recover offshore oil. OCEAN DEPTH, OCEAN CURRENTS, ICEBERGS AND
PACK ICE
2. List 2-3 Climate/weather related factors that affect the decision to
recover off-shore oil. WINDS, STORMS
3. List at least 2 Oil Related factors that affect the decision to recover offshore oil. OIL QUALITY, AMOUNT OF OIL
4. List at least 3 environmental concerns about drilling off-shore. IN
THE EVENT OF A SPILL THE FOLLOWING WOULD BE AFFECTED,
FISH STOCKS, SPAWNING GROUNDS, MARINE MAMMALS, ETC.
5. Relate the systems model to determining the financial viability of
extracting oil from an off-shore oil well.
FINANCIAL VIABILITY IN A SYSTEMS MODEL;
o
o
o
Cost of inputs like building a rig to withstand ice burgs, or
building a rig to drill at great depths or building a
production platform that can withstand hurricane winds.
Cost of processes like transporting the oil from off-shore
to land, and maintaining the platforms equipment, and
pressurizing the reserve
Price of oil which is set by world markets and determines
if enough money is recovered from the oil to exceed the
cost of production.
Offshore Oil Rigs
A Brief History of Oil Recovery
Keeping the Connection to Land

In the 1860’s wharves were
built extending 365m out into
the ocean to facilitate ocean
drilling off California.
Letting go of Shore

In the 1920’s a drill rig was
built on wooden pilings in
lake Maracaibo , Venezuela
Moving to Steel

In the 1930’s a drill rig was
built on steel structures in the
Gulf of Mexico but it was limited to 7m of water or less.
Letting go of the Ocean Floor

In 1956 the first drill ship was built allowing drilling in deeper water.
These types of drill ships allowed exploration off the shores of
Newfoundland. This picture below is from http://www.canadianwellsite.com/gallery.htm
Modern Drill Rigs
We will investigate 4 different types of oil rigs used to recover oil from under
the ocean floor. Figure 11.4 in your book shows all four rig types.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Submersible Rigs: fixed columns ground them on the ocean floor
Jack-up Rigs: extendable legs ground them on the ocean floor
Semi-submersible Anchored rigs: are anchored above the drill site.
Semi-submersible Dynamically Positioned: use thrusters to maintain
position above the drill site.
Submersible Rigs
Submersible rigs are normally limited to ocean depths of 20 m. For this
reason they are limited to continental shelves, relatively close to shore. The
rigs are floated as they are towed to drill site. Once in position ballast tanks
are flooded until columns rest on ocean floor.
The picture below shows a small submersible rig.
Jack-Up Rigs
Jack-up rigs are able to drill in deeper water than submersible rigs.
However, jack-up rigs are limited to a maximum ocean depth of 100 m. The
jack-up is similar to the submersible in that it rests on the ocean floor.
However its steel legs (Not columns) rest on ocean floor.
The pictures below show jack-up rigs are distinguishable by high X-braced
steel legs which extend above the platform. The first picture, compliments of
NOAA, is fairly close to shore. The second two pictures, compliments of
http://www.canadian-wellsite.com/gallery.htm are further off shore.
Semi Submersible Anchored Rigs
Semi-Submersible Anchored rigs float on the ocean. Because they are
anchored to the ocean floor they are are limited to a maximum ocean depth
of 200 meters. The rigs are built on land which is flooded upon completion
so the rig floats. Then the rig is towed to the drill site. Water is pumped in
and out of Ballast tanks to help stability along with anchor lines. Oil is stored
in pontoons until shipped on-shore.
This semi-submersible was repaired in Mary's Harbor Newfoundland. You can
easily see the steel pontoons which float and ballast the rig. Picture
compliments of http://www.canadian-wellsite.com/gallery.htm .
This picture, compliments of http://www.canadian-wellsite.com/gallery.htm,
was taken off Brazil and shows the importance of maintaining proper balance
of stored oil and ballast in the columns.
Semi Submersible-Dynamically Positioned
Semi-Submersible Dynamically Positioned rigs are able to drill outside the
continental shelf. However, they are still limited to a maximum ocean depth
of 2000 meters. Like other rigs they are towed to the drill site. Water is
pumped in and out of Ballast tanks to help stability but there are no anchor
lines. Note: dynamic means changing or moving. Thrusters position the rig
over the drill site. Like the Anchored rigs oil is stored in pontoons until
shipped on-shore.
Directional Drilling
Directional Drilling is depicted in figure 11.5 on page 187 of your text. This
technique allows drill companies to reduce movement from one small oil
pocket to the next. It also increases the drill holes exposure to source
(porous) rock
Assigned activities

Read p. 185-186
Test yourself
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
_?_ rigs have columns that are flooded to rest on the ocean floor.
_?_ rigs have X-braced steel legs that extend above the platform.
_?_ rigs float above the drill site and are anchored in place.
_?_ rigs float above the drill site and are kept in place by thrusters.
_?_ rigs are the only rigs that really do not have the capability to store
oil in their legs.
_?_ is the newest drilling technique and has significantly reduced the
movement of rigs from one site to another.
A _?_ rig is the only rig that can be used beyond the continental shelf
in water deeper than 200m.
In the shallow water (<20m) of a lake a _?_ drill rig would do the job.
In the water of a coastal bay that is just less than 100 m deep which
type of drill rig would be most appropriate?
Test yourself ANSWERS
1. _?_ rigs have columns that are flooded to rest on the ocean floor.
SUBMERSIBLE
2. _?_ rigs have X-braced steel legs that extend above the platform.
JACK-UP
3. _?_ rigs float above the drill site and are anchored in place. SEMISUBMERSIBLE ANCHORED
4. _?_ rigs float above the drill site and are kept in place by thrusters.
SEMI-SUBMERSIBLE DYNAMICALLY POSITIONED.
5. _?_ rigs are the only rigs that really do not have the capability to store
oil in their legs. JACK-UP
6. _?_ is the newest drilling technique and has significantly reduced the
movement of rigs from one site to another. DIRECTIONAL
DRILLING
7. A _?_ rig is the only rig that can be used beyond the continental shelf
in water deeper than 200m. SEMI-SUBMERSIBLE DYNAMICALLY
POSITIONED
8. In the shallow water (<20m) of a lake a _?_ drill rig would do the job.
SUBMERSIBLE
9. In the water of a coastal bay that is just less than 100 m deep which
type of drill rig would be most appropriate? JACK-UP
Hibernia Case Study Part 1
The Hibernia case study in your book serves as a great example of a number
of the topics we are looking at. It is not important for you to remember
every fact, detail, piece of technology at Hibernia as much as it is important
for you to recognize this as an example of:
1. Types of drill rig platforms & reasons for using them
2. Stages and components of oil field development
Assigned activities


Read the case study "Hibernia Oil-A New Addition to The Oil Patch" on
pages 187-191 of your text book.
Click on "Hibernia Part 1 (Technology)", open it, print it and complete
it.
Hibernia Case Study Part 2
There are several factors that affect the profitability of oil production.
Production can not proceed unless the company has a good expectation of
making a profit. The cost of production and the price of oil are the two sides
of the equation.
Oil Price – Cost of Production = Profit
As we have seen in lesson one the cost of production is decreasing.
Oil exploration is more accurate so less money is spent finding the oil. Recall
our discussion of seismic (sound wave) testing over the ocean. Production
platforms are more efficient. Remember also our discussion of the history of
production platforms. Directional drilling has increased contact with source
rock and reduced the need for movement of production platforms.
The aspect of the equation that we have not looked at is OIL PRICES. Oil
prices are controlled by the markets and OPEC (Oil Producing Economic
Countries) When oil prices are high we complain at the pumps but the oil
companies have a greater chance of making a profit.
The case study of Hibernia shows this equation well. While production costs
were decreasing the price of oil was too low to make the project profitable.
Assigned activities



Review "Hibernia Oil - A New Addition to the Oil Patch" on pages 187191 of your text book.
Review “The Search for Oil in the Sea” on pages 185-186 of your text.
Click on "Hibernia Part 2 (financing)" open it, print it and complete it.
Traditional, Non-commercial Farms
Types Of Agriculture
There are many different types of agriculture being practiced all over the
world. However, it is possible to classify the type of farms based on similar
characteristics. This lesson provides you with some classifications of farms.
Just as there are many ways to classify people; males and females, old &
young, brunettes and blondes, there are many ways to classify farms. We
are not looking at all classifications but you must remember these. You will
be asked to apply these to case studies of farm systems.



commercial farming and subsistence farming
extensive farming and intensive farming
shifting cultivation, agribusiness, and nomadic herding
Commercial farming involves the production of food for sale while
subsistence farming involves the production of food to feed your family. The
large wheat farms of the prairies would obviously be commercial while aunt
Sally's vegetable garden in the back yard would be subsistence.
Extensive agriculture uses large tracts of inexpensive land in unpopulated
areas whereas intensive agriculture normally uses smaller tracts of land in
more densely populated areas. Cattle farming in western Canada would be
extensive while dairy farming in the Goulds would be more intensive.
Shifting cultivation is another form of extensive agriculture. Planting crops in
a region until fertility diminishes and then moving to a fresh area to plant
means there must be lots of land available.
Nomadic herding is similar to shifting agriculture in that it involves moving
from place to place with an extensive use of land but differs in that nomadic
herding involves the raising of cattle, sheep or other herding animals.
Agribusiness is a form of commercial farming. It is run by large corporations
that are self sufficient providing their own inputs and processing their own
outputs.
Assigned activities

Click on Types of Agriculture, open it, print it and complete it.
Test yourself
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
_?_ involves the production of food for sale.
_?_ involves the production of food to feed your family.
The large wheat farms of the prairies would examples of _?_ farming.
The Sprung Green house that was in Mount Pearl was _?_ farming.
_?_ uses large tracts of inexpensive land in less populated areas.
_?_ normally uses smaller tracts of land in densely populated areas.
Cattle ranges in western Canada would be _?_ farming.
_?_ cultivation is another form of extensive agriculture. Planting
crops in a region until fertility diminishes and then moving to a fresh
area to plant crops.
9. _?_ herding is similar to shifting agriculture in that it involves moving
from place to place with an extensive use of land but differs in that it
involves the raising of cattle, sheep or other herding animals.
10._?_ is a form of commercial farming, run by large corporations that
are self sufficient providing their own inputs and processing their own
outputs.
Test yourself ANSWERS
1. Commercial Agriculture involves the production of food for sale.
2. Subsistence Agriculture involves the production of food to feed your
family.
3. The large wheat farms of the prairies would examples of COMMERCIAL
farming.
4. The Sprung Green house that was in Mount Pearl was COMMERCIAL
farming.
5. EXTENSIVE AGRICULTURE uses large tracts of inexpensive land in
less populated areas.
6. INTENSIVE AGRICULTURE normally uses smaller tracts of land in
densely populated areas.
7. Cattle ranges in western Canada would be EXTENSIVE COMMERCIAL
farming.
8. SHIFTING cultivation is another form of extensive agriculture.
Planting crops in a region until fertility diminishes and then moving to
a fresh area to plant crops.
9. NOMADIC herding is similar to shifting agriculture in that it involves
moving from place to place with an extensive use of land but differs in
that it involves the raising of cattle, sheep or other herding animals.
10.AGRIBUSINESS is a form of commercial farming, run by large
corporations that are self sufficient providing their own inputs and
processing their own outputs.
Intensive Subsistence Farming
This lesson involves a case study "Rice Farming in Bangladesh." It is a good
example of intensive subsistence farming.
This lesson is about applying your knowledge from lesson #1!!
Assigned activities


Read the Case Study "Rice Farming in Bangladesh" p. 147-149.
Answer questions #7-9 p. 149
More Intensive Subsistence Farming
This lesson involves a case study " Shifting Cultivation in Borneo". It is a
good example of intensive subsistence farming.
This lesson is about applying your knowledge from lesson #1.
Assigned activities


Read the case study "Shifting Cultivation in Borneo" p. 149-151
Complete questions 10 & 11 p. 151
Extensive Commercial Farming
This lesson involves a case study "Plantation Farming in Hawaii". It is a good
example of extensive commercial farming.
This lesson is about applying your knowledge from lesson #1.
This case study also asks you to analyze the impact of weather. We do not
expect you to memorize the global location of every type of crop and farm.
However, we do expect that given the climate requirements of a crop you be
able to use a climate map to determine the likely location said crop.
Assigned activities


Read the case study "Plantation Farming In Hawaii" p. 152-153
Complete questions 12 & 13 p. 153
More Extensive Commercial Farming
This lesson involves a case study "Wheat Farming in The Ukraine". It is a
good example of extensive commercial farming.
This lesson is about applying your knowledge from lesson #1.
This case study also asks you to analyze the impact of climate. We do not
expect you to memorize the global location of every type of crop. However,
we do expect that given the climate requirements of a crop you be able to
use a climate map and determine the likely location where said crop would
grow well.
Assigned activities


Read "Wheat Farming in the Ukraine" p. 153-156
Complete questions #17 & 18
Even More Extensive Commercial Farming
This lesson involves a case study "An Agribusiness in the Philippines". It is a
good example of extensive commercial farming.
This lesson is about applying your knowledge from lesson #1.
This case study also asks you to analyze the impact of climate & soil types.
We do not expect you to memorize the global location of every type of soil
and farm. However, we do expect that given the climate requirements and
soil requirements of a crop you be able to use a climate map and a soil map
to determine the likely location said crop.
Assigned activities


Read the case study " an agribusiness in the Philippines" p. 156-157
Complete questions 17 & 18 p. 157
Offshore Oil and Global Patterns
Offshore Oil Formation and Reserves
The formation of oil takes a tremendously long time. Millions of years ago
plants and animals of the oceans died & settled on the ocean floor. While
large organisms contributed to the oil it was often the mass of small and
microscopic organisms that contributed the bulk of the carbon for OIL.
Over many thousands of years bacterial action and extreme pressure from
layers of sediment converted the organic matter to oil & gas. The extreme
pressure came form the continuous build up of sediment. The pressure
created tremendous amounts of heat which helped the process along.
The oil moved within the soil and oil reserves formed when non-porous rock
lay above porous rock. Oil seeps up through the porous rock & is trapped by
the non-porous rock.
Oil Reserves
Figure 11.1 in our book shows 4 types of oil reserves. You will notice that all
four have a nonporous rock cap and a porous rock source. The porous rock
allows the oil to seep into the
cavity and the nonporous rock
prevents the oil from leaving.
1. Fold Trap: the up fold or
anticline in the layers of
the earth's crust form the
reservoir.
2. Fault Trap: the
vertical movement of
the earth's crust forms
a v-shaped reservoir.
3. Salt Dome Trap: The salt
dome forms an up-fold in the
earth's crust not unlike the
anticline caused by tectonic forces.
4. Stratigraphic trap: has a
former limestone reef as its
porous rock feeding the
reservoir.
Techniques Used to Locate Oil & Gas Reserves
Before 1900’s

The search for oil was limited to the search for oil seeping to the
surface along fault lines (remember Jed & Granny Clampett and the
"Beverly Hillbillies").
After early 1900’s

Geologists knew to drill in gentle anticlines or faulted sedimentary rock
where reservoirs of oil might occur.
Modern oil exploration on the seas




ships tow sound emitters and hydrophones;
different rock layers reflect sound differently;
computers convert the sound data into 3D pictures of the ocean’s rock
layers
“Wild cat” wells are drilled to test for oil:
o if they strike oil then delineating wells are drilled to determine
the size of the reservoir;
o if they miss oil then the core samples are examined for evidence
of oil.
Patterns of Offshore Oil Production
Looking at figure 11.2 on page 184 we can see that most oil regions of the
world are on land. The ones that are under the ocean floor are concentrated
in the North sea around the United Kingdom and in the Gulf of Mexico.
Figure 11.3 shows the oil production by OPEC countries. It too shows that the
North Sea and the Gulf of Mexico are regions of high offshore oil production.
It also reveals that offshore oil production is increasing faster than land
production of oil.
West Africa, especially around the Ivory Coast, seems to have high oil
reserves and is increasing in oil production too.
Assigned activities




Read the introduction to chapter 11, "Energy From the Oceans", on
page 182 of your text book.
Read "How Oil Deposits Were Formed" on pages 182-183 of your text
book.
Read "Finding oil & Gas Reserves" on pages 183-184 of your text
book.
Answer question #6 on page 184
Test yourself
1. How long does it take for oil to form?
2. What micro-organisms are responsible for converting dead plant and
animal material into oil?
3. What causes the great pressure and heat that is required for the
development of oil in the earth?
4. What type of rock is found on top of all oil reserves?
5. In a _?_ the up fold or anticline in the layers of the earth's crust form
the reservoir.
6. In an _?_ the vertical movement of the earth's crust forms a v-shaped
reservoir.
7. What type of rock is always found beneath the oil reserve?
Oil Quality varies with _?_.
8. What two regions of the world have the largest offshore oil reserves
and production?
9. What concerns do offshore oil; producers have to be concerned about
in the Gulf of Mexico?
10.What concerns do offshore oil; producers have to be concerned about
in the North Sea?
11.Early in the 1900's geologists would look for _?_ as possible locations
to drill for oil.
12.When a wild cat well strikes oil why do oil companies drill delineating
wells?
13.What type of equipment do modern geologists use to determine the
likelihood of oil in a region?
Test yourself ANSWERS
1. How long does it take for oil to form? MILLIONS OF YEARS
2. What micro-organisms are responsible for converting dead plant and
animal material into oil? BACTERIA
3. What causes the great pressure and heat that is required for the
development of oil in the earth? LAYERS OF SEDIMENT
4. What type of rock is found on top of all oil reserves? NON-POROUS
5. In a _?_ the up fold or anticline in the layers of the earth's crust form
the reservoir. FOLD TRAP
6. In an _?_ the vertical movement of the earth's crust forms a v-shaped
reservoir.
7. What type of rock is always found beneath the oil reserve? FAULT
TRAP
8. Oil Quality varies with _?_. VISCOSITY
9. What two regions of the world have the largest offshore oil reserves
and production? NORTH SEA & GULF OF MEXICO
10.What concerns do offshore oil; producers have to be concerned about
in the Gulf of Mexico? HURRICANES & TECTONIC ACTIVITY
11.What concerns do offshore oil; producers have to be concerned about
in the North Sea? WINTER STORMS & ICEBERGS
12.Early in the 1900's geologists would look for _?_ as possible locations
to drill for oil. ANTICLINE
13.When a wild cat well strikes oil why do oil companies drill delineating
wells? TO DETERMINE THE SIZE OF THE RESERVE
14.What type of equipment do modern geologists use to determine the
likelihood of oil in a region? SOUND EMITTERS, HYDROPHONES,
COMPUTERS
Forest Resources
Forests & Climate
There are many aspects of climate that impact on forest development, some
are discussed here, while you will investigate others through your readings.
Precipitation
Forests require a large amount of water. Consequently, one of the greatest
factors that determine whether a forest will grow in a region is amount of
precipitation.
Tropical areas with high rainfall have tropical rain forests. Tropical areas that
have intermittent rainfall have savannahs because there is not enough water
to support trees and a forest.
Seasons
Temperate regions of the world often have deciduous trees to help them deal
with the lack of water availability in winter. Some regions have dry seasons
and they have deciduous trees even though it does not get "cold."
The type of trees and forest present in a region is determined by the
climate. Trees have adapted to climate just as animals have. The needle
leaf trees of the coniferous forests are adapted to deal with winter and the
lack of available water in winter. Both the tropical regions of the world and
the sub arctic regions of the world have evergreen trees.
Diversity
Colder regions tend to have less biodiversity while tropical regions tend to
have greater biodiversity. The same is true of trees. Tropical forests tend to
be a blend of many different species, while coniferous forests tend to be
"pure stands" of one type of tree.
Assigned activities


Read "Locations and Features of Forests" p. 162-163
Complete questions 1-4
Test yourself
1.
2.
3.
4.
Which requires more precipitation; grasslands or forests?
Where do you expect to see "deciduous" trees?
Where do you expect forests of coniferous trees?
What two global regions of the world do you expect to see evergreen
trees
Test yourself ANSWERS
1. Which requires more precipitation; grasslands or forests? FORESTS
2. Where do you expect to see "deciduous" trees? TEMPERATE
REGIONS
3. Where do you expect forests of coniferous trees? NORTH/SUBARTIC
4. What two global regions of the world do you expect to see evergreen
trees? BOREAL FORESTS OF THE NORTH & TROPICAL FORESTS
OF EQUATOR
Deforestation
Approximately one-third of the earth's land masses are covered in forest.
The forest provides much for nature and mankind. Biodiversity, habitats for
animals, food for animals, air purification and water retention are some of
the values of our worlds forests. Man has always made use of the forests
and the trees for things like recreation, building materials, home heat and
paper.
For many decades we have used the forest without regard for the
sustainability of forests. Will coming generations have a forest to rely on?
Are we allowing deforestation to occur at a rate faster than it can replace
itself?
Why are we using so much forest resource?
Some reasons for extensive deforestation include:




expanding needs in agriculture;
urbanization;
mining operations;
hydroelectric operations;
In Africa forests are being cleared to make room for subsistence farming to
support the growing population.
Latin America has cleared forests for major hydroelectric projects to provide
stable electrical supplies to an increasing number of people. Large scale
cattle ranches and urbanization have also been the cause of deforestation in
Latin America.
Asia's growing population means that more forest is cleared for housing and
for agricultural land to feed the people.
In the activities section of this lesson you will use a world map showing
deforestation trends. It is important that you be able to interpret this type of
map as shown on p. 164 figure 10.2.
Assigned activities


Read "deforestation" p. 163
Complete questions 5-7 p. 163-164
Test yourself
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What portion of the world's land surface is covered by forest?
Name 5 things the forest provides for nature.
Name 4 things Forests provide for man.
Name 4 reasons why man has caused the deforestation of many areas.
Look at figure 18.8 on p. 308 that shows the regions of the world with
the greatest increase in populations. How do the areas of high
population increase compare to the areas of high deforestation?
Test yourself ANSWERS
1. What portion of the world's land surface is covered by forest? 1/3
2. Name 5 things the forest provides for nature. HABITATS, FOOD,
BIODIVERSITY, AIR PURIFICATION, WATER RETENTION FOR
SOIL PRESERVATION
3. Name 4 things Forests provide for man. PAPER, BUILDING
MATERIALS, RECREATION, HOME HEAT
4. Name 4 reasons why man has caused the deforestation of many areas.
HOUSING, AGRICULTURE, MINING, HYDROELECTRICITY
5. Look at figure 18.8 on p. 308 that shows the regions of the world with
the greatest increase in populations. How do the areas of high
population increase compare to the areas of high deforestation? THE
REGIONS OF THE WORLD WITH HIGH DEFORESTATION ARE
THE SAME AREAS THAT HAVE HIGH POPULATION GROWTH.
MORE PEOPLE NEED MORE HOUSING AND MORE FOOD.
Clear Cutting & Selective Cutting
Clear cutting is a form of forest harvesting that removes all trees from an
area. Marketable trees and undesired trees alike are cleared and the land is
left uncovered. Strip cutting is actually a variation on clear cutting where
strips of forest are left between the clear cut areas. You will learn more
about it in your guided reading lesson in the "activities" section.
Selective cutting is a form of forest harvesting that removes only the desired
trees and leaves the other trees in place. Immature trees, undesired species
and underbrush is all left intact. Selective cutting is also covered in your
guided reading lesson.
Clear cutting has the advantage of being economical and safe whereas
selective cutting has the advantage of leaving the ecosystem intact. There
have been raging debates over the type of cutting that should occur in the
forest industry. We will explore that too in a brief case study.
Assigned activities


Read "Tree Harvesting" p. 165-166
Click on "clear cutting vs. selective cutting" open it, print it and
complete it
Test yourself
1. _?_ is a form of forest harvesting that removes all trees from an area.
Marketable trees and undesired trees alike are cut and the land is left
uncovered.
2. _?_ is actually a variation on clear cutting where strips of forest are
left between the clear cut areas.
3. _?_ is a form of forest harvesting that removes only the desired trees
and leaves the other trees in place. Immature trees, undesired
species and underbrush is all left intact.
4. _?_ is the form of forest harvesting that has the advantage of being
economical and safe.
5. _?_ is the form of forest harvesting that has the advantage of leaving
the ecosystem intact.
6. _?_ cutting is more common in pure stands like those of the boreal
forest.
7. _?_ cutting is more common in mixed forests like deciduous forests.
Test yourself ANSWERS
1. CLEAR CUTTING is a form of forest harvesting that removes all trees
from an area. Marketable trees and undesired trees alike are cut and
the land is left uncovered.
2. STRIP CUTTING is actually a variation on clear cutting where strips
of forest are left between the clear cut areas.
3. SELECTIVE CUTTING is a form of forest harvesting that removes
only the desired trees and leaves the other trees in place. Immature
trees, undesired species and underbrush is all left in tact.
4. CLEAR CUTTING is the form of forest harvesting that has the
advantage of being economical and safe.
5. SELECTIVE CUTTING is the form of forest harvesting that has the
advantage of leaving the ecosystem in tact.
6. CLEAR cutting is more common in pure stands like those of the
boreal forest.
7. SELECTIVE cutting is more common in mixed forests like deciduous
forests
Sustainable Forestry
Sustainable Forestry is simple and complex. The basic idea is simple. If we
cut trees faster than they grow back, we will run out of trees. However, as
the world's population increases so does the demand for forestry products
and so does the demand for forestry land to be converted to housing, mining,
and hydro-electricity projects.
In the past we have looked at the forest as an endless resource. Now we
realize we must manage the forest for the forestry industry and many other
things. Biodiversity, hunting, hiking, camping, habitat protection and many
other things are all considerations.
If we look at sustainable forestry from a "Systems Model" perspective we can
see that we have three options:
1. Improve what we input into forestry (replanting & seedlings)
2. Improve processes like:
1. road construction
2. harvesting techniques
3. environmental protection actions
4. reducing losses (use all of the tree)
3. Reduce the need of output product
1. Recycle
2. Use of alternate building materials
Assigned activities


Read " Case Study; Tree Harvesting in Various Ecosystems" p. 166169
Complete Questions # 8-11 p. 168-169
Fish Resource Management
Fisheries; an Introduction
Major World Fish Stocks
Simply put the worlds fish stocks are are located almost exclusively on the
continental shelves.


Figure 12.3 indicates that about 80% of fish harvested come from
oceans.
Why is this obvious? Most of the world’s water is ocean therefore it
would be expected that fresh water would only contain a small portion
of the world’s fish.
Figure 12.7 on page 202
might be a bit of a
surprise to us
Newfoundland and
Labradoreans. It shows
the world regions by
tones of fish caught.
There seem to be four
major fishing regions,
globally speaking and
and eastern North
America (north western
Atlantic) is not one of
them. The 4 major
fishing regions are:
o North east Atlantic
(England/Norway);
o North west Pacific (Japan);
o West central Pacific (China/Indonesia);
o South east Pacific (Western South America).
Continental Shelves
Most fishing grounds are found on continental shelves for 2 reasons.
1. The shallow waters of the self make harvesting more cost effective.
The fish have to be landed on shore for human use so the regions
closer to shore are fished most profitably. See Figure 12.6 on page
202.
2. Most of the fish are on the continental shelves. The shallow waters of
the shelf promote plankton production which serve as the base of the
marine food web including fish.
o Shallow water ensures enough light for phytoplankton and
effective circulation of nutrients. See figure 12.4 on page 200.
Figure 12.6, page 202 shows stocks correspond to shelves &
figure 12.4 shows food web and shelves.
Assigned activities









Read the introduction to Chapter 12 on page 197.
Read "Fish as a Food Source" on page 198 of your text book.
Complete Question #1 p. 198
Read "Major Source areas for Fish Harvesting" on pages 198-199 of
your text book.
Complete Question #2 p. 199
Read "Locations of Fish Stocks and Fishing Grounds" on pages 199201.
Complete Questions #3 & 4 & 5 on page 201
Read "Fishing Grounds" on page 201 of your text book.
Complete Question #6 & 7 on page 203
Test yourself
1. What commercial term is used to refer to the total weight of living
organism in a fish stock.
2. What % of the world's fish comes from the ocean?
3. What part of the ocean is most conducive to fish stock growth?
4. Name the 4 major fishing regions of the world.
5. What organism forms the base of the ocean food chain?
Test Yourself ANSWERS
1. What commercial term is used to refer to the total weight of living
organism in a fish stock. BIOMASS
2. What % of the world's fish comes from the ocean? APPROX. 80%
3. What part of the ocean is most conducive to fish stock growth?
CONTINENTAL SHELVES
4. Name the 4 major fishing regions of the world.
o NORTH EAST ATLANTIC (ENGLAND/NORWAY)
o NORTH WEST PACIFIC (JAPAN)
o WEST CENTRAL PACIFIC (CHINA/INDONESIA)
o SOUTH EAST PACIFIC. (WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA)
5. What organism forms the base of the ocean food chain?
PHYTO_PLANKTON
Fisheries Management
There are a number of issues related to the fishery that require
management, pollution and conservation of fish stocks top the list.
Major Sources of Ocean Pollution
There are a number of ways to classify the greatest ocean pollution
concerns. The Ocean Planet web site identifies 4 major sources of ocean
pollution. You can visit the site at, Ocean Planet.
Oil

When it comes to mixing oil and water, oceans suffer from far more
than an occasional devastating spill. Disasters make headlines, but
hundreds of millions of gallons of oil quietly end up in the seas every
year, mostly from non-accidental sources. The graph below, taken
from the Ocean Planet site, shows how many millions of gallons of oil
each source puts into the oceans worldwide each year
Toxic Material


Industrial, agricultural, household cleaning, gardening, and automotive
products regularly end up in water. About 65,000 chemicals are used
commercially in the U.S. today, with about 1,000 new ones added
each year. Only about 300 have been extensively tested for toxicity
TBT, or tributyl tin, is added to boat paints to kill or repel barnacles
and other nuisance organisms that foul ships' hulls.
Dangerous Debris


Our trash kills. When odds and ends of life on land-- particularly
plastics--end up in the sea, they pose hazards to marine life. Animals
drown or strangle from getting tangled in discarded or lost fishing
gear, or suffer and even die from eating plastics and other garbage.
The Ocean Planet site shows pictures of:
o a northern sea lion, entangled in an old net, St. Paul Island,
Alaska
o a party balloon that killed a sperm whale by blocking its
digestive tract.
Deposits & Withdrawals


For thousands of years humans have viewed oceans as vast dumps for
domestic, municipal, and industrial garbage. The enormous deep-sea
resources will undoubtedly attract more miners in the future, as easyto-reach deposits on land are depleted.
The Ocean Planet site shows pictures of mining sand from the shores
of Belize for landfills in Central America. Sand and gravel are in
demand as fill, and as an ingredient of concrete.
Impact of New Catch Technology on the Environment

Factory freezer Trawlers have likely had the most significant and
negative impact.
o
o
o
o
Highly efficient at catching fish which greatly reduces the
population & reproduction. Large diesel engines, echo sounding
equipment, onboard freezers, and GPS navigation contribute to
their efficiency.
Destruction of the ocean floor by trawls/draggers eliminates
good spawning locations for fish. Furthermore it disperses eggs,
making fertilization more difficult.
By-catch is often discarded. Some regulations require ships to
return with low levels of by catch.
Traveling great distances and being able to stay at sea for long
periods allows trawlers from all over the world to congregate in
good fishing areas. This puts added pressure on the fish stock.
Declining Fish Resource & the Livelihood of Fishers.
The declining fish resources may have a variety of affects on fishers. Some
of those include:
1. Fishers may concentrate more on conservation.
2. Fishers and the community they live in will have to diversify:
o develop aquaculture ex. Bay D'Espoir;
o golf course construction ex. Frenchman’s cove
o sea weed aquaculture ex. Isle aux Morts
o eco-tourism ex. Northern Peninsula
o catch underutilized species
Can you think of other affects?
Assigned activities


Read "Issues in a Sustainable Fishery" on pages 209-211
Complete Question #14-15 on page 211.
Test yourself
1. List four major sources of ocean pollution.
2. Which is the greatest source of oil pollution?
3. How accurate is the statement "we have discovered all the chemicals
we need and we have toxic pollution well under control"?
4. What kinds of plastic debris can cause problems in our oceans?
5. Name three concerns that environmentalists have with factory freezer
trawlers.
Test yourself ANSWERS
1. List four major sources of ocean pollution.
1. OIL
2. TOXIC MATERIAL
3. DANGEROUS DEBRIS
4. DEPOSITS & WITHDRAWLS
2. Which is the greatest source of oil pollution? THE HOUSEHOLD
DRAIN
3. How accurate is the statement "we have discovered all the chemicals
we need an? INACCURATE; WE ARE DISCOVERING MANY NEW
CHEMICALS DAILY AND WE ARE UNCERTAIN OF LONG AND
SHORT TERM EFFECTS
4. What kinds of plastic debris can cause problems in our oceans?
PLASTIC SHOPPING BAGS AND PARTY BALLOONS CAN KILL
OCEAN MAMMALS
5. Name three concerns that environmentalists have with factory freezer
trawlers.
1. HIGHLY EFFICIENT AT CATCHING FISH WHICH GREATLY
REDUCES THE POPULATION & REPRODUCTION.
2. DESTRUCTION OF THE OCEAN FLOOR BY
TRAWLS/DRAGGERS ELIMINATES GOOD SPAWNING
LOCATIONS FOR FISH.
3. BY CATCH IS OFTEN DISCARDED.
4. TRAVELING GREAT DISTANCES AND BEING ABLE TO STAY
AT SEA FOR LONG PERIODS ALLOWS TRAWLERS FROM
ALL OVER THE WORLD TO CONGREGATE IN GOOD
FISHING AREAS.
Empty Seas Case Study
Go to the activities section and complete the case study "Empty Seas" as
directed.
Keep in mind that the point of this section of the course is not to have you
memorize material, rather it is to have you develop reasonable attitudes
around sustainable fishery practices
Assigned activities



Read the case study "Empty Seas" p. 211-212
Complete the questions #16-19 p. 212
Keep in mind; you will not be required to memorize the answers to
these questions but you will be asked about other fishing situations
and be asked to analyze them