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Refers to
◦ Internal process and the product of the mind  leading
to knowledge development
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Covers a wide aspects of mental activities:
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Memorizing
Categorizing & simbolizing
Problem solving & creativity
Inventions
Dreaming & fantasizing
Reading & Writing
Language acquisition etc
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Changes in thinking (logic)
Language acquisition
The process of how human receive, store and
remember information (knowledge) from their
environment.
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How human relate the knowledge they receive
and applied it to their everyday lives.
How the information from the environment
 Receive
 Stored
 Re-use
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Stressed on individual
 Level of understanding & use of knowledge
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Thus, every changes, including those learned is
being:◦ Recorded by the brain
◦ Processed which involves mental activities
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The thinking & reasoning process of children
differs from adolescent and adults.
As age increases, the ability to think and
reasons became complex (better)
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Efficiency, ability to shift focus improve.
Less attraction to novelty, better sustained attention after first
year.
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Attention
Retention intervals lengthen.
Recall appears by 1 year; excellent in second year.
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Memory
Impressive perceptual categorization in first year.
Conceptual categorization in second year
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Categorization
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Focus on the
◦ Function and the reaction of the mind  to
the environment
According to Piaget:
◦ Human being can think and are rational
◦ The thinking ability of a child is strong and
inquisitive :
 Always interact with their environment 
consistent to their understanding and
cognitive ability.
Piaget argued that children have schemas.
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SCHEMA is a/an…
◦ cognitive structure  built to assist individual to
understand their past experiences.
◦ Organized ways of making sense of experience
Child’s schemas change with age  involved the
modification of intellectual schemas as the child seeks to
understand its world
 Action-based (motor patterns) at first
 Later move to a mental (thinking) level
Thus, Schemas are
◦ organized patterns of thought or behavior  assist in
making sense of experience
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Through the process of Adaptation & Organization.
A Child cognitive ability rely a lot on:
◦ How a child response to an event that
occurs in their environment.
◦ The effect of these event on their
development.
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Schemas developed by children must be able to
handle new information and situations
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Schema can be built based on adaptation process
◦ Adaptation is the process of building
schemes through direct interaction with the
environment.
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According to Piaget, adaptation can be further
divided into two intellectual processes:
◦ Assimilation: Involves interpreting new
information in light of an old (existing) schema
 All 4-legged animals are viewed as a “dog”
◦ Accommodation: Process by which old schemas
are created or modified to fit new situations
 A horse is not a “dog”
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Organization is an internal process of arranging
and linking together schemas to form an
interconnected cognitive system.
Schemas reach a true state of equilibrium
when they become part of a broad network of
structures that can be jointly applied to the
surrounding world.
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Stages of Cognitive development:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Sensory Motor (0-2 yrs old)
Pre operational (2-7 yrs old)
Concrete Operation (7-11 yrs old)
Formal Operation (12 and above)
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Birth to 2 years
 Building schemes
through sensory and
motor exploration
 Circular reactions
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Piaget based this stage on his observation of
his children.
Emphasize on Circular Reaction (CR):
◦ CR the means by which infants explore the environment
and build schemas by trying to repeat chance events
caused by their own motor activity.
◦ Reactions are first centered on infant’s own body  later
change to manipulating objects  then to produce effects
in the environment.
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8-12 mths  Concept of Object permanence
develop
 Object permanence, the realization that an object/person continues
to exist when out of sight.
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Reflexive Schemes
Birth –1
month
Primary Circular
Reactions
1 – 4 months Simple motor habits centered
around own body
Secondary Circular
Reactions
4 – 8 months Repeat interesting effects in
soundings
Coordination of
Secondary Circular
Reactions
8 – 12
months
Intentional, goal-directed behavior;
object permanence
Tertiary Circular
Reactions
12 – 18
months
Explore properties of objects
through novel actions
Mental
Representations
12 months –
2 years
Internal depictions of objects or
events; deferred imitation
Newborn reflexes
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Understanding that objects continue to exist
when out of sight
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According to Piaget, develops in Substage 4.
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Incomplete at first
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Internal, mental depictions of
objects, people, events,
information
◦ Can manipulate with mind
◦ Allow deferred imitation (ability
to remember and copy the
behavior of models who are
not immediately present) and
make-believe play
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Piaget: Develops about 18 months
Newer research:
◦ Present at 6 weeks – facial imitation
◦ 6 – 9 months – copy actions with
objects
◦ 12 – 14 months – imitate rationally
◦ 18 months – imitate intended,
but not completed, actions
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As child enters preoperational stage, the earlier
abilities/skill continue to develop & become
better, such as abilities in :
◦ object permanence
◦ Mental representations
◦ Deferred Imitation
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Cognitive Advances
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Ages 2 to 7 yrs is a time of great expansion in the use
of *symbolic thought, or representational ability, which
first emerges at the end of the sensorimotor stage
 The use of symbols is a universal mark of human culture.
Without symbols, people could not communicate verbally,
make change, read maps, or treasure photos of distant loved
ones. Yet an understanding of symbolism comes only
gradually usually after age 3.
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Growing understanding of space, causality, identities,
categorization, and number
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Gains in Mental Representation
◦ Make-believe Play
◦ Dual Representation
Limitations in Thought — Cannot Perform Mental
Operations
◦ Egocentrism and Animistic Thinking
◦ Conservation
◦ Hierarchical Classification
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With age, make-believe gradually
becomes:
◦ More detached from real-life
conditions
◦ Less self-centered
◦ More complex
 Sociodramatic Play
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Viewing a symbolic object as both an
object and a symbol
Mastered around age 3
Adult teaching can help
◦ Provide lots of maps, photos, drawings,
make-believe playthings, etc.
◦ Point out similarities to real world
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Belief that inanimate
objects have lifelike
qualities
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Cannot reason logically as to cause and effect
Attribute life to inanimate objects = animism
Failure to understand conservation: two things
remain equal if their appearance changes but
nothing is added or taken away
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Egocentrism : Center so much on their own point of view
that they cannot take in another's
Conservation: Understanding that the basic
properties of an object are constant even if the
object changes shape
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Egocentrism refers to a cognitive
view in which a child understands
the world to have only their view
(has great difficulty in
understanding the views of others)
◦ E.g: Piaget’s three-mountain task. A
preoperational child is unable to
describe the “mountains” from the
doll’s point of view - an indication of
egocentrism
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Centration
Focus on one
aspect and
neglect
others
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Irreversibility
Cannot
mentally
reverse a set
of steps
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Conservation
◦ Decentration
◦ Reversibility
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Classification/ categorization
Seriation
◦ Transitive inference
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Spatial Reasoning
◦ Directions
◦ Maps
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Postponing action to weigh alternatives
 Organizing task materials
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◦ Remembering steps of plan
◦ Monitoring how well plan works
◦ Revising if necessary
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Chunking - Breaking the information into manageable
chunk.
◦ eg. OFHRTJUDYCX  OFH RTJ UDY CX
Rehearsal - Simple repetition
◦ Elaboration  when info to be remembered is linked to
other information
Imagery - Conjured image of an object/related meaning.
Mnemonics - Memory strategy to help remember information
◦ Eg. A rhyme or pairing of to-be-learned information with
well learned information.
Schema activation - Strategy to use with encoding complex
info.  relates new information to prior knowledge.
Level of processing -Material that is only skimmed will
not be as deeply processed as material that is studied in
detail.
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Rapid Mental activities
Cognitive development - better
◦ Organisation and thinking process
◦ Reasoning abilities
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Aspects Of Cognitive Maturation
◦ Develop the capacity for abstract thought a new,
more flexible way to manipulate information
◦ Can use symbols more extensively
◦ Can understand metaphor and allegory
◦ Can imagine possibilities and can form and test
hypotheses (hypothetical-deductive reasoning)
◦ Gradual accumulation of knowledge and expertise in
specific fields
◦ Higher gain of information-processing capacity;
◦ Growth in metacognition awareness and monitoring
of one's own mental processes and strategies.
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Language ability
Ability in making decision
Memory and reasoning capacity
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INTELLIGENCE
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Group Tests
Allow testing of large
groups
Require little training
to administer
Useful for instructional
planning
Identify students who
need individual testing
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IndividuallyAdministered Tests
Examiners need
training & experience
◦ Provide insights about
accuracy of score
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Identify highly
intelligent and children
with learning problems
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Bayley Scales of Infant Development (0-2 ½ yrs)
o Mental, motor, social scale
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Standford-Binet Intelligence Scale (2- adult)
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General, verbal, quantitative, abstract/visual, short term
memory scale
Weschler Intelligence Scale for children (WISC III)
◦ 3-8 yrs (Weschler Preschool & Primary Scale of
Intelligence - WPPSI-R)
◦ 6-16 yrs (WISC)
o Verbal & performance scale
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Kaufman Battery of Assessment
o Information processing
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Formula
* MA/CA x 100 = IQ
Ma = mental age
CA = Chronological age
Example
◦ Hasif is 10 yrs old and got a metal age of 12 years
old. Thus Hasif have an IQ of 120, ie.
12/10 x 100 = 120
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According to IQ score chart,
◦ Score above100
= cerdik pintar
◦ Score between 100 -69 = kurang kemampuan
intelektual
◦ score of 70 & below
= kurang upaya mental
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Genetics
◦ Accounts for about half of differences
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Environment
◦ SES
◦ Culture
 Communication styles
 Cultural bias in test content
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Linguistic
Logico-mathematical
Musical
Spatial
Bodily-kinesthetic
Naturalist
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
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Children with Learning Problems
◦ Mental retardation =significantly subnormal cognitive
functioning
◦ Dyslexia=developmental reading disorder in which reading
achievement is substantially below the level predicted by IQ or
age.
◦ Learning disabilities =disorders that interfere with school
achievementperformance substantially lower than expected.
◦ Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) with or
without hyperactivity
 ADHD has a substantial genetic basis, with heritability
approaching 80 percent
 ADHD is generally treated with drugs, sometimes combined
with behavioral therapy, counseling, training in social skills,
and special classroom placement
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Gifted
◦ Exceptional intellectual strength
 The traditional criterion of giftedness
is high general intelligence, as shown
by an
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◦ Usually measured by high IQ
(score of 130 or higher)
Talented
◦ Outstanding performance in a
specific field
◦ Measured by divergent thinking
and creativity
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Gifted Children:
◦ these children were taller, healthier, better
coordinated, better adjusted, and more popular than
the average child
◦ Their cognitive, scholastic, and vocational superiority
has held up for nearly eighty years
◦ Creativity = ability to see things in a new light
 divergent thinking
 enrichment or acceleration classes for both gifted and
creative children
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By 2 years old:
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like to take things apart
explore surroundings
point to 5-6 parts of a doll when asked
Language
 have a vocabulary of several hundred words
 use 2-3 word sentences
 say names of toys
 ask for information about an object (asks,
"Shoe?" while pointing to shoe box)
 hum or try to sing
 listen to short rhymes
 like to imitate parents
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By 3 years :
◦ recognize sounds in the environment
◦ pay attention for about 3 minutes
◦ remember what happened yesterday
◦ know what is food and what is not food
◦ know some numbers (but not always in the right order)
◦ know where things usually belong
◦ understand what is "1“, "now," "soon," and "later“
◦ substitute one object for another in pretend play (as in
pretending a block is a "car")
◦ laugh at silly ideas (like "milking" a dog)
◦ look through a book alone
◦ match circles & squares; match object to a picture of that
object or match objects that have same function (as in
putting a cup and plate together)
◦ count 2 to 3 objects
◦ avoid some dangers, like a hot stove or a moving car
◦ follow simple one-step commands
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By 3 years :
◦ Language
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use 3-5 word sentences
ask short questions
use plurals ("dogs," "cars," "hats")
name at least 10 familiar objects
repeat simple rhymes
name at least one color correctly
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By 4 years old:
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recognize red, yellow, and blue
understand taking turns and can do so without always being
reminded
understand "big," "little," "tall," "short“
want to know what will happen next
sort by shape or color
count up to 5 objects
follow three instructions given at one time
("Put the toys away, wash your hands, and come eat.")
distinguish between the real world and the imaginary or
pretend world
identify situations that would lead to happiness, sadness, or
anger
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Can count 10 or more objects
Correctly names at least four colors
Better understands the concept of time
Knows about things used every day in the
home (money, food, appliances)
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Children can begin to think about their own behavior
and see consequences for actions.
In the early stages of concrete thinking, they can group
things that belong together (for instance babies,
fathers, mothers, aunts are all family members). As
children near adolescence, they master sequencing and
ordering, which are needed for math skills.
Children begin to read and write early in middle
childhood and should be skillful in reading and writing
by the end of this stage.
They can think through their actions and trace back
events that happened to explain situations, such as why
they were late to school.
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Children learn best if they are active while they are
learning. For example, children will learn more
effectively about traffic safety by moving cars, blocks,
and toy figures rather than sitting and listening to an
adult explain the rules.
Six- to 8-year-olds can rarely sit for longer than 15-20
minutes for an activity. Attention span gets longer with
age.
Toward the beginning of middle childhood, children
may begin projects but finish few. Allow them to
explore new materials. Nearing adolescence, children
will focus more on completion.
Teachers set the conditions for social interactions to
occur in schools. Understand that children need to
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Children can talk through problems to solve them.
This requires more adult time and more sustained
attention by children.
Children can focus attention and take time to
search for needed information.
They can develop a plan to meet a goal.
There is greater memory capability because many
routines (brushing teeth, tying shoes, bathing, etc.)
are automatic now.
Child begins to build a self-image as a "worker." If
encouraged, this is positive in later development of
career choices.
Many children want to find a way to earn money.
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