COGNITIVE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PROFESSIONAL
MUSICIANS AND NON-MUSICIANS: A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
OLGA LORAINE KOFMAN & MONICA ROSSELLI
Florida Atlantic University, Charles E. Schmidt College of Science, Department of Psychology, Davie, Florida
BACKGROUND
A small 1993 study found that listening to 10 minutes of a Mozart sonata
temporarily increased spatial IQ scores 8 to 9 points compared to listening
to a relaxation tape or silence. This “Mozart Effect” was sensationalized by
popular media and incorrectly generalized to mean that listening to classical
music improves intelligence. Since then, the scientific community has
accepted that listening to music does not increase IQ, but the idea that
music makes a difference has held sway and subsequent studies have
explored whether playing music alters cognition. Multiple studies found
significant differences between musicians and non-musicians both
functionally (with musicians having superior working memory, verbal
memory, sensorimotor integration, and neuroplasticity, see Figure 1) and
anatomically (with musicians exhibiting greater relative cerebellar volume
and larger midsaggital areas in the corpus callosum, see Figure 2). However,
few studies held musicians to rigorous standards of practice (e.g., some
musicians had not practiced in several years), some studies had unclear
design (e.g., some controls had previous musical experience), and none of
the studies accounted for age of musical acquisition. Furthermore, almost
none of the studies were replicated, except for one, which was disproved.
Figure 2. Relative cerebellar volume as a
function of musical practice
Figure 1. Significant differences between non, low-,
and high-activity musicians
16
14
METHODS
To take advantage of Steele and colleague’s findings that the critical learning
period for maximal brain development from musical practice is seven years of
age or younger, and to draw from Hanna-Pladdy and MacKay who found
significant differences between musicians and non-musicians, this study will
recruit musicians who began practicing at or before 7 years of age and who
have maintained practice for at least 20 years.
Non-musician participants will also be recruited to control for education, age,
and gender. IQ will be used as a covariate.
12
10
All participants will be tested on several aspects of cognition (see Table 1),
and results will be analyzed using analysis of variance.
8
6
4
EXPECTED RESULTS
2
0
WMS-III VRII
Trails A
Trails B
BNT
It is expected that musicians will significantly outperform non-musicians in
nonverbal memory recall, word retrieval, and cognitive flexibility. These
expected results are based on those found by Hanna-Pladdy and MacKay,
2011.
SIGNIFICANCE
Nonmusicians (n = 21)
Low activity musicians (n = 27)
High activity musicians (n = 22)
Figure 1. Adapted from Hanna-Pladdy and MacKay1
By studying professional musicians who acquired their craft during a critical
learning period in childhood, the study will indicate whether sustained
musical activity at its uppermost level is correlated with improved cognition
throughout the lifespan and especially in aging.
Table 1. Neuropsychological tests
REFERENCES
Hutchinson et al., 20032
Aspect of Cognition
Test
Mode of Testing
Processing Speed
Simple Reaction Time
Inquisit Software
Working Memory
WAIS-III Digit Span
Inquisit Software
Cognitive Flexibility
Trail Making A & B
Inquisit Software
Verbal Memory
WMS – III Word Lists I & II
Pen-and-paper exam
Nonverbal Memory
WMS-III Visual Reproduction I & II
Pen-and-paper exam
Working Memory
WAIS-III Letter-Number Sequencing Pen-and-paper exam
OBJECTIVE
The present study seeks to improve upon a 2011 study by Hanna-Pladdy
and MacKay. Hanna-Pladdy and MacKay found that high-activity musicians
exhibited significantly superior delayed verbal memory, visuospatial
sequencing, and word retrieval over non-musicians (see Table 1).
Furthermore, this study seeks to utilize the findings made in a 2013 study
by Steele and colleagues3, which found that the critical period for musical
acquisition (marked by improved corpus callosum connectivity) was seven
years of age or younger. In short, this study aims to determine whether
extended musical practice developed at a critical learning period during
childhood and sustained into adulthood influences cognition.
Word Confrontation Naming Boston Naming Test
Pen-and-paper exam
1. Hanna-Pladdy, B., & MacKay, A. (2011). The relation between instrumental
musical activity and cognitive aging. Neuropsychology, 25(3), 378-386. doi:
10.1037/a0021895
2. Hutchinson, S., Lee, L. H., Gaab, N., & Schlaug, G. (2003). Cerebellar volume
of musicians. Cerebral Cortex, 13(9), 943-949. doi: 10.1093/cercor/13.9.943
3. Steele, C. J., Bailey, J. A., Zatorre, R. J., & Penhune, V. B. (2013). Early
Musical Training and White-Matter Plasticity in the Corpus Callosum:
Evidence for a Sensitive Period. The Journal of Neuroscience, 33(3), 12821290. doi: 10.1523/jneurosci.3578-12.2013
This project is supported by an undergraduate research
grant provided by Florida Atlantic University.
Institutional Review Board approval pending.