ALTERNATIVE ECONOMIC THEORY:
Some desiderata*
by Johan Galtung,
fngvar
Nilsson,
Per Svae and Anders Wadeskog
Universit6
Nouvelle
I54 rue de Tolbiac,
F750I3 Paris,
July
1985
Transnationale,
-1 -
The time
about
gap
the
has
in
and practice:
Neoclassicar
cur::ent
and
need
theory
has
both
considerable
self-reliance,
rnsagnrs
rather
Bl-ue theory
of
this
ideologicar
Pink)
q!
y!
annanrliv
of
which
rrrn
ref rLrrv
ere nc
:u!u
e e
ra far anna
noint
to
more
know better
interestinq
reference-wouId
us
to
understand
of
economic
aq nrnrlrrnr i n^,
basis
of
q
a lnrrul
f hanr r r
rrlar
-+
tpa
* The
J
how far
endeavour.
distribution
or
a
v' r
j
F r ' tr
!v!
^h^ice
under
a
^1,^
may rat<e
the
nrF.spnf^' " Y*
r.lFoer
t
being
th
u rar fcL L
form
is
Nouvelle Transnationale
participants.
the
Y a'
rcd.sofl
condi ti ons
of
there
to
f n
any
hurnan
located
from
Econonric
activity
is
of
a paradigrn
l.;irl
attenti on
but
should
is
in
enabling
a possible
then
seen
on the
be a rrrrx,
bernq
scarci ty
a
point
whether
there
escapr-ng
(Aristotelian)
much
reference
others
theorr,z".
theory
eguilibrium
of
an_d
an
endeavour,
we are
-
Blue
as
I{owever,
a rnarket
scarce,
is
as
dernand)
rocated.
(usually
A11
using
and
any
point
is
on neo-classical
and consumption,
abundance
and products
n
a)q
t,vr
r r,q
u -ih
L lr r
-
than
bg a norrnative
scarcity
scrne factors
is
colors
practice.
characterised
c r r n n 'l r
--L.y-!
o z: .'\nilJ r -nt -rla! ct _r L r iu rni n
u
s .c
in
and
criticisecl
an alternative
r^roon
r.rhere one
better
been
angle.And
as a lvart
r-ike
a nucleus
there
equilibrium-oriented,
us e f u r ,
and usef ill
of
goar
rf ur
Uft f l €t hr e r
is
-Y
order
been
rz hof
both
a Green
Red has
is
builcling
using
that
Red-pinl<
the
theory
rf or
Of
say
is
/\ vnar
r - r r I er ' l
* ' t - r vi u!
ut r J
ynoi
v r f lt nt
night
rni_ssing
"Marxism
of
around
wave ) .
have
angle,
also
direction
Green
is
from
is
hurnan experiences
they
there
rnarxist
There
centered
is
+.n +-he BIue,
r.rrrr
I ri Lr
hrilr
i
syurrai ur
and
What
Neo-cl-assical
:
practice,
criticised
Lr!
Red theories
1.
( the
(neo-)
( neo- ) anarchist
the
age-old
rabels,one
theoryi
been
nr:a+ i ns .
in
ind.eed
means capitarist
a
usually
combi ning
has
craan
attempts
-
so has
a
broadly.
pract-Lce,
and B]ue
(or
by Red
from
very
!L
than
.
and
from
used
theory
econo
forrner
v/1Ln new experrments
,,.i
^l- ! ^
- ^- i
former
do more
to
economic
criticisecl,
the
being
economic
about
v,rhich essentially
constructive
alternative
.;
been
and the
terms
overdueo
alternative
practice,
latter
indeed
debate
for
economi€sr
the
is
current
the
socialist
ang1e,
of
the
economic
and both
now cofire,
abundant
) .
A
a perspectrve
not, be seen
outcome of a colloquiurn
held at the Unrversit6
in Paris, Jr-rne 29-30, vrith the authors as
as
-2 -
coinciding
for those
econornic
with
i,vho have
who have
no choices)
t-hat
be appliecl
can
rer:ent'lv
rtnnp
IL rrE
h an
U r -rr
rwuuf
. r ar r ' l' ru
1l
human,
sociai
would
/rna rrt
have
ri
tO
t(
J
to
+rz.
take
simply
of
within
On
In
sociaf
account
a theory
crre'Fonrc
di
^n
r zo r ci
+rz
as
i n
:
based
as
r
on economic
in
theOry
and
symbiosis,
on economic
to
tal<e
ket
and
active
nOdef
n
relationship
world
take
world
into
economic
/{nd in
and their
of
(survi-val,
WOuId haVe tO
among countries
a theory
symbio'Lic
building
hUrnan
needs
fnaf
activity.
balance
In
building
examples )
theory
svml-ri OtiC
have
anC i
e ,
naI_U f
the
account
vrould
( nl an
\ tJfq r
i n
,,,
.
basic
.
JJr r r v!
diversiLy
thcory
balance/maturity,
on diversity
tuhr r sre! . i
a constraint
Ot1^1l
u vyu r -.1ps
cf ear
econOmic
t-ho^r\7
aF
vI
Y
^lobal
of
h
ecological
balance/rnaturity,
.^._-i
two
crgdrrr
---; - db a uuflstraint
=l r-ornrtiVe
the
space
of- soci al
traditional,
cn^^o
-
among human beings
and
of
actiVity
in
paradigms)
econornic
silace,
into
but
hof
- _z
and
take
freedorn),
r,r -- i. t v
theory
eConOmic
to
*i
nature
satisfactron
identity,
activity.
and
the
those
have
alternative
a CLt
aC
b i O t a - a b i O +_ a
have
would
C
In
account
human balance/maturity:
well-being,
for
i-s a perspective
for
e C( )OIIOIIIeC
nOm
L(fJ
CO nSt r aint S
aS
not
".o.,on',i"i=
have competing
reference
l_O
J( J()C
dLe
ate
i. v
narrov.r (valid
too
systerns,
(this
broad
disciplines
of
into
di v er s ' i
they
economic
and v.zorld spaces.
ra I a1 - i nn c h i n
space
other
point
haVe
lldVe
both
arry humanactivitY."
to
A norrnative
being
in
options
and too
but
-
theory,
intO
aCCOunt
systems
symbiotic
coexistence.
2.
An alLernative
qenc-lcL_not
of
a good
ways
of
onlv
theory
the
(highty
not
slgurd
thgory
is
to
to
enf arge
action
within
reasonable
decide
for
normative)
others
injunction
as
actors.
shovring
linits.
reasonable
they
shourcl
be rational.
in
The task
spaces,
what
to
hurnan beings
see
entrepreneur.g__gg_1ctivq,,
obtaining,
The tasl-* is
economic
as many
do,
Thus,
goals.
under
following
Kant
the task must also be to search for those types
of econornic
'
behaviour
thar- are both compatibre
with
the goals
indicated
above
space,
(which
can
"somatic,
"development"
in
be described
as
mental
and
social
space,
"ecological
spiritual
and
balance"
health"
"peace"
in
in
in
nature
human space,
world
space)
and
-3 -
can'
principle,
in
What
alternative
clusters
It
is
econonic
then
for
their
designing
strategies,
totarly
of
compatible.
final
(since
economic
m c r r r in cr )
such
3.
e nrdu
sr
/
even
It
will
or
but
af so the
the
effects
social
take
near
trn this
individuaf,
inter-firm
conceptualisations
And,
inary"
road
4.
to
better,
more
but
totaf
the
stands
to
look
qrry
in
be
human,
f or
more
it
at
the
than
f irms.
inter-
transcends
as
variables,
"economic"
t
seen
account
nature,
svstems
"transnational"
also
activity,
into
tradition
for
a firm,
actor,
economic
take
and
econom ic
the
stands
such
as a
for
more
and
"transdiscipl-
stations
than
on the
conceptuafisations.
theory
marxist
shoul-d
not
only
be eclectic,
( green ) elernents.
and anarchist
be
r
in_ i9elLgm19_![i+E_1rr-g_Serr_gome
Jelss,
given
economic
activity
of
cl-assical
international
courd
economic
ideally
abstraction
be global
to
only
bool<-l<eeping
trends
certain
not
variabres
only
efforts
on neo-classical,
should
of
The words
An alternative
based
It
are
the
correspondingly,"holistic"
inter-disciplinary.
as the
fnr.rrrA c
to\nror*o
-nh\76r^dn^d
-onvergence
(and
" gloical "
into
that
is inperatireto
it
the
and
social
thing
economic
initiated
spectrum
connection
towards
effects
that
of
goal-
are
such
account
and
out
no
have
spaces - and not
coming
developing
any other
necessarify
and remote
re-actors);
on a broad
essentially
is
in
goals,
space.
into
a country
and worl-d
whole.
theory
like
moving,as
:qrrmnl -nf
+-heorv will
i
r .,
(r1r dctors
-.i
crt-Lr-vrLy
-^ r
an individual
always
nr.r
,.,
j
in
An af ternative
holistic.
is
cr > r la in Ir t
point
abstract
There
to
processes
theory'
an approximation
theory
collective,
the
be classes,
solutions.
them,
economic
a fluv.
point
optimal
or
would
obtaining
which
in
for
the
the
to
look
universalisable).
challenging
for
be
not
than
new processes
alvrays
theory,
shoufd
individual
extent
(are
everybody
including
Consequently
w-i]l
by
rather
human actors,
new indicators
theory
in
theory
possibilities
of
design
'i q
be engaged
certain
val-ues
for
theory
is
choices
parameters.
not
to
in
the
rn
be identified
of
gqt
field
the
of
other
with
qbea,ry
as
assumptions,
words,
green
spe
even
arternative
economic
theory.
-4-
Rafh er--
ii
where
s hO UI d
ru
t
-
is
horizons
green
narrow
theory
economic
more
into
than
is
Put
*
possible
in
be room both
for
with
in
but
An alternative
itself
classical
theory
can
emergence
of
bourgeoisie
in
need
of
replaced
and the
the
the
of
point
econornics
power
on buying
aman+
coercive
/
j n^
/ -qv
n vnv n
s r r, , n #in n
to
fh o n r r r
for
company,
vari-ables
to
than
the
the
*ho
this
theory
the
relatively
be
with
the
they
were
rather
of
than
the
as
an ernpirical
under
i na
basis
was,
iL-ha
.tg
^q
power,
of
i rra
of
course,
U
u i trni t
Of
L
"economic".
-
v!
cand
aC C OU nti noL r tty
q u u vu tl
no accounti-ng
and world
spaces.
theory
and knowledge
and to
again
shop-keeping
neo-classical
imrrediate,
exchange
nr '\r
yvw
sr o^7pr q
- with
social
time
The
some rul-es
n^r
n^]r r vr l l r q L !vu
qhnn
the
"capitalistics".
type
clergy
aristocracy.
econoinics
sel-l-ing
space
the
Neo-
became
human,
in
into
market
their
an
mjxes.
on the
conditioned
the
deemed to
for
of
build
parallel
of
only
a scl-ence.
tradition
enterprise/company
nature,
to
a narrow
indeed,
be
of optiornl
society:
becoming
1- anl
r ^ iifh
by
Epistemologically
contracting
and
And their
be followed
tradition
a theory
f athef
power.
for
de facto
needed
based
of
as,
-
not
range
and complemented
bourgeoisie
departure
of
as
as emerging
should
certainly
woul-d have
on top
there
Keynes
a theory
econornics
much
practice
theory
a broad
tradition
the
bourgeoisie
^ A mn 'l
theorv
theory
alternative
be combined,
includes
less
paradigms.
red
will
can
our
or
and take
and J.M.
theological/philosophical
The behaviour
science;
Marx
within
of
juridical/military
positive
and the
KarI
be seen
alternative
same time,
economic
theory
a self -understanding
expand
a more
sensitive
approaches
econornic
This
words.
into
The theory
An eclectic
and green
should
the
cOCietieS
and construc+-ive
blue
practice
in
afso
at
alternative
how these
alternatives.
5.
the
and Gandhi.
concerned
theory
them
Adam Srni-th.
for
I(ropotkin,
contract
criticism
within
differently:
theory
for
red,
other
the
that
be much more
green
account
in
although,
would
theorv
blue,
society",
and not
corner
have
would
idea
the
c l \ / e r a r r : h 'i n n
aq
a "rainbow
j-n l-i-ne v.rith
economic
Se e n
behaviour
economic
cornponents
be
to
by
the
range
of
-5-
Fiowever,
The
Nations
United
I i
r(Lqy t-^
vE rrrr^Lu
-1.^,]
in
of
need
fLr r he
Lr ! i
r
been
c lwn
ministries
the
national
+-he U.N.
sysLem
However,
economic
to
snfl trrr€ats
! l^- ^r J -
the
try
to
to
ahorro-
brrf
behind
these
,
to
.v v
do it
with
changes
in
,
forces
to
6.
In
vu v4 !
i nf o
bro uoht
t-he type
mention
l<ind
with
the
ecq_eolllic l"eqt
.
tend to havc blind
spaces,
thinking
irrqt
If
has
been
mcnt.ioned,
certain
of
above,
th e r z
then
is
f65
of
anci r,vill
ancl in
A re
e
and
i nr-anahl o
in
q^v
type
try
to
then
of
the
theory
q o r r e ] _ h i n cr
economics,
to
that
,an;ara.\'i rl * - YIJ'
highfy
as
a rnajor
economists
social
themsel-ves
be conditioned
not
construct.
seen
, human,
how they
tlre net outccnte nny b
forces
the
the
f o
neo-classj-cal
nf
out-
conditions,
are
addition
not
StrUCtUral
of
rrq
the
nature
is
"qj
wiIl
economi-sts
boLh
that
refl-ected
socio-cultural
unav/are
and
are
only
they
of
theory
lection
enahl
on
as pointed
efforts
CUItUral
to
not
society
spots
factors
ih e l-
as
so
closer
health
as determinants
seen
in
imbalances
economic
the
vei"y
activity
spirituaf
theory
contemporary
be relatively
and historical
r r n r - p f l a r . fin r r
of
rvhat
line
ecological
wOrdS ,
t hr = n r y
s+-aying
of
these
that
new directions
terms
of
the
at
be done.
"below",
and
has
arnong
cl-ear
to
tovrards
of
rzari.al-rlgg
econolnic
economic
are
nf
remai-n
equally
legitimation
of
ecsrncmistsrand
of
come out
will
In
t hc
and
so much self -ref
Other
and constraints
about
that
*
respectiveiy,
quite
alternative
all
Such efforts
interactlon
is
f rom
mental
(within
porveriul
of
irnpact
in
of
integrate
l- lr.onrrz i +-eo 1 f .
be
-
somatic,
The task
human beings.
only
the
by walching
to
^
irnpetus
a society
among agencies
it
work
for
a whole.
rAncrF
of
and
corne more
and on human space
nature
-
has
thinking
level-s
f he
although
the
as
new groups
because
level
recently
ground
the
n o 'l v
r r YfJ
and practical
rnuch theoretical
world
" social
ef f orts
own activity
their
some extent
to
at
of
for
introdr-rced
sirnilar
and r,vorld
social
Cnr r eqnc l n d - i
nowpr
of
emergence
a theory
expanded
level
the
the
for
expanded.
accounting
are
there
system)
the
to
at
bureaucrats
are
been
tradition
66 nationdl
to
and there
as a v,rhole,
the
an effort
as
certainly
democratic
socialist/social
economics"
has
vision
this
and world
and threir
by cultural
are
i nc
LrrrY
so philosophically
l -hc
nni
nl -q
yvfr r L o
counter-productive.
-6-
These
and the
-
it
so the
more
is
the
scientists
social
positions.
theory
would
factor
that
For
7.
it
shows
frorn
for
the
important
to
also
it
can
sone
red;
the
between
total
the
" joinL"
(f or
ways
a v/ay of
becomes
of
relat-ional
due to
the
life
may be
in
accounting
balances.
the
iirstance
doing
more
global
actor
environment,
that
this
cones
and one
accounting
conputing
only
A?
the
net
balance
what
.
only
of
the
There
are
to
inomenl the
a circle
passes
the
loo]<
then
a measure
draw
balance.
in
one night
the
a
branch
show the
is
nation
VJithin
another
note
for
nation
subtract
case,
c expectancy
to
of
that
analogy,
refuses
question
of
to
autornatj-c
Lhe
expectancy
and
l-ittle
not
expectancy
and construct
lif
or
be constructed.
nation
have
the
avel:age
that,
in
black
would
Using
life
of
of
But
interestinc
can
life
expectancy
as effects
and nations.
aspect,
the
not,
one
locatedr
interesting.
is
refative
low
because
expectancies
aspects
also
should
An indicator
classes
t-*he hiqh
Shoufd
thini<ing
an economic
the
is
are
life
raises
A + B as a "dyad"
nation
the
not
are needed to nnke
aggregation
a whole
the
rnodest
indispensable,
there
of
races,
out
be shorvn that
f rom the
one branch
compare
other
econornic
are
as causes.
as
from
nore
ef f orts
problems
the
And this
of
Although
l-evefs
world
bring
versa.
firm,
to
only
extent
soraething
high
are
self-reflection
and
new -indicators
genders,
aspect.
and vice
nany
factor.
originate,
age groups,
Irnagine
at
the
where
expectancy
how indicators
A to
insight
and more holistic,
too
they
relational
B,
against
comparisons
But
global
in
they
an enoogenous,
as
that
by many.
out
where
is
economists
chanqe
insufficicntly
different
of
will
more
be a cauti-on
fife
see
different
present,
at
systerns
placed
words r dr^r af ternative
hoping
pointed
been
indications
and
to
other
economic
and higher
usually,
e>lpanded book-keepinq,
as has
it
In
in
makes them
that
who are
factor,
exogenous
numerous
factor
have
as an input
serve
more
latter
sociaf
on
then,
economists,
indicate
approach
around
the
borderline
i
-l -
A major
ts
in
at
the
the
f irrns
of
level
tend
to
because
of
explor ing
of
inteqration.
be seen
book-keeping
the
the
isolation
Corresponoingly,
to
innmediaLely
the
into
that
rrray be rather
that
some of
inore
than
desiderata
in
this
factors
for
the
be any
theory,
has
the
also
has
using
combination
have
mention
at
all.
for
the
In
to
of
such
godlike
lnn rr
f ir . e
free
society
goals
hnt : iz O n
of
rather
pernanent
fn
of
l-evel
and
a high
invisibles
innovative
course,
of
dynanism.
dynamisnr
coupling
and dynamism
struggle
goal
that
should
only
is
The
of
in
to
of
of
actors
in
time
conpetitors
planners
the
the
of
but
than
ancl by
guaranteed
'tradc
in
a
a
itsel-f
becausc
i;-r visibles
through
af foat.
as
as
economy
in
reraain
viorld
opposite,
throuEh
in
also
scl-f-sufficiency
rather
is
but
order
rrake a surprise
to
quaranl:eed
to
socialist
witharefatively
above,
grov;th,
space
the
in
Ievel
:rl
al-so
charac+-eristics)
Capitalist
than
i crr l
i J q r9 g L L f '
(or
discontinuj-ties,
no other
addition
of
of
nor
and. oir.nipotence
frorn
lead
such
nar1-
static;
&hy ef fort
dialectically
state
has
ctynamic.
economy,
as major
unrest,
sense
the
Of
would
bursts
cer:tain
of
high
not
l rl nra
dynanic.
ornniscience
as
solutions;
not
become more
rrrords,
should
there
point
theory:
c-ircumstance
theoryl
siqnificance
economic
a rel-atively
through
fixing
and by
us
other
mentioncd
optimum
practice
the
to rilal<e the econorrry surprise
f ree not only
in space
'time, achieving
a certain
irninun:-ty Lo tne inf fuencc
conjunctures
reach
gets
econornic
theory,
strong
of
to
just
poin+-s
one vcry
a tendency
as much as they
mannerr
and equilibrium.
economic
alternative
their
not
econoiilic
alternative
but
to
perspectives.
holistic
profitabilitv,
theory
characterise
advances
easier
alternative
strong
as harnonv
notions
neo-cl assical
do for
disreqard
as efficiency,
such
recent-
broader
be neasurable
alternative
theory
to
gases
probl
worl< to
of
for
actor
a more
in
may not
Regardless
v
rnal<e it
incommensurable,
them
enough
would
one
think
but
t-he
theory
iner--
of
be
to
words
poses
this
atonis
traditiono
of
other
neo-cfassical
social
coupling
of
in
is
have
also
actors,
fn
as the
will
global,
more
hecorning
degrees
froni
out
Across
of
theory
economic
This
level-.
indicator
direction
problern
alternative
tl-Ie externalities.
internalise
done
for
slogan
the
It
is
r.r
-B -
to
South,
L-o appreciatc
particular
theory
the
range
i n
of
Anv
s eller -
A ioh
r
hunan
beings;
i:ind
is
--A+
hr
v ! v c rnar
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uc-.LcYv!
h
o
"iry
social
that
s n oei al
f ornation,
but
anrt -Airarrarl
of
that
in
lil:raries
,
crisis,
in
and
of
situaIions
for
do not
non-vrork,
but
is
no
that
engage
in
thc
.^^^5+ 3h'r ^
activity.
/ i n other
\
rrlqJ
rn av
rrsrIJ
he l
n
hr
ui l di ^^
vu!fuIrIY
and
in
addition,
But
it
is
in
the
^^^r
DvvIqI
of
^t
broad-er
meaningfufness
alternative
econoraic
of
concepl
labour
than
on the
can
has
of
iraraly
::,c.y,
a
thcm
certain
indicate
that
is
broad
the
to
the
to
unemploynent
vrho prescribe
such
For
may be obtaj-nedl
in
sense
a life
theniselves.
a large
it
airy
has
to
Other
also
exterrt
in
l-s
be organised
WOfdS SeIf-realiSatiOn,
be socially
useful
and
and meanj_ngf uI ) , they
and
of
derrel
ugve!vl:J
on
v;ork
based
lvith
on the
ahi
qv!!rLJ
tLvo
l i f v
" intcresting"
vrorl< that
be realised.
to
f or
a
a person
be econor.rically
a job-concept
rnarl<e't.
can
qllu
category
theory
in
those
legitinate
.llELv{v!J\J
^ ': t v l o r ] <s
course,
existential
work
Jobs
words
rr
in
!rl
a.ctivity
rvor]< to
4f
of
nuch
o is
solution
developrnent
'r
a part
Ial co ur -
normal _
"productive",
since
the
seerns to
sustained
fact
hunan
on
fhe
n r =c F s q i f r z
To condemn
the
set-ti ng
Lo ccnsuriiption
observation
it-self.
by
n
cancerl.
a
than
IIEvUJJIU)
goal-direcLed
actrvrty
synonymous with
'in qrrch:
\^rav that
hUman develOpment,
is
located
ol= non-S,roduction
structural
need
sal ary
consi dered
JuIuuLu!qa
wo;:ds,
hurnan space,
in
r
the
a
v,' i fl l i
,levot-ea
sr,vimming pools
usually
"soluti ons"
indicate
be
:.s
oi: non-naterial
ernpirical
other
indicated
as
to
j oc
rather
is
only
q
CtJ
the
A
agai nst
situation
tirae
dsserts
term,
done
i l orl -,
Lrrvi_JIs
soon
very
af so
have
should
theorv.
ces n nateria-l-
ri.IJVlI
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versus
afte::nativc
and
srrb-cateoorv
!vv:r\.
' - ^^. ^1^
even
growLh
a
Leisu:e
'i-rn nqr r r l
l-.ilJU)U!r
this
point
society
l abour-buyer
a prolonged
sustainal:le.
theory
is
L he
^+
course,
prefer
t-he
of
by
vL
-:1
goods/servi
of
variable
a l i e n a te d,
decided
c ondit j, o n s
of
and
z c r nr tl
zone.
c e n tre p i e c e
o fte n
v ;o rk ,
a major
econonic
alternative
itlorth
Korea,
freezing
to
Of
one rnight
rvirich
tar nnov- - af
a
close
point.
as
rerftperarec
:
work .i s
wher e
this
or
significancc
trenendous
boiling
have
vril-hin
n a rrh n q
and West,
societj,es
to
close
should
10.
the
factor:
societics
East
Europe,
visit
enough
self
hs
a
r - no n e r a f
vvvysLqLU
.
-realisation,
consequence
a i'nuch broader
buying
and
selling
p-
-9-
I I -
A ma
ior
Iry
ta s l <
.'
helrcf ul
can
be
of
a P$_ggr-;3lren
in the sense
the
what
of
should
questions,
with
postulates
as has
a l - sSoO
of
the
those
trends
can
be
a slretegy
fn
precise
nore
theory
and prectiction,
dates
in
ord-er
other
be done,
but
to
nor,v lvithin
tvords,
,r.n. c. j a n 1 n g
and vlhy it
answers
-
and
should
should
derive
f rom
away
eq-
S
! f_r a- f c* . c l i
econonics
unini:eded,
"bent"
course.
v$_Lt shoufd
nuch
continue
a goal,
cC(O
- )nr rt a
t ai nt - n
generations
for
done
if
situation,
horv, v/heL and where
do it,
description
been
v;elf are
al-so
Lhe present
presc:ibed,
alternative
about
irnnl ications
implication
cf
hor,.r trends
the
vrho shall
lL-O be
rJ
oolicv
policy
the
indicating
of
sShOU
r lou l -l cdr
but
e_xp_g_!_Ee_l Thus,
content
hai:i:en
analysis
only
be done,
of
is
y
description-prediction-prescription-
indicatj-ng
towards
not
f ron'. which
forrn
sense
ir nnlic at
, * iO
. lt rnS
()rrs
that
qht
insi
wilI
the
fL r r heorv
u v!
ecOnomi c!e
a description
in
predicted
no lir-v
by
in
cornplex:
a rrrediction
the
of
The general
located
strategy
al ternati ve
a reservoir
as
be drarvn.
would
of
to
at
not
use
the
lvhose
rest
its
strategies
the
field
of
econonnics.
12.
red /pinl<
nY-=-=:-:-=-Y-=racf
ir - e
lior
in fo
should
alternative
a
it
arzni di n^
SllDe r - SVSfe-
the
assurte
vrould
and greelr
pessinrsm
elimrnate
aI1
econ_omic thought
f he
-l l
of
those
necra1-
iVe
who believe
and
faC L S .
that
the
rt
positive
combining
aspects,
the
tl
worst
of
Alternatj-ve
in
the
ones.
with
capitali-sm
theory
thought
should
prison
bf
the
worst
look
having
for
to
of
socialism,
for
new solutions,
design
trade-offs
not
instance.
be caught
between
o1d