MSE and beliefs about forgetting and aging - 1
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Title
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Older adults’ beliefs about forgetting and aging predict memory self-efficacy above and
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beyond actual memory performance and mental health
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Running head
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MSE and beliefs about forgetting and aging
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Authors
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Fanny VALLETab, Stefan AGRIGOROAEIc, Marine BEAUDOINb, Nathalie FOURNETd,
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Adeline PAIGNONb, Jean-Luc ROULINd, Olivier DESRICHARDa
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Institutional affiliation
Groupe de Recherche en Psychologie de la Santé, Faculté de Psychologie et des Sciences de
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a
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l’éducation & Swiss National Centre of Competence in Research LIVES - Overcoming
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Vulnerability: Life Course Perspectives, Geneva University, Geneva, Switzerland
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b
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Chambéry, France
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c
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Neuve, Belgium
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d
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Chambéry, France
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Correspondence
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Fanny Vallet
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Groupe de Recherche en Psychologie de la Santé
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Faculté de Psychologie et des Sciences de l’éducation
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Geneva University
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Geneva, Switzerland
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+41(0) 22.379.97.63; [email protected]; [email protected]
Laboratoire Inter-universitaire de Psychologie (LIP, EA 4145), Université de Savoie,
Psychological Sciences Research Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-
Laboratoire de Psychologie et Neurocognition (LPNC, UMR 5105), Université de Savoie,
MSE and beliefs about forgetting and aging - 2
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Acknowledgements
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We thank Rhône-Alpes Regional Council for their financial support.
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MSE and beliefs about forgetting and aging - 3
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Abstract
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Memory Self-Efficacy (MSE) in older adults is linked to memory decline and mental health.
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However, the relation between MSE and older adults’ beliefs about forgetting and aging is
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rarely evaluated. In the present study, we hypothesized that beliefs about forgetting and aging
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predict MSE for older adults, regardless of actual memory performance and mental health.
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We analyzed data from a community sample of 298 participants aged between 57 and 87
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years, using three indicators of MSE (including one of perceived temporal change in
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memory), a measure of beliefs about forgetting and aging, and measures of memory
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performance, depression, trait-anxiety, and subjective health. The results support our
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hypothesis, thereby highlighting the need to consider adherence to beliefs about forgetting
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and aging when investigating variations in MSE in older adults.
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Keywords
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Memory self-efficacy, aging, beliefs about forgetting and aging
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MSE and beliefs about forgetting and aging - 4
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Introduction
The importance of considering both the cold (cognitive system efficiency) and hot
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(motivation) determinants of behaviors when studying cognitive functioning has been
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repeatedly highlighted by researchers (e.g., Esposito, Rochat, Juillerat Van der Linden, Lekeu,
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Charnallet & Van der Linden, 2014; Hess, Emery & Neupert, 2012; Penningroth & Scott,
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2007). This issue is particularly important when research shows quantitative differences in
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cognitive performance between younger and older people, and when such results are viewed
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as a consequence of differences in cognitive system efficiency, without considering
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motivational explanations. In fact, motivational factors may influence how much effort older
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people expend in performing cognitive tasks (Barber & Mather, 2013; Desrichard & Kopetz,
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2005; Hess, 2005; Hess, Emery, & Neupert, 2012; Kit, Tuokko & Mateer, 2008; Lamont,
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Swift & Abrams, 2015), so it is important to consider older people’s motivation to succeed on
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a cognitive task when investigating memory decline and attempting to assess true memory
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abilities. Furthermore, memory is a central factor in older adults’ self-concept and life-
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satisfaction (Dark-Freudeman, West, & Viverito, 2006; Stephan et al., 2011). The present
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paper examines how beliefs about memory and aging influence elders' motivational resources
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relating to memory performance.
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The motivational approach to memory decline has focused on several beliefs about
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memory. For example, beliefs about memory functioning, strategies to control memory
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functioning, and strategies to mitigate memory decline have been assessed in order to
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examine how people at different ages approach memory demanding situations (Agrigoroaei &
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Lachman, 2010; Hertzog, McGuire, Horhota, & Jopp, 2010; Horhota, Lineweaver, Ositelu,
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Summers, & Hertzog, 2011). One widely studied motivational construct is Memory Self-
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Efficacy (MSE), defined as “beliefs about one's own capability to use memory effectively in
MSE and beliefs about forgetting and aging - 5
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various situations” (Hertzog, Hultsch, & Dixon, 1989, p. 687). Poor MSE may lead people to
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disengage from cognitive tasks because they expect to perform poorly. Consequently, because
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MSE is known to decline with age (Beaudoin, Agrigoroaei, Desrichard, Fournet, & Roulin,
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2008; Berry, West, & Dennehey, 1989; Hultsch, Hertzog, & Dixon, 1987; Lineweaver &
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Hertzog, 1998; McDonald-Miszczak, Hertzog, & Hultsch, 1995) and to be linked to memory
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performance (Beaudoin & Desrichard, 2011), it is plausible that MSE contributes to memory
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decline with age (Beaudoin & Desrichard, submitted; Berry & West, 1993; Dixon, Rust,
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Feltmate, & Kwong See, 2007; Valentijn et al., 2006; West, Bagwell, & Dark-Freudeman,
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2008).
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From this perspective, it is crucial to know which factors influence MSE. Bandura
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(1977) assumed that performance accomplishments and emotional arousal are sources of
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efficacy expectations. Indeed, a meta-analysis of the MSE-actual memory performance
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relationship has shown a low but significant weighted mean correlation between MSE and
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memory performance, r = .15 (Beaudoin & Desrichard, 2011), suggesting that previous
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experiences of memory failure may influence MSE, in turn affecting a person's motivation to
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expend effort in performing memory tasks. However, the low effect size also suggests that
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other factors are likely to impact MSE. In fact, MSE has been shown to be related to affective
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factors such as depression (e.g., Johansson, Allen-Burge, & Zarit, 1997; Zelinsky & Gilewski,
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2004) and anxiety (e.g., West, Bagwell, & King, 2006), suggesting that poor mental health
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leads to low MSE.
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Beliefs about forgetting and aging may also affect MSE (e.g., Lane & Zelinski, 2003;
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McDonald-Miszczak et al., 1995). Cavanaugh, Feldman and Hertzog (1998) suggested that
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self-knowledge about memory is not a fact; rather, it is a belief imbedded in more general
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response patterns such as implicit theories about aging or personal constructs. Social and
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culturally shared beliefs about forgetting and aging (Levy & Langer, 1994) have been
MSE and beliefs about forgetting and aging - 6
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identified, with participants reporting decreases in memory with age for other adults and for
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themselves (Lineweaver, Berger, & Hertzog, 2009; Lineweaver & Hertzog, 1998; Ryan,
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1992; Ryan & Kwong See, 1993). This belief leads people to attribute memory failures to
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different causes according to the age of the person experiencing the memory failure. Hence,
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memory failures are more likely to be attributed to mental difficulties and lack of ability in the
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case of older adults, and to a lack of effort or lack of attention in the case of younger adults
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(e.g., Erber, Prager, Williams, & Caiola, 1996; Erber, Szuchman, & Rothberg, 1990; Parr &
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Siegert, 1993). In addition, older adults have a greater tendency than younger adults to cite
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age as a cause of their memory failures (Devolder & Pressley, 1992; Jennings & Darwin,
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2003; Vestergren & Nilsson, 2011).
Indirect evidence suggests that beliefs about forgetting and aging influence the way
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people evaluate their own memory efficiency. Jennings and Darwin (2003) reported a positive
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link between beliefs in the impact of age on memory performance and reports of memory
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failures. In addition, ageist response bias measured via the Knowledge of Memory Aging
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Questionnaire is associated with higher self-reported frequency of forgetting (Cherry,
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Brigman, Reese-Melancon, Burton-Chase, & Holland, 2013). Direct evidence provided by
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Fort, Aboul, Holl, Kaddour, and Gana (2004) shows that a greater conception of memory
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change with aging (i.e., stereotypes about aging) is associated with lower contentment with
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one’s memory abilities and with increased reporting of memory problems. Thus, both
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theoretical considerations and empirical results suggest that older adults’ beliefs about older
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people experiencing more memory failures could influence their own MSE. However, the
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literature provides only limited support for this hypothesis. In addition, we are unaware of any
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studies that have specifically tested the relationship between MSE and beliefs about forgetting
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and aging, while controlling for memory performance and mental health, although these
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factors could influence both MSE and adherence to beliefs about forgetting and aging. The
MSE and beliefs about forgetting and aging - 7
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objective of the present research was to evaluate this hypothesis more directly by empirically
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examining the relationship between beliefs about forgetting and aging and MSE, while
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controlling for several factors.
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Method
Participants
Participants were 298 independent-living adults (145 men and 153 women), aged
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between 57 and 87 years (M = 69.416, SD = 7.750), who had been recruited for a three-stage
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longitudinal study of memory and aging. This study was designed to achieve several
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objectives, including the establishment of norms for working memory performance (Fournet
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et al., 2012) and the assessment, using validated scales, of the determinants and consequences
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of MSE (e.g., Beaudoin et al., 2008). In the first stage of the study, we used a random
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stratified method to select participants from a pool list of people. The analyses described in
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the present paper were conducted on data obtained during the second stage of the study
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because this was the only stage in which all the measures presented (e.g., MIA-Capacity)
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were assessed. We eliminated data for participants who scored lower than 26 on the Mini
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Mental State Examination (MMSE, Folstein, Folstein, & McHugh, 1975; Kalafat, Hugonot-
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Diener, & Poitrenaud, 2003), consequently, the participants’ mean score on the MMSE was
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high (M = 28.523, SD = 1.198). We assessed participants’ autonomy via the Instrumental
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Activities of Daily Living scale (IADL, Israël, 1996a; Lawton & Brody, 1969), evaluated on a
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4-point scale from 1 (autonomous) to 4 (dependent), which showed that the participants were
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autonomous (median value = 1, M = 1.082, SD = 0.187).
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Measures
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We administered the measures in random order, although the experiment was designed
so participants never had to complete two memory-performance tasks one directly after the
MSE and beliefs about forgetting and aging - 8
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other. All the measures were paper and pencil, except for the squares and words used in the
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short-term memory tasks, which were presented on a computer screen.
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Beliefs about forgetting and aging
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We measured beliefs about forgetting and aging (BAFA) via six vignettes
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(Agrigoroaei, 2007) describing daily forgetting in which either a woman (i.e., Marie) or a man
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(i.e., Paul) forgets something (e.g., “Five minutes ago, Paul put his keys somewhere but
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doesn’t remember where” and “Yesterday Paul was introduced to someone, but he has
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forgotten his name”). Each vignette was associated with two questions assessing two
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complementary aspects of the beliefs (i.e., beliefs about forgetting and aging for others and
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for self): “Do you think this type of situation occurs more often to young people or more often
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to older people?” (adapted from research about gender stereotypes, White, Kruczek, Brown,
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& White, 1989; White & White, 2006) and “If this situation occurred to you, would you say it
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was because of your age?” (adapted from Prohaska, Keller, Leventhal, & Leventhal, 1987).
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This measure allowed us to measure adherence to the belief that normal daily forgetting
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occurs more frequently in older adults than in younger adults and associations between one’s
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own age and forgetting. We used the responses to determine differences between participants’
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adherence to BAFA. Responses to these two questions were given on a 6-point scale, from 1
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(much more often to young people) to 6 (much more often to old people) for the first question,
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and from 1 (certainly not because of my age) to 6 (very likely because of my age) for the
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second question. We calculated BAFA scores by averaging the 12 responses obtained for the
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six vignettes (α = .826). Higher scores indicate a greater tendency to associate forgetting with
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aging. Final scores could range from 1 to 6.
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Memory self-efficacy
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We used two MSE measures that are commonly used in studies of aging: the Memory
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Self Efficacy Questionnaire (MSEQ, Berry et al., 1989) and the Capacity subscale of the
MSE and beliefs about forgetting and aging - 9
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Metamemory In Adulthood questionnaire (MIA-Capacity, Dixon, Hultsch, & Hertzog, 1988).
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Although both these questionnaires measure MSE, they differ in the way they assess it, as the
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MSEQ is based on performance-prediction and the MIA-Capacity subscale is based on
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memory-rating measures (Beaudoin & Desrichard, 2011).
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The MSEQ includes six memory exercises of the type “If someone showed you
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pictures of 16 familiar objects (e.g., lamp, umbrella, etc.), would you be able to look at them
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once and recall the names of all 16 objects, 12 of the 16 objects, 8 of the 16 objects, 4 of the
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16 objects, 2 of the 16 objects?” In the French version of the MSEQ (Beaudoin et al., 2008),
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participants predict their performance on each task, even though they are not required to
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perform the task, by giving yes/no responses for each possible answer. The maximum number
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of "yes" responses for each exercise is five. This is the highest level of memory performance
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prediction. Final scores were calculated by averaging the levels of memory predictions across
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all six exercises (α = .793), with a high score indicating a high level of MSE.
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The MIA-Capacity scale (Boucheron, 1995) asks participants to respond to 17 items
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(e.g., “I am good at remembering names”) on a 5-point scale from 1 (strongly agree) to 5
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(strongly disagree). Scores were calculated by reversing 15 of the items (two items were
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worded negatively) and then averaging the responses to the 17 items (α = .779). A high score
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indicates a high level of MSE.
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Retrospective functioning
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Because the MSEQ and MIA-Capacity scales measure MSE at a single point in time,
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we also used a modified version of the Retrospective Functioning subscale of the Memory
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Functioning Questionnaire (MFQ-RF, Gilewski & Zelinski, 1988; French version: Israël,
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1996b) in order to obtain a measure of perceived temporal change in memory. The MFQ-RF
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asks participants to compare their current memories with their memories at different times in
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the past (i.e., one month ago, one year ago, 5 years ago, 10 years ago, 20 years ago and when
MSE and beliefs about forgetting and aging - 10
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participants were 18 years old) for six items. Responses are given on a 5-point scale from 1
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(current memory is much worse than past memory) to 5 (current memory is much better than
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past memory). Scores are calculated by averaging the responses to the six items (α = .844),
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with a high score indicating a low perceived decline in memory.
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Memory performance
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We chose to measure episodic memory and short-term memory performances, as these
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memory domains are known to be sensitive to age-related change (Maylor, 2005), and
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especially in the case of episodic memory to be linked to MSE (Beaudoin & Desrichard,
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2011). We used both spatial and verbal materials to test each of these types of memory. One
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reason for using different materials to assess different types of memory is that participants
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may evaluate different types of memory differently; hence, the relation between memory and
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MSE may differ depending on the memory task used. The moderate correlations among the
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different types of memory performance (maximum correlation = .422) underline the utility of
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measuring several different aspects of memory.
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Shape recall. We used a visual episodic memory measure from the Batterie
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d’Efficience Mnésique l44 (BEM 144, a French battery of memory tests, Signoret, 1991).
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Participants were asked to look at a complex shape for one minute and then to reproduce it in
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as much detail as possible. Three independent judges rated the results, giving scores on a
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scale from 0 to 12 (intraclass coefficient = .989, p < .001). A high score indicated a high level
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of performance.
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Story recall. The verbal episodic memory measure we used was also taken from the
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BEM 144. After listening to the experimenter read a 12-sentence story, participants had to
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repeat the story in as much detail as possible. The experimenter attributed points for each pre-
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defined element that was recalled. Instructions, story reading, and point attributions were
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standardized. Experimenters were trained to administrate this task in order to ensure measures
MSE and beliefs about forgetting and aging - 11
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of performance were reliable. Final scores could range from 0 to 12 and a high score indicated
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a high level of performance.
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Word-list recall. We used a second measure of verbal episodic memory taken from the
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MEM-III (Weshsler, 2001). Participants were asked to memorize a set of 24 familiar words,
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with no restrictions on the time they had to study the words. They then had to recall as many
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of the words as possible. Scores were the number of words recalled correctly (from 0 to 24)
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and a high score indicated a high level of performance.
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Verbal span. We assessed short-term verbal memory via a measure taken from
Fournet et al. (2012). Participants were presented with words in a sequence and asked to
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recall these words in the order in which they appeared. We used two equivalent lists of single-
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syllable, concrete words that were phonologically different and controlled for frequency. The
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task was divided into levels of increasing difficulty, with two trials at each level. Scores were
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short-term spans and a high score indicated a high level of performance.
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Location span. The short-term visuo-spatial memory measure we used was also taken
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from Fournet et al. (2012). After being presented with a pattern of squares that were filled in
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one by one, participants had to recall the locations of the filled-in squares in the order in
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which they appeared. The task was divided into levels of increasing difficulty, with two trials
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at each level. Scores were short-term spans and a high score indicated a high level of
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performance.
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Mental health
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Anxiety. We used the trait version of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI,
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Bruchon-Schweitzer & Paulhan, 1993; Spielberger, Gorsuch, Lushene, Vagg, & Jacobs,
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1983). Participants were asked to respond to 20 items using a 4-point scale from 1 (almost
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never) to 4 (almost always). Scores were calculated by averaging the responses for the 20
MSE and beliefs about forgetting and aging - 12
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items after reversing items where this was appropriate (α = .880). A high score indicated a
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high level of anxiety.
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Depression. We used the depression subscale of the Symptom Check-List Revised
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(SCL-90 R, Derogatis, 1977; Pariente & Guelfi, 1990). Participants were asked to respond to
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11 items using a 5-point scale from 1 (no, not at all) to 5 (yes, extremely). Scores were
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calculated by averaging responses to the 11 items (α = .848). A high score indicated a high
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level of depression.
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Subjective health. Subjective health was measured via a single question “Do you think
your health is currently…” Participants were asked to respond using a 5-point scale from 1
(very good) to 5 (very bad). A high score indicated a low level of subjective health.
Results
Bivariate correlations, means, and standard deviations of BAFA and MSE scores are
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presented in Table 11. Correlations revealed a significant negative relationship between
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beliefs about forgetting and aging and MSE and perceived temporal changes in memory
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scores: the stronger the belief that forgetting and age are associated, the lower a participant’s
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self-evaluated memory efficacy (MSEQ and MIA-Capacity) and the higher a participant’s
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self-evaluated memory decline over time (MFQ-RF).
MSE and beliefs about forgetting and aging - 13
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Table 1
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Correlations between BAFA and MSE scores
Measure
N
Means
SD
1
2
3
4
1- MSEQ
298
3.02
0.55
-
2- MIA-Capacity
298
3.31
0.50
.302**
-
3- MFQ-RF
297
2.35
0.49
.104
.273**
-
4- Beliefs about
forgetting and aging
5- Age
298
3.81
0.72
-.255**
-.331**
-.308**
-
298
69.42
7.75
-.198**
-.179**
-.241**
.345**
6- Level of education
294
4.95
1.74
.098
-.048
.037
-.095
7- Sexa
298
-
-
-.003
-.078
.084
.032
8- Shape recall
296
8.93
1.90
.193**
.062
.151**
-.201**
9- Story recall
297
8.35
1.93
.206**
.056
.047
-.199**
10- Word list recall
296
10.83
4.96
.247**
.146*
.168**
-.191**
11- Verbal span
298
4.85
1.07
.060
.161**
.198**
-.184**
12- Location span
297
5.02
1.00
.140*
.093
.095
-.137*
13- Anxiety
294
1.89
0.40
-.158**
-.206**
-.178**
.176**
14- Depression
298
1.51
0.45
-.143*
-.240**
-.254**
.187**
15- Subjective health
298
2.25
0.67
-.093
-.141*
-.147*
.114*
MSEQ = Memory Self-Efficacy Questionnaire, MIA-Capacity = Capacity subscale of the Memory In
Adulthood questionnaire, MFQ-RF = Memory Functioning Questionnaire - Retrospective Functioning
a
Sex: -1= Female, 1= Male
**p<.01; *p<.05
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4
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BAFA scores also correlated with most of the other measures, with higher levels of
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BAFA being associated with lower memory performance and subjective health and higher
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levels of depression and anxiety.
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We tested an integrative model by using AMOS 23 Software to conduct a Structural
Equation Modeling2 analysis in which all the predictors (i.e., sociodemographic, memory
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performance, and mental health variables) determine BAFA and all the predictors plus BAFA
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determine the MSE latent variable (see Figure 1). All the predictors were measured variables,
MSE and beliefs about forgetting and aging - 14
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using the means of the scales as indicators. We also added all the covariances between
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predictors, and the residuals for BAFA, MSE, and the three measured variables associated
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with MSE. This model corresponds to a mediation analysis with BAFA as a mediator. We
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estimated direct, indirect, and total effects by Bootstrapping (2000 samples, 90% bias-
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corrected confidence interval, with the Monte Carlo method).
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With the exception of the χ² value, which was significant χ²(24)= 39.889, p = .022, all
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the fit indices for the model were excellent (Hu & Bentler, 1999; Kline, 2011): χ²/df = 1.662,
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RMSEA = .048 [.019; .074], SRMR = .0306, CFI = .979. The standardized factor loadings of
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MSE on mean MSEQ, MIA-Capacity and MFQ scores were .405, .508 and .575, respectively.
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The results for the estimates of the regression coefficients (Table 2) show an effect of BAFA
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on the MSE latent variable. This effect was significant and in the expected direction, with
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higher BAFA scores being associated with lower MSE score, regardless of the influence of
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the sociodemographic group, memory performance, and mental health variables. Even when
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controlling for the other variables, the variance in MSE was explained by word list recall and
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the variance in BAFA was explained by variables such as age, story recall performance, and
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anxiety. Moreover, BAFA was found to be a significant mediator of the link between age and
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MSE.
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MSE and beliefs about forgetting and aging - 15
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Figure 1. The structural model tested.
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Note. BAFA= Beliefs About Forgetting and Aging, MSE = Memory Self-Efficacy.
MSE and beliefs about forgetting and aging - 16
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Table 2. Direct, total, and indirect effects of the predictors on BAFA and MSE.
Direct/total effects on
Indirect effects on
Total effects on MSE Direct effects on MSE
BAFA
MSE
Standardized
Standardized
Standardized
Standardized
P-value
P-value
P-value
P-value
coefficient
coefficient
coefficient
coefficient
BAFA
-
-
-0.473
0.001
-
-
-
-
Age
0.293
0.001
-0.255
0.003
-0.117
0.175
-0.139
<0.001
Level of education
0.016
0.825
-0.149
0.083
-0.141
0.071
-0.008
0.805
Sexa
-0.002
0.998
0.103
0.324
0.102
0.272
0.001
1
Shape recall
-0.006
0.963
0.046
0.643
0.043
0.617
0.003
0.961
Story recall
-0.138
0.028
0.094
0.270
0.029
0.719
0.065
0.021
Word list recall
-0.061
0.411
0.280
0.004
0.251
0.005
0.029
0.364
Verbal span
-0.088
0.143
0.171
0.041
0.129
0.105
0.042
0.120
Location span
0.101
0.137
-0.164
0.072
-0.116
0.173
-0.048
0.108
Anxiety
0.145
0.053
-0.232
0.038
-0.163
0.118
-0.069
0.042
Depression
0.008
0.915
-0.157
0.137
-0.153
0.127
-0.004
0.909
Subjective health
-0.021
0.712
0.012
0.899
0.002
0.962
0.010
0.697
2
Note. BAFA= Beliefs About Forgetting and Aging, MSE = Memory Self-Efficacy.
3
a
Sex: -1= Female, 1= Male
MSE and beliefs about forgetting and aging - 17
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Discussion
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The present study examined whether beliefs about forgetting and aging account for a
3
significant part of the variance in memory self-evaluations made by older adults. Our results
4
indicated moderately significant relationships between BAFA and MSE and participants’
5
perceptions of their memory decline. In general, the more people adhere to the belief that
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daily forgetting is associated with age, the poorer they consider their actual memory capacity,
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and the more they consider their memory to have declined over the years.
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The results showed a link between MSE and older adults’ beliefs about the association
between age and poor memory. The more they adhere to these stereotypical beliefs, the more
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they consider their memory capacity to be poor. This result supports the idea conveyed by
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previous studies (e.g., Cherry et al., 2013; Fort et al., 2004; Jennings & Darwin, 2003), which
12
have reported a link between stereotypes and memory evaluations. Thus, the present study
13
confirms the notion that MSE is by no means a simple reflection of individual performances
14
and affective states, and is influenced by Western societies’ ideas about aging. This point
15
sheds light on the relation between memory performance, motivation to complete memory
16
tasks, and social beliefs about aging, as cognitive performances depend on motivational
17
components (i.e., MSE, Beaudoin & Desrichard, 2011) that are sensitive to stereotypes. This
18
result should encourage further research into the social determinants of memory performance
19
and memory decline. Because there are cultural differences in beliefs about aging and
20
cognition (e.g., Levy & Langer, 1994; Löckenhoff et al., 2009), beliefs about cognition,
21
including those conveyed by an individual’s culture, have to be taken into account in order to
22
understand individuals’ cognitive performances.
23
However, the precise nature of the MSE-beliefs relationship may be difficult to
24
disentangle because it may be affected by several variables. For example, people may have
25
noticed that their memory is really poor, and such perceptions could provide a third factor that
MSE and beliefs about forgetting and aging - 18
1
correlates with both MSE and BAFA, thereby creating a spurious correlation between MSE
2
and BAFA. Similarly, the literature suggests mental health problems, such as anxiety or
3
depression, and poor subjective health may be related to lower memory self-assessments and
4
negative views of aging (Lane & Zelinski, 2003; McDonald-Miszczak et al., 1995).
5
Nevertheless, our study helps clarify the relationships between MSE and beliefs by showing
6
there is a link between BAFA and MSE, and that this link is independent of other variables. In
7
fact, we were able to show that the significant relationship between MSE and BAFA persists
8
after statistically controlling for cognitive and mental health potential confounds such as
9
actual memory performance, anxiety, depression, and subjective health. Hence, BAFA
10
appears to predict self-assessment of memory capacities, even when memory performance
11
and mental health are taken into account. Consequently, our results support the hypothesis
12
that variability in MSE is related to adherence to BAFA. Furthermore, our results also show
13
that BAFA is a mediator of the relation between age and MSE, thereby suggesting that these
14
beliefs may contribute to MSE decline. Implicit theories about memory and aging are widely
15
held to be determinants of MSE decline (Cavanaugh et al., 1998; Lane & Zelinski, 2003;
16
McDonald-Miszczak et al., 1995), and the present study provides empirical evidence
17
supporting this supposition. Nevertheless, more information is needed about the processes by
18
which beliefs influence MSE decline, for example, how stereotypes about memory and aging
19
affect older individuals’ MSE, and the ways in which general BAFA affect the attribution of
20
everyday forgetting to age. In fact, it is likely that such attributions reinforce beliefs
21
associating forgetting with age. Further research is needed to explore the dynamic interactions
22
between beliefs and self-evaluation.
23
Our study design does not allow us to draw conclusions about the direction of
24
causality of the relation between MSE (and perceived temporal changes in memory) and
25
BAFA. Although this limitation does not reduce the utility of the concept of BAFA, further
MSE and beliefs about forgetting and aging - 19
1
exploration of the processes (e.g., age-group identification) driving these effects is needed in
2
order to clarify the relationship between beliefs and MSE and to determine how people define
3
others or themselves as “old”. Therefore, it would be interesting to study beliefs about several
4
age categories in order to explore their specific beliefs about the perceived effect of age on
5
forgetting and the impact of these beliefs on MSE. More interestingly, people’s MSE should
6
differ according to whether they categorize themselves as young or old. In fact, it has been
7
found that subjective age influences MSE (Stephan et al., 2011), so it would be interesting to
8
study the role of age-group identification in older adults. Given the usefulness of the BAFA
9
measure and the interesting results obtained using it, further research needs to be carried out
10
11
to determine its properties and its correlates.
A second limitation of our study results from the small effect sizes. Beta values did not
12
exceed -.473, despite the reliability of the BAFA and the MSE measures. However, it is
13
probable that our methodology led us to underestimate effect sizes, as we used general scales
14
to assess both BAFA and MSE. Individuals may perceive some specific memory domains
15
(e.g., memory of recent events, word finding problems) to be more age-sensitive than others
16
(e.g., Lineweaver & Hertzog, 1998); therefore, the relation between MSE and beliefs would
17
probably be stronger if the memory domains in which they are measured are matched.
18
Our results highlight the importance of adherence to BAFA, such as implicit theories
19
about memory and aging or stereotypes, and show that variations in MSE may be due to older
20
adults’ adherence to these beliefs (Devine, 1989). This suggests that research focused on the
21
relationship between variables such as memory performance or mental health and individual
22
differences in MSE should also assess adherence to BAFA, especially when attempting to
23
understand MSE and memory performance with respect to aging. Moreover, MSE and, more
24
broadly, memory self-evaluations and memory complaints are particularly important in
25
neuropsychological consultations, which generally involve some form of memory assessment.
MSE and beliefs about forgetting and aging - 20
1
Taking into account patients' beliefs would allow self-report memory assessments to be seen
2
as reflections of real memory performance or mental health, but also as being anchored in
3
BAFA. Because memory complaints and general self-assessments of memory are used to
4
investigate mild cognitive impairment, it is important to know that these indicators reflect a
5
number of factors, including real cognitive decline, affects, and BAFA.
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
MSE and beliefs about forgetting and aging - 21
1
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Conflict of Interest Statement
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The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.
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Footnotes
1
Because the effect of age and BAFA on MSE may be curvilinear rather than linear, we tested the quadratic
effects of age and BAFA on each MSE measure. None of these effects was significant.
2
This model was tested on a sample of 284 participants because results for participants with missing data or
extreme MFQ-RF values were excluded.