Avello Publishing Journal Vol. 1, No. 1. 2011
Nietzsche's Authentic Sublimity
Anna Sullivan
Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge.
This paper discusses Nietzsche’s ideal of authenticity through the concept of
sublimity. The initial focus is on the criticisms Nietzsche made against Vom neuen
Götzen and its roots in the ancien régime. One explains the problems he perceives in
religion and morality and how they contribute to an inauthentic ‘herd mentality’.
Fundamental themes including ‘the slave revolt’ and the ‘ascetic ideal’ are expounded
upon in order to clarify Nietzsche’s disapproval of German idealistic society. One
suggests a possible connection between Nietzsche's nineteenth century warnings and
our contemporary aesthetic problems. One explains how members of our society may
divert their attention away from sublime1, existential questions by becoming absorbed
in the banal routine of everyday life through adopting current trends without critical
analysis. One addresses Nietzsche's proposal of the authentic, Goethe - esque life by
examining his ‘higher’ type. Nietzsche’s model of authenticity is presented as an
independent, self-assured and strong-willed individual. Concepts such as ‘the will to
power’, ‘the eternal return’ and the ‘aesthetic’ mode of living are addressed as
essential elements of Nietzsche’s authentic existence.
I explain how Nietzsche’s apparent denial of creativity, free-will and truth need
not undermine his ideal of authentic self-hood. In presenting the controversy of
Nietzsche’s ideas, one provides alternative views to many of his critics. One also
shows how the objections to Nietzsche’s ideas can be sufficiently responded to. One
1 Nietzsche's Die Geburt der Tragōdie aus dem Geiste der Musik 1872 offers us 'how expressibly
sublime Homer is'.
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concludes by offering means through which one might successfully utilize
Nietzsche’s teachings to analyse sublimity. His perspectival approach could enable
one to change ones outlook on life and become more adept at overcoming the sublime
awe felt at horror and difficulties. Nietzsche’s emphasis on the necessity of
challenging oneself could inspire individuals to re-consider their possibilities and
acquire more fulfillment from life. Whilst personal authenticity may be argued as
antisocial, one presents it as a worthwhile ideal to pursue, which does not pose any
threats to the stability of society. No recourse to the Heideggerian reading of
Nietzsche is needed here. Instead Goethe, as a convinced realist, is the archetype of
authenticity. Nietzschean authenticity is based on the individual and how one chooses
to engage with the world and find significance in life. It is an abstract term which
cannot be defined by a distinctive set of actions and beliefs, however might have its
spirit in that ens realissium called Napoleon. Authenticity often refers to an
appropriate response to the external world, as a conscious self. ‘Appropriate’, in this
context, means being true to oneself by acting in accordance with ones self-defined
choices. Leading an authentic existence is commonly believed to involve a personal,
reflective understanding of what life could and should be. It often involves the idea of
taking responsibility for one’s actions by recognizing responsibilities inherent in the
human condition. Heidegger and Arendt have dominated this line of thinking in
Germany over the last century, obscuring the sublime authenticity of the last aphorism
of Wille zur Macht and Goethe's Fragment über die Natur.
To be authentic is to have realized one’s individuality by engaging with oneself
and behaving in a way which reflects self-awareness rather than acting out a role. This
is regardless of it manifesting itself in a Napoleonic will to power or a Goethean
2
heroic automatism.2 Authenticity is a concept of central concern in existentialism, a
branch of philosophy which arose in the nineteenth century. The existentialist
movement was a reaction to a perceived neglect of the subjective character of
experience, as Kierkegaard maintained: ‘In relation to their systems most
systematizers are like a man who builds an enormous castle and lives in a shack close
by; they do not live in their own enormous systematic building’ (The Journals of
Søren Kierkegaard: 1938: 156). Existentialism shifted perspective away from
questions of reason and experience, toward the inner being of the individual, such as
when a Unmensch rather than a Übermensch has a sublime encounter beyond
reasonable and rational explanation. In Kierkegaardian existentialism, authenticity is
seen as a state which is necessary in order to experience meaning in life. Yet there are
very different approaches to how one achieves authenticity and what it entails. The
focus of this discussion will be the work of Nietzsche, and the insight that can be
acquired from his ideal of authentic existence without the distortions of Heidegger
and Arendt. The first element of this project will constitute some exegesis in order to
present Nietzsche’s thoughts on humanity’s inauthenticity. The second element will
analyze the relevance of Nietzsche’s philosophy to contemporary problems. The third
stage of the analysis will focus on the positive, reconstructive side to Nietzsche’s
thought.3 The concluding section demonstrates the significance that reading
Nietzsche may have for an individual’s striving toward personal authenticity, in awe
of the sublime, without being submerged into Heideggerian ontology. Nietzsche’s
conception of authenticity is often interpreted as a challenge for the reader as he
believes that individuals are failing to be true to themselves under the intoxicating
2 In Greek etymology, automatism means 'that which happens in its singularity.' This should be
differentiated from the workings of the Hegelian dialectical machine devoid of free choice.
3 As opposed to the deconstructive tools that we find in the Derridean readings of Nietzsche.
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spell of Wagnerian romanticism. This is due to the dominance of unhealthy systems
of control imposed upon humanity through the ‘hollow’ concepts of: religion,
morality, science, and truth (Twilight of the Idols: 1990: 31). Nietzsche believes that
we can understand ourselves better if we understand the history of our culture and
politics. Nietzsche therefore offers a diagnosis of society’s ills in The Genealogy of
Morals, in which he describes how society operates to the detriment of the individual.
Once we understand why Nietzsche believes humanity is living inauthentically we can
grasp what it would mean to live authentically. In the first section of the preface to
The Genealogy of Morals, Nietzsche tells his readers that we are ‘strangers to
ourselves’ (1956: 149). A fundamental aim of the Genealogy is to allow his audience
a possible psychological insight and subsequent self-awareness from which they can
react positively.
Nietzsche’s polemic attack of Christianity offers a historical account of the
development of the morals, values and standards of Western man. He asserts that the
advent of Christianity explains the genesis of the unhealthy morality infecting Europe.
Nietzsche believes that a healthy master-morality had existed in such cultures as the
Roman elite. This was a noble system wherein values such as boldness, pride and
strength were celebrated. The early Christians felt powerless and persecuted because
they were the weak slaves dominated by Rome. Their resentment resulted in a
revaluation of their masters’ concepts through a process of inversion which promoted
the ascetic ideal. As such, the values previously understood to be strong and ‘good’
were re-classified as negative. This meant that health, power and confidence became
evils to be punished. The idea of ‘good’ became associated with qualities which
benefited the weak, such as humility and sympathy. Nietzsche attacks this tradition of
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Christian morality in Western civilization, claiming its whole edifice of values to be
false. He explains how organized religion places self-denial at the epicentre of life:
‘From the beginning, Christian faith has been sacrifice; sacrifice of all freedom, of all
pride, of all self-confidence of the spirit; it is simultaneously enslavement and selfderision’ (Beyond Good and Evil: 2002:44). Nietzsche believes that the early
Christians invented a ‘good’ morality based upon weakness because they were unable
to achieve the strength of their masters. The slave revolt in ethics established a
morality based upon guilt and self-hatred, where success and achievement is seen in
one’s ability to repress their instincts and rationalize their misfortune. Subsequently,
we fail to be true to ourselves because we are constantly struggling against our nature.
Nietzsche believes that people cling to religion and the ascetic ideal because it
offers consolation by explaining suffering in the context of receiving future happiness
in an after-life. The Christian slave ethic may promote an easy and comfortable
existence but, for Nietzsche, it is an inauthentic one because the person who follows
its tenets ‘asks very little of life’ (The Genealogy of Morals: 1956: 179); their values
are given to them by a God who will judge them by their failure or success to live up
to these values. For Nietzsche, the success of the slave morality had made humanity a
‘herd’, because individuals unquestioningly conform to established values. Indeed
Nietzsche states in Beyond Good and Evil that: ‘Morality in Europe these days is the
morality of the herd animals’ (2002: 90).
Yet it is not the Romans who Nietzsche posits as the masters of the ethical
sublime. For Nietzsche, we have to turn to Greek tragedy to find the free expression
of the sublime in morality. Athens is the key city where Nietzsche feels the sublime to
have most authentically been articulated in the tragedies of Aeschylus and Sophocles.
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Inherent in Nietzsche’s work is a psychological critique of humanity in which he
claims that we are inauthentic because our conscience conflicts with our instincts,
making us turn against and punish ourselves. Contra to Wagner, the true hero of the
sublime is Dionysus and not Christ. Nietzsche claims that the non-egotistical qualities
which are encouraged by Christian morality, including compassion, pity and selfsacrifice, represent ‘a will that has turned against life’ (The Genealogy of Morals
:1956: 154). An additional problem Nietzsche perceives is the loss of true artistic
expression, which he explains in The Birth of Tragedy. He describes how the ancient
Greek tragedy contained an ideal balance between the two impulses of Apollo and
Dionysus. Apollonian philosophy emphasized order and reason, whereas the spirit of
Dionysus insisted on revelry and ecstasy. Nietzsche believes that, in the tragedy, the
Apollonian element of dialogue gave form to the Dionysian musical expression of
revelry. Nietzsche valorises the ancient Greek tragedy because he believes that it
expressed the tragic nature of human existence, with its Apollonian and Dionysian
impulses reflecting the tendencies inherent in human beings. It therefore enabled the
partaker to achieve a sense of unity with the underlying reality of the world it
represented. The tragedy, for Nietzsche, expressed how the fate of everyone is subject
to the ‘will’ (The Birth of Tragedy: 1956:45); the primitive power which precedes
social conditioning and civilized life. Nietzsche explains that when the Greek tragic
hero fell, he was absorbed back into the Dionysian primal unity. Likewise, upon
witnessing the fall of the tragic hero, the audience could dissolve and reach their
deepest instincts; they are ‘led back into the heart of nature’ when they experience ‘an
overwhelming sense of unity’ (The Birth of Tragedy: 1956: 50). Nietzsche thinks that
the tragedy epitomized the affirmation of life through art because it went beyond the
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rational and influenced men to lose themselves in Dionysian ecstatic joy. However,
Nietzsche claims that the tragic spirit had died due to the triumph of rationalism. This
emphasis on order and structure, for Nietzsche, means people are no longer able to
participate fully and unite with art in a way which would enable them to live
creatively amid life’s suffering. This dichotomy of Apollo and Dionysus can be
juxtaposed with the Dionysius – Longinus Greek and Roman combination of names
attributed to the On the Sublime treatise. This treatise is often rhythmically more Latin
than Greek, yet sometimes neither Latin nor Greek. Given his psychological
assessment of the state of humanity, Nietzsche perceives a crisis to be looming. One
of his fundamental premises is the inevitable collapse of Christianity. This view is
captured in Nietzsche’s ‘God is Dead’ parable (The Gay Science: 2001:109). This
phrase is not to be interpreted literally, but refers to the concept of religion losing its
meaning. Nietzsche’s madman in the The Gay Science declares to the marketplace;
‘God is dead. God remains dead. And we have killed him’ (2001:120). The bystanders
respond with laughter and mockery, displaying characteristics typical of Nietzsche’s
inauthentic herd mentality. Paradoxically, Nietzsche believes that the Christian
emphasis on truth will eventually triumph over belief in God. Christianity, he
maintains, contains an inherent paradox because it is driven by a ‘will to truth’ (The
Gay Science: 2001: 200). Nietzsche thinks that Christian society will become too
honest to deceive itself into believing in the existence of God. A more eloquent,
articulate and substantiated argument to this puzzling conundrum can be found in
Wakefield's The Paradox of Nietzschean Atheism and Žižek's The Real of the
(Christian) illusion chapter of On Belief.
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Nietzsche believes that many of Christianity’s ideals have actually been secularized,
claiming that ‘given the way people are, there may still for millennia be caves in
which they show [God’s] shadow’ (The Gay Science: 2001: 109). Even following
disbelief in God, Nietzsche argues that there are equally harmful concepts such as:
moral belief in free will; the importance of compassion; scientific belief in an ordered
universe; and belief in universal truth. Nietzsche therefore challenges many secular
systems, in the belief that they also represent ‘a rebellion against the principle
conditions of living’ (The Genealogy of Morals: 1956:299).
For Nietzsche, moral belief in free-will is unfounded because our commitment to
traditional ethical ideals, such as compassion and pity, is a result of religious
indoctrination. We may believe that we have freely chosen to display such
dispositions but they derive from the Christian teachings of guilt. Nietzsche believes
that the attitudes promoted by Christianity are harmful because they shift the focus
away from our own lives, which renders us weak and vulnerable. 'What can be more
sublime than the creation of a new “liberated territory,” of a positive order of being
which escapes the grasp of the existing order? This is why Badiou is right to deny the
status of an Event to the enthusiasm that followed the collapse of the communist
regimes' (Žižek 2008 :116). He also claims that the dogmatic pursuit of science is
another destructive force remaining after Christianity’s demise. 'Christianity
configures society on the basis of equality; Nietzsche configures society on the basis
of inequality' (Wakefield 2009: 9). Nietzsche is skeptical about the underlying
metaphysics of science because he believes that there is no single fixed truth. The
‘will to truth’ of science is inhuman and unhealthy since it encourages a negative
approach to life. Philosophers and scientists withdraw from the world by standing
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passively back in order to contemplate, and attempt to understand, rather than directly
experience life. Nietzsche tells us that ‘those who are truthful in the audacious and
ultimate sense which faith in science presupposes thereby affirm another world than
that of life, nature, and history’ (The Gay Science: 2001:201). The obsessive pursuit
of scientific knowledge as a purpose simply represents another incarnation of the
ascetic ideal for Nietzsche. This is because the scientist, just like the theist, still relies
on faith: faith in absolute truth. Their commitment to truth stems from the same
motivation that fuels dedication to religious ascetic values, namely, fear of life and
feelings of impotence. 'Is it not the very illusory nature of their belief that makes their
subjective stance so tragically sublime?' (Žižek 2008: 14). Science threatens life
because it focuses on an external source as a goal rather than the self, thereby making
us slaves to knowledge. Similarly, any epistemological endeavor which aims to
explain the world and provide meaning is futile.
As can be seen, therefore, Nietzsche does not believe that secular morality,
science and philosophy are viable alternatives to religious reactions to the concept of
the sublime. Such ideals weaken us because they shift focus away from affirmation of
individuality and into repressive conformism. These systems subscribe to naïve
notions of universality, rather than allowing us to live by our own values. The search
for sublime authenticity is offered as an alternative to this nihilism, whereby we are
provided with an opportunity to embark on a project involving the ‘revaluation of all
values’ (Twilight of the Idols: 1990:59). Having engaged the reader in a complete
denigration of traditional beliefs, Nietzsche hopes they will realize that their moral
commitments are inimical to their personal flourishing in the sublime wake of God's
death. As Nietzsche explains in The Gay Science, ‘free spirits’ will feel elation and
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excitement at the news that ‘the old god is dead’:
our heart overflows with gratitude, amazement, forebodings, expectationfinally the horizon seems clear again, even if not bright; finally our ships
may set out again, set out to face any danger; every daring of the lover of
knowledge is allowed again; the sea, our sea, lies open again; maybe there
has never yet been such an ‘open sea’ (2001: 199).
Here, Nietzsche endorses an active nihilism in which strong individuals observe their
freedom from beyond the confines of external meaning and create new, healthier
ideals for themselves. Following from this, arises the question of whether Nietzsche’s
aims are relevant in the post-modern world. The madman of The Gay Science says,
with regard to the death of God: ‘I come too early… my time is not yet. This
tremendous event is still on its way’ (2001:120). Society and aesthetic culture have
changed considerably since the time Nietzsche was writing: but has, in fact, this
‘tremendous event’, which Nietzsche predicted, occurred in a sublime variation of
what Badiou posits as an Event? Many commentators believe that the criticisms
Nietzsche levels at his culture are equally relevant to our contemporary world. Pippin
(1999), for example, presents Nietzsche as an adept interpreter of the post-modern
world and its problems. He perceives prophetic elements in Nietzsche’s works about
the failures of post-modernity’s aspirations. Nietzsche believes that his culture lacked
self-understanding and such awareness may still be missing today. Pippin suggests
that Nietzsche’s ‘God is dead’ image is indicative of post-modernity at a loss. Whilst
religion may not feature as prominently, it could be argued that we still fundamentally
cling to what Nietzsche believed was an unreceptive attitude toward life. Nietzsche,
Pippin contends, expresses suspicions about the inauthentic preoccupations that may
exist in contemporary culture. By highlighting some of these preoccupations we might
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perceive how Nietzsche’s concerns could be significant. Firstly, economic
considerations can be seen to impose an unhealthy intrusion on life. Secondly, it
might be said that the mass media and entertainment industry have a tranquilizing and
trivializing effect on an individual’s perception of life. Given this view, our interests
are defined by a commercial mass culture, dominated by consumerist concerns. This
is ideologically regulated by Hegelian notions of Greek religion being of beauty and
Jewish religion being of sublimity. Capitalism and the promotion of a work ethic
mean little opportunity for creativity and flourishing. The relationship between
capitalism and religion can be found in the 'Not Only as Substance, but Also as
Subject' chapter of The Sublime Object of Ideology where the logic of sublimity
'relies, of course, on Kant's Critique of Judgement, where Beauty and Sublimity are
opposed along the semantic axes quality-quantity, shaped-shapeless, boundedboundless: Beauty calms and comforts; Sublimity excites and agitates.' (Žižek :228)
Such social phenomena could be seen as deriving from resentment, or from a
‘herd’ mentality as disguised forms of repression. The fixation with our careers, for
example, can be interpreted as an attempt to distract the mind from its suffering by
means of hard work. This culture may subsequently contribute to a banal and
stultifying life, as we are not required to test ourselves or establish our own values.
Society today might therefore be seen to lack the elements essential for a ‘noble’
civilization because we are able to take solace in institutions which do not challenge
us, thus we possess vague ideals. We are still victims of self-deceit because we focus
our energies toward external pursuits like technological mastery of the sublime or
material gratification, rather than personal development. This may ease our sense of
displeasure at life but it might be said that we fail, thereby, to engage with the world
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in a deep, epistemological way and are therefore ‘unknown to ourselves’ (The
Genealogy of Morals: 1956:149). Thus, post-modern life may be deemed sterile and
unhealthy, with little potential for flourishing as we engage in conformist lifestyles. It
could be concluded that Nietzsche’s accusation of an inauthentic humanity is still
legitimate because we cling to security and comfort, albeit under different guises.
Civilisation today might therefore be considered as living in the midst of the crisis
Nietzsche predicted, unable to cope with the horrors of the sublime.
If it is to be accepted that there is still a message to be conveyed by Nietzsche’s
understanding [Verstand] of capitalism and Sublimity [Erhabenheit], how should we
embark on the project of non-Heideggerian authenticity and free ourselves from our
false conscience? Certain treatments of Nietzsche, including those of Nehamas (1985)
and Schacht (1995), privilege ‘aestheticism’ as a fundamental aspect of his
authenticity. They believe that Nietzsche offers an ‘aesthetic’ mode of existence as
the antidote to nihilism: once the universality of moral values has been
rejected. Nietzsche’s aestheticism is often seen to derive from The Birth of Tragedy
where he claims that ‘we have every right to view ourselves as aesthetic
projections…and derive such dignity as art works. Only as an aesthetic product can
the world be justified’ (1956: 41-42). Given Nietzsche’s view that there are no
objective standards to live by, it can be argued that he believes that we should
perceive life as a work of art: of which we are the artist. This aesthetic justification of
existence means that the meaning of life is not obtained from any external authority
but is defined by the individual. In addition, Nietzsche believes that aesthetic
experience possesses redemptive power and could provide metaphysical consolation
for the ‘terrors and horrors of existence’ (The Birth Of Tragedy: 1956:29). For
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Nietzsche, otherworldly religion and rationalistic-science offer misrepresentations of
life. In contrast, tragic art reflects the fact that life is ridden with strife and suffering,
which gives the individual the power to access the ‘will’ directly. Aesthetic exaltation
enables individuals to transmute their pain into art and transfigure their existential
suffering. Art is therefore offered as an authentic life-affirming means of coping with
the suffering of existence.
Thus Nietzsche, following Kant, may approach the Sublime, as best encapsulated
with an artistic attitude and representation [Vorstellung]. This ethical approach to
aesthetics precedes the sublime object as found in Lacan's The Ethic of
Psychoanalysis. It has been asserted, for example, that Nietzsche’s paradoxes are not
accidental, but that he intends to confuse the reader. Lacan's variation being a sublime
object of impossible-real Thing-in-itself. This is so that he can engage their attention
and urge them to contemplate important issues in the face of contradictory assertions.
This approach is supported by Janaway (2007) who claims that Nietzsche deliberately
avoids writing dialectically or impersonally from premise to conclusion because he
wants us to react at a level below that of conscious philosophical reflection. For
Janaway, Nietzsche is more of a psychologist and his rhetoric is a fundamental device
for engaging with classical philologists. Wakefield surpasses Janaway's idea in The
Paradox of Nietzschean Atheism, but this would be a digression away from the
concept of the sublime at hand in this paper. Given Nietzsche’s promotion of the
perspectival approach to knowledge, perhaps it would be appropriate to address his
doctrines in the same vein. Rather than try to assimilate Nietzsche’s many ideas in a
single articulate and consistent interpretation on the sublime, we can look at each
concept as one particular perspective. Accordingly, one concept may contradict
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another, but each is merely offering a stance which might be helpful under particular
circumstances.
Many commentators object to the suggested controversial political
consequences of Nietzsche’s ideas, by arguing that his doctrines have been read out of
context and misappropriated. The overman for example is often taken to suggest a
revolution in National Socialist society. However, there are those, like Kaufmann
(1974), who consider the concept to refer to a purely personal process of selfovercoming which should not be applied, in a wider sphere, to imply mastery over
others. The lack of clarity in a few lines of Nietzsche's The Genealogy of Morals and
Žižek's Organs Without Bodies: Deleuze and Consequences, has lead philosophers
such as Wakefield to critique the ontological political export of some aspects of
Nietzsche and Žižek as being restricted by narcissism. 4 Wakefield quotes Heraclitus
on the matter: 'θυμῷ μάχεσθαι χαλεπόν· ὃ γὰρ ἂν θέλῃ, ψυχῆς ὠνεῖται.' Rather than
interpret the higher types as political leaders, they could be held as ‘spiritual’ leaders
whose battle and struggle with herd values occurs internally. The passages in
Nietzsche’s work which are often held to be politically disturbing (on grounds of
catalyzing genocide) might be interpreted strictly metaphorically. Clark, for example,
maintains that the will to power has ‘nothing essential to do with power over others,
but is a sense of one’s effectiveness in the world’ (Nietzsche on Truth and Philosophy:
1990:211). Leiter also insists that there is no textual evidence to support the claim
that Nietzsche wants to establish forms of social organization. Leiter believes that
those who allege Nietzsche to have a political agenda have simply missed the
4 Wakefield, Jason. The Narcissism of Žižek's Ontology. 2010.
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rhetorical context of his particular ideas. Nietzsche, Leiter contends, does not offer an
outline for a political programme because he calls for an individual transformation
and not a political one. We therefore should not ascribe a repressive political position
to Nietzsche, but should read him on a psychological, pathological level, wherein his
dogmatic pronouncements are considered more as thought-experiments for the
individual.
Even if some of the Nazi-esque criticisms against Nietzsche can be upheld,
this need not require us to dismiss his political metaphysics entirely. Nietzsche’s ideas
may appear complex and formidable, but they can be rendered more accessible.
Positive value can be found in his philosophy without the implication of social
repercussions. Nietzsche can be seen to provide a revitalizing aesthetics because he
focuses on life itself and the realities of the world in which we live. As Janaway
argues, Nietzsche is concerned with ‘what it is to be the most excellent type of human
being, to lead the best life a human being can lead’ (Beyond Selflessness: 2007:30).
The final section of my paper will focus on the positive aspects of Nietzsche’s thought
in its relation to the project of individual authenticity in the face of the sublime.
Nietzsche encourages us to engage with the sublime in an atheistic way, in order
to free us from those ascetic ideals which deprive life of positive value. One way we
could acquire more authentic dispositions toward the sublime could be through art.
Nietzsche believes that art has significance for human life as a power which can
‘make life possible and worth living’ (The Birth Of Tragedy:1956:21). Art can be
perceived as a medium with healing qualities, which Nietzsche interprets in terms of
‘transfiguring’ (The Birth of Tragedy: 1956:30). Our tragic existence is transfigured
because art ‘inspires the most extravagant hopes and promises oblivion of the most
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bitterest pain’ (The Birth of Tragedy: 1956: 144). We may find that art enables us to
think better of the world of ordinary experience by presenting the tragic as sublime.
Despite aligning Nietzsche with his early position of tragic spirituality and Dionysian
exuberance, it is clear in Nietzsche's middle period that one can misplace ones hopes
in art. To be specific, the chapter on art in Human, all too Human and the need for
intoxication in Daybreak 50 are significant breaks in how the youthful Nietzsche
viewed the sublime in tragödie. Artistic experience could allow one to access
previously unknown psychological depths by inducing contemplative consciousness.
It can be seen as a powerful and curative force, one which allows us to ‘recreate’
ourselves by taking us away from the distraction of our everyday cares and concerns.
We can banish all else from our minds and get in touch with our inner being, which
could, in turn, lead to greater self-insight. Spending more time appreciating art and
immersing oneself in artistic endeavours could therefore prove to be a cathartic
experience. The feelings elicited through art may allow us to ‘lose’ ourselves, and
stand outside of our everyday identity, releasing us from our suffering. Redirecting
our struggle into creativity could prove to be a more constructive means of handling
ill-feelings, allowing us to express our emotions through art, rather than repress them
via other means.
Nietzsche’s perspective that type-facts define an individual may also be useful,
since it encourages self-acceptance. We could utilize his ‘scientific’ approach to
observe our nature and to discover our limitations. By accepting certain limits, and
understanding what is not possible, we can focus on those possibilities which are
realistically available to us. An increased understanding of our nature may allow us to
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genuinely change our own fortunes. Another positive aspect of Nietzsche’s authentic
existence is his encouragement to develop faith in oneself. Nietzsche believes that
feelings of self-respect are morally condemned by the slave ethic, with its emphasis
on humility. Yet without an intrinsic sense of self-worth, our pleasures are limited,
and we cannot affirm and love life fully. One way to achieve greater self-esteem
might be through Nietzsche’s recommendation of an artistic reinterpretation of our
flaws, so that ‘even weaknesses delight the eye’ (The Gay Science: 2001:163). To
embrace imperfections and incorporate them as an essential part of the self could
assist individuals to overcome feelings of insecurity. Nietzsche also teaches that one
should not derive a sense of self from outside sources, such as other people and their
attendant compassion, rules, regulations, laws or religion. This is because each person
is unique; there is no single context for all human lives so there can be no universal
principles. We can thus learn from Nietzsche not to judge ourselves by anyone else’s
standards because our tests ‘can be witnessed by no judge other than ourselves’
(Beyond Good and Evil: 2002:39). As Janaway explains, Nietzsche recommends ‘a
maximally positive attitude towards oneself as an individual, considered as standing
apart from others’ (Beyond selflessness: 2007:253). The belief that our world and the
meanings of the events in our lives derive from our unique perspective can help us to
trust our judgments and teach us to refrain from comparing ourselves with other
people, thereby avoiding feelings of envy, anxiety and paranoia. This potentially
invigorating element of Nietzsche’s thought can encourage us to adapt our approach
to life in such a way that we might dedicate ourselves to what we believe to be ‘good’,
rather than to another persons perception of ‘good’. For Nietzsche, too many of our
values are based on resentment against life rather than based in gratitude, such as our
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tendency to feel guilty. Nietzsche believes that the psychological configuration of
guilt distorts life because it directs our energy away from any life-enhancing activity.5
Having engaged with Nietzsche’s critique of morality we may be able to look at our
propensity to guilt from a greater distance and react differently to it. Rather than
interpreting guilt as a voice of conscience which must be obeyed, we might learn to
resist succumbing to it and re-configure our emotions more constructively.
There can be also be beneficial aspects to Nietzsche’s emphasis on suffering, as
it could offer a more fulfilling life than the life of comfortable well-being. Nietzsche
mocks society’s addiction to ‘the religion of snug cosiness’ (The Gay Science:
2001:192) because, although it may dull pain, it also dulls the energy which pain
supplies to overcome difficulties. For Nietzsche, happiness is not fundamentally
valuable in- itself and true fulfillment does not reside in avoiding troubles, but in
cultivating them. This requires risk-taking because, as Nietzsche explains: ‘The secret
for harvesting from existence the greatest fruitfulness and the greatest enjoyment is to live dangerously!’(The Gay Science: 2001:161). Nietzsche may therefore inspire in
us the courage to take the risks we had been afraid of, in the belief that we would reap
greater reward than comfortable contentment. He believes that anything worthwhile in
life requires an extraordinary amount of effort, so ‘We should not sidestep our tests,
even though they may well be the most dangerous game we can play’ (Beyond Good
and Evil: 2002:39). Taking chances may be difficult as there is the threat of failure
and subsequent pain but, for Nietzsche, suffering is necessary for human excellence
and progress. If life lacks challenge we may suffer the effects of under-stimulation
and experience ennui. Putting ourselves in risky situations may be motivating and can
5 Nietzsche on Freedom and Autonomy edited by Gemes and May is useful to understand how free
will can be an antidote to the narrow minded intellectual [Bildungsphilister].
18
encourage us to want to achieve more, which could give life greater purpose.
Ultimately, and interpreted appropriately, Nietzsche’s aesthetic philosophy could
provide valuable insight for those grappling with the dilemmas of existence and
seeking authenticity. The most sublime moral deeds, combined with what the
Apollonian Greek calls sophrosyne,6 is what Nietzsche draws from the dialectic of the
Platonic Socrates. Many aspects of modern existence may contribute to a large
number of people leading inauthentic lives which they find stultifying, boring or even
pointless. It is easy to fall into the trap of following ‘the herd’, in which life is lived in
a mechanical, superficial way, which overlooks individual, Socratic potential.
Nietzsche insists that we have a responsibility to fulfill ourselves and draws attention
to the fact that we betray ourselves by leading unreflective, empty and shallow lives.
He provides a set of suggestions for different ways of approaching existence, and his
demand for psychological self-exploration may help us determine our individual
needs. The self-inspection he recommends could result in our realization that the life
we have established for ourselves does not accord with our own tastes. A more
profound self-awareness may lead us away from our unreflective involvement in the
routine of life. Nietzsche encourages us, in this way, to shed the masks we hide
behind and cultivate ourselves using self-honesty as our guide. However, it would be
a mistake to read Nietzsche for conclusions, or with the expectation of finding a
panacea on how to live ‘right’. Nietzsche believes that we need to use our own
intellectual resources to affirm ourselves, rather than merely follow him, as
Zarathustra emphasises: ‘ “This-it turns out- is my way, where is yours?”-That is how
I answered those who asked me, “the way”. The way after all-it does not exist!’(Thus
6 Greek: equanimity, self – control.
19
Spoke Zarathustra 2002: 156). Nietzsche does not prescribe a specific scheme to
follow, since he wants his readers to think for themselves and examine their own
attitudes and feelings. What Nietzsche does well is to act as a critic who brings to
surface what he believes to be the problems of our existence. This can enable us to
look anew at our beliefs and reconsider what we might have accepted against our
wiser judgment. Nietzsche encourages us to ask ourselves: ‘“who are we, really?”’
(The Genealogy of Morals 1956: 149) and to think carefully about what sort of ideals,
goals and purposes we set ourselves and why. If we choose a particular path in
accordance with our own interests then we can live the best possible life available to
us. Aspects of Nietzsche’s vision of authenticity may therefore enable us to achieve a
sense of satisfaction and fulfillment with ourselves and life.
The value of striving for personal authenticity is frequently criticized for its
ego-centric nature, so in conclusion I address the wider benefits of the project of
authenticity. The struggle for self-enhancement need not place us in contention with
all others. An authentic person has self-respect, which allows a proper and deeper
regard for others, enabling them to participate in the public sphere without conflict. If
we are truthful to ourselves we can be truthful in our relation with others. In this way,
fairness and decency in our dealings with other people can be seen as derivative of
individual authenticity. Thus, authenticity can be understood as a social, as well as a
personal virtue. A comparison can be made with those who choose not to think deeply
about their existence and consequently make unthinking and unreflective
commitments. These people would not be acting to benefit society. Conversely, those
who hold authentically considered opinions may use their discernment to make a
20
sublime and beautifully Socratic contribution to society. Rather then remaining
objective instruments or sublime slaves, we can follow the Nietzsche of Beyond Good
and Evil, acknowledge the tragic and cruel in the sublime [Erhabene] so we can have
a noble transitional moment [Zwischenbegebnis] towards full authenticity.
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