SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS FOR VERNACULAR HOUSING IN RURAL
MALAYSIA: TOWARDS ENERGY SECURITY AND EQUITABILITY OF LOWINCOME GROUPS
1,
Nur Azfahani Ahmad1 and Hugh Byrd2
2
School of Architecture and Planning, The University of Auckland, New Zealand
[email protected]
[email protected]
ABSTRACT: Since the 1970s, Malaysia’s economic expansion has been powered by cheap
oil and gas making it dependent on and addicted to using large amounts of fossil fuels. As a
country that is primarily reliant on fossil fuels for generating power supply, Malaysia needs to
take account of long-term energy security due to fossil fuel depletion and peak oil which
could threaten the development of the country.
The ‘South China Sea Conflict’, concerning territorial rights to the oil and gas fields of the
South China Sea, could impact further on the country’s energy security and reserves of both
oil and gas. Loss of this resource could result in reduced power generation potential with the
risk of interrupted power supplies and an inequitable distribution to the population.
This paper will review energy security in Malaysia, in particular electricity supply and its
implications towards low-income groups in Malaysia. The paper will put forward an analysis
for incorporating solar photovoltaics on roofs of vernacular housing in rural parts of Malaysia.
A model is developed in order to represent the main features of a typical generic roof and its
implication for efficiently collecting solar energy.
Keywords: Energy Security, Equitability, Low-Income, Solar Photovoltaic, Vernacular
Housing
1. INTRODUCTION (BOLD, UPPERCASE, SIZE 11)
Since the turn of the century, energy consumption in Malaysia has been increasing
rapidly and has almost doubled in 8 years (2000-2008) (see Figure 1). With the aid
of subsidies for fuels and electricity from the Malaysian Government, the population
has become largely dependent on cheap energy (Byrd, 2008). Ahmad (2010) had
reported that the energy consumption in Malaysia had increased from 29,699 ktoe in
2000 to 44,901 ktoe in 2008.
Figure 1. Energy
Demand in
Malaysia (2000
and 2008)
Source: Adapted
from Ahmad (2010)
1
Data in 2005 (Abd. Kadir, et.al, 2010) has shown that fossil fuels have a
significant role in electricity generation in Malaysia, where it is mainly generated
from non-renewable resources. For example, natural gas (62%), followed by
imported coal (28%), oil and petroleum (3%) and small portion of renewable
resources of hydro (7%) (see Figure 2). Unfortunately, although these fossil fuels
resources are accessible at the moment, they cannot be replenished and will cause
a shortfall in production. Due to this Malaysia has now made a commitment to
increasing renewable energy resources within its supply mix (ref) in order to mitigate
an inadequate energy supply.
Figure 2.
3%
7%
Electricity Sector
Natural Gas
28%
62%
Coal
Hydropower
Oil and Petroleum
Energy Mix in
Malaysia (2005)
Source: Ab Kadir,
et.al (2010)
With an insecure supply of energy there is a risk of an inadequate supply of
electricity which raises issues of an inequitable electrical power distribution to the
population, especially for rural people. Thus, it is important to have an alternative
energy that can help to generate electricity for Malaysia in the near future. This
paper will present the case for how rural areas can help to maintain energy security
in Malaysia by providing renewable energy, specifically solar energy generated by
photovoltaics (PVs) throughout the country especially in fulfilling domestic needs of
rural developments on an equitable basis.
2. MALAYSIA’S ELECTRICITY SCENARIO
In Malaysia, the government is solely responsible for maintaining oil prices and
electricity tariffs at reasonable rates. This is consistent with the requirements of the
New Economy Policy (NEP) which was intended to alleviate poverty among the
people and generate economic growth (Malaysia, 2006). A report made by The
Energy Commission of Malaysia ( ref ) stated that, as of June 2007, Malaysia had
among the lowest electricity tariffs for households in the world (7.42 US
cents/1kWh).
However, since the increase in the price of petrol and diesel in the global
market, the Government has gradually raised electricity prices and partially reduced
2
subsidies (Ahmad, 2010). Despite the increase in fossil fuel prices, Malaysia's
electricity consumption continues to increase every year. Teh (2011) reported that
electricity consumption in Malaysia had increased rapidly since 1970 , from 2,400
GWh to 99,250 GWh in 2010. He also projected that the electricity consumption will
increase up to 124,677 GWh, a further 26%, by 2020.
Cheap power prices together with lifestyles changes due to urbanisation,
have dramatically influenced and escalated the used of many electrical appliances
in buildings, for instance air-conditioning system and satellite television (Byrd, 2008).
This low-power price has stimulated the energy demand in various sectors in
Malaysia, rapidly rising domestic income and reduced costs for electrical appliances.
In 1979, 89% of houses in Malaysia managed to get a reliable and consistent
electricity supply which was used mostly for lighting, refrigeration, and food storage.
In 2009, this percentage increased substantially to 95% of total power distribution
area to the whole country (Jalal, T. S. and Bodger, P., 2009). Electricity demand for
the housing sector alone experienced a growth of about 4.9 percent per year due to
the improved standard of living (APEC, 2006). Electricity consumption in the housing
sector continues to grow and is significantly influenced by the air-conditioning
market. Figure 3 a & b indicate the daily and monthly electricity load profiles for rural
households. The seasonal profile is related to the hottest months between May and
August when fans and air-conditioning are used more frequently.
(a) Daily Load Profile for Household in
(b) Monthly Load Profile for Household
Figure 3(a) and (b). Domestic Load Profile for Rural Household in Malaysia
Source: Lau, K. Y.,et.al (2010)
3. OVERVIEW OF ENERGY SECURITY IN MALAYSIA
Energy security can be defined as the ability to meet demand of energy service
needs in reliable circumstances through great period of time (CMI, 2006). Threats to
energy security occur in several ways, such as the political instability, the economic
problems, war, rising terrorism, accidents and natural disasters which can damage
the energy supply infrastructure and creating depletion of resources (Michael, 2007).
3
3.1
Peak Oil
According to the US Energy Information Administration, Malaysia’s oil reserves have
declined in recent years, from 771 billion barrels/day in 2000 to 703.92 billion
barrels/day in 2007 (EIA, 2008). The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC) has also shown that the capacities of countries owning the 21
largest oil fields throughout the globe, are facing declining production from at least 9
of their main fields (Campbell, 2002). From the 48 OPEC oil-producing countries, 33
have shown a significant decline since 2006, including Malaysia (EIA, 2006;
Campbell, 2002; OPEC, 2009). Since petrol and diesel are connected to global
market prices, peak oil is now a significant issue for Malaysia’s energy security.
3.2
South China Sea Oil Issue
Another issue associated with energy security in Malaysia is the recent conflict in
the South China Sea. This issue has been linked with China’s territorial claim for oil
and gas rich areas of the South China Sea located off the coast of Sabah and
Sarawak (EIA, 2008). Figure 4 indicates the territory claimed by China (red line
commencing from China) extending over
Malaysia’s territory (green line
commencing from Malaysia) and, coincidentally, encircling the gas and oil fields of
the South China Sea.
Figure 4. Countries Claiming Ownership in South China Sea Oil Issue
Source: 0’Donnell (2009)
4
This issue has yet to be resolved by The United Nations Convention on the Law of
the Sea (UNCLOS) (EIA, 2008). This may result in Malaysia further reducing the
production of both oil and gas.
3.3
An Inequitable Power Distribution
With the main resources for generating electricity under threat, there is an increased
risk in reduced power supplies. Under these circumstances, it is often that the rural
communities face the consequences of interrupted electricity supplies. For example,
Campen, Guidi & Best (2000) reported that rural areas in developing countries
usually have to face an unequal share of development and lack of attention from the
authorities. They tend to be excluded from most of the benefits of energy services
including electric power supply. Due to this, inequality of electric power distribution
arise and cause power interruption and blackouts in rural communities.
Hussain (2005) and Byrd (2010) have reported on the issues of safety, the
emergence of crime, disruption of traffic, health disorder and loss of communication
in the event of blackouts. Load shedding (turning electricity off in one area in order
to keep an adequate supply in another) requires complex decisions in order to
prioritise the electricity supply to communities. Table 3 indicates a history of the
major electricity blackouts that have been faced by Malaysia and their significant
cost implications. It is the risk of financial loss that tends to result in poorer
communities carrying the burden of load shedding.
Table 3. Malaysia Power Disruption
Loss (RM)
Area Affected
(Million)
29/9/1992
2 days
220
9 from 13 states in Malaysia
3/8/1996
14 hours
123
The whole of Peninsular Malaysia
10/8/1996 16 hours
Undisclosed
Southern part of Peninsular Malaysia
4/9/2003
5 hours
13.8
Malaysia's northern peninsular
13/1/2005
2 hours
Undisclosed
Southern part of Peninsular Malaysia
Source: Adapted from Hussain, K.S.K. (2005)
Date
Period
As the risk of inadequate electricity production increases due to reduced resources
for generation, an equitable distribution of electricity is under threat. Malaysia has
one of the highest Gini Coefficients (difference between the richest 10% and poorest
10%) outside Latin American and sub-Saharan countries (Byrd, 2010), which
indicates that Malaysia already has significant inequality. As fuel and electricity
prices increase lower income groups will become more vulnerable. The only option
is to introduce an alternative, decentralised power supply. With a significant amount
5
of sunshine, Malaysia has significant potential to exploit solar energy, in particular
PVs to generate electricity.
4 SOLAR ENERGY POTENTIAL
Malaysia is located in an Equatorial region and receives abundant solar radiation
every day, with the average irradiance per year of 1643 kWh/m2. This is about 50%
more that Germany where PVs have been implemented across the residential
sector. The potential of implementing solar energy technology in Malaysia in the
near future is even greater (Chua, S.C., et.al, 2010).
4.1 PV Potential
This section explores the potential of photovoltaics mounted on roof surfaces of rural
houses in Malaysia to provide electricity for use by households and for exporting to
the national grid. Byrd (2008) indicated that PVs mounted on roofs of houses in
Malaysia could generate about 25% of current electricity demand which is a
significant proportion of the generation mix for Malaysia, especially in meeting
electric demands of low-income groups. However, the analysis below provides the
basis of a more accurate assessment.
Figure 5 indicates the monthly solar radiation for the rural areas in Malaysia
which is within the range of 4.8 kWh/m2 to 6.1 kWh/m2 per day (Lau, K. Y, et. al,
2010). Figure 6 illustrates the typical diurnal variation in solar radiation during the
day (Ibrahim, M., et.al, 2009). In order to optimise the collection of solar energy the
collection area, orientation and tilt need to be analysed. These criteria are specific to
house types and roof geometry.
Figure 5. Solar radiation
data for rural area in
Malaysia (monthly)(2009)
Adapted from: Lau, K. Y,
et. al (2010)
6
Figure 6.
Daily solar radiation data
Adapted from: Ibrahim, M, et. al
(2009)
4.2 The Solar Potential of Roofs
This section is divided into two sub-sections, which consists of (a) the basic analysis
of typical roof shape in vernacular houses in rural areas in Peninsular Malaysia, and
(b) the potential electricity generated by PVs on the roofs.
a. Typical Roof Shapes and areas
Malaysia’s vernacular houses are mainly built with gabled roofs, in order to
adapt to the climatic elements (Fee, C.V, et al, 2005). Yuan (1991) has identified
the distinctive features of roof shapes for typical rural dwellers in Malaysia and
this is shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7. Roof form
for vernacular
houses in Malaysia
Source: Adapted
from Yuan, L. J.
(1991)
7
The two main features that could limit the potential of the roofs to collect solar
energy are i) the complexity of the roof form can limit the number of solar panels
(particularly in the case with the ‘selang addition’) and ii) overshadowing by a
‘parallel addition’.
For practical purposes, PV arrays would not cover the whole of a roof. Space
is required for maintenance of both the roofs and the panels. Also long runs of
interconnected arrays are more cost-effective than individual panels located in a
variety of positions. However, since these house types have an average roof area
of typically 298m2 (Yuan, 1991) and a significant area is rectilinear, the collection
area is more determined by the orientation and inclination of the roofs than their
geometry.
b. Orientation and Pitch of Roofs
Typically, roof pitches in Malaysia are angled at 30° or less, especially for long
roof houses (Fee, C.V, et al, 2005; Elhassan, Z.A.M et al (2011; Yuan, 1991).
A solar angle inclination chart is used to evaluate the efficiency of solar panel on
the roof on different orientations (See Figure 8).
Figure 8. Angle of solar panel inclination for houses in Malaysia
Source: Fadzil, S.F.S and Byrd, H (2010
8
Figure 8 indicates that for all orientations of a roof and with a pitch of less
than 30o the efficiency of the solar panels will be 95% or more of the optimum,
though panels facing east or west tend to have slightly higher efficiency.
5. ENERGY AVAILABLE FROM ROOFS
Having established the daily solar radiation available (figure 6) and that almost all of
the traditional roof types are capable of collecting solar energy with at least a 95%
efficiency, daily electricity generation of a rural household can be estimated and
compared with typical daily electricity load (Figure 3a). For the purposes of this
calculation, it has been assumed that PVs have a conversion efficiency of 15%, a tilt
and orientation loss of 5%, cable and inverter losses of 5% and losses due to dirt
and shading of a further 5%. This gives an overall solar energy to electricity
conversion efficiency of 12.9%
5.1
Comparison of different PV areas.
The electricity generated is based on different roof areas. The first, figure 9 assumes
that 60% of the average roof area can be covered by PVs (178m2). This is a
practical maximum given the constraints of roof geometry and maintenance
described in 4.2a above. A PV area of 178m2 is unlikely to be economical and so
the second roof area considered is 1/3rd of this (57m2). Lastly, a small area of
28.5m2 is considered.
25
Electricity kW
20
Elect. Generated by
28.5m2 PVs
15
Elect. Generated by
57m2 PVs
10
Elect. Generated by
178m2 PVs
5
Household electricty
demand
0
0
4
8
12
16
20
24
Hours
Figure 9. Comparison of electricity demand by
household with electricity generated by different
areas of PVs.
9
5.2
Analysis
The largest PV area (178m2) considered above, is based on the practical maximum
that a typical household could install. It would produce over 350% more electricity
than a typical household would demand, over a 24 hour period, allowing 90% to be
fed into the grid. The PV area of 57m2 provides about twice as much electricity as
the household demand over 24 hours and produces a surplus of about 65% that can
be fed into the grid. The smallest PV area of 28.5m2 supplies about the same
amount of electricity as the household demand of which 50% could be fed into the
grid. Although this analysis is carried out for a 24 hour period, being a tropical
country there is little seasonal variation (Figure 5) and so this analysis can be
extrapolated to annual electricity supply and demand.
5.3
Feed in Tariff (FiT)
Irrespective of the area of the PVs, the household would need to import electricity at
times when there is insufficient solar energy. In all cases considered above, the PVs
do not even supply half of the household electricity demand over a 24 hour period.
In order to make PVs financially attractive, the surplus electricity needs to be sold to
the grid. Figure 10 illustrates the relationship between the PV area and the ratio of
electricity generated to demand based on the data above. For a household to be
able to have a balance between imported and exported electricity (no net electricity
demand), the ratio must be greater than 1. This requires a PV area of about 50m2. If
a preferential FiT was available then although the energy produced would be the
same, the financial advantage to the householder would increase. In 2011 the ratio
of the FiT to the price of electricity was about 3:1 (exported: imported) (Ref ) that
would mean that either one third PV area (17m2) is required in order to ‘break even’ ,
or a 50m2 PV area would result in a profit to the householder of 200% of the
household energy bill.
Ratio ofsurplus electricity
generated/demand
6
Figure 10
The relationship of PV area
to surplus electricity
production.
The ratio needs to be 1 in
order to export as much as
is imported (50m2)
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
0
50
100
150
Area of PVs m2
10
200
6. Conclusion
This paper has analysed the future energy security of Malaysia and its potential
impact on lower income groups. It has identified that solar energy offers an
important alternative to fossil fuels in generating electricity and that the technology
of photovoltaics can be implemented on typical rural housing types. These
households have the potential to generate surplus electricity to their needs with a
PV array of about 50m2. However, with current feed-in tariffs, households can
balance their electricity bills (pay as much as they earn) with about 17m2 of PVs.
With appropriate loans (to be analysed in a further paper), this means that rural
households can move towards being more self-sufficient in electricity and can also
contribute to the national electricity generation mix. The extent to which rural houses
can contribute to the national electricity grid depends on the number of houses that
that invest in this technology and also the capacity of the national grid to utilise this
electricity.
7. REFERENCES
Ab Kadir, M. Z. A., Rafeeu, Y., & Adam, N. M. (2010). Prospective scenarios for the full solar
energy development in Malaysia. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 14(9),
3023-3031.
Ahmad, N (2010), Pursuing a better energy sector: Policy Perspective - By Datuk Noriyah
Ahmad,
Business,
The
Star
Online
http://biz.thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2010/3/22/business/5901485&sec=busine
ss (Monday March 22, 2010)
APEC (2006), Energy Demand and Supply Outlook 2006, Asia Pacific Energy Research
Centre :49-53
Byrd, H. (2008), Energy and Ecology: A View of Malaysia Beyond 2020, Penerbit USM,
Malaysia
Byrd, H. (2010), The Potential of PVs In Developing Countries: Maintaining An Equitable
Society In The Face Of Fossil Fuel Depletion, International Conference on Environment
2010, Penang
Campren, B. V., Guidi, D., & Best, G. (2000). Solar Photovoltaics For Sustainable Agriculture
and Rural Development. Working Paper No 2: Environment Natural Resources, UN,
Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Campbell, C. J. (2002). Peak Oil: an Outlook on Crude Oil Depletion.
http://www.greatchange.org/ov-campbell,outlook.html
Chua, S.C., Oh, T. H., and Goh, W.W. (2010), “Feed-In Tariff Outlook In Malaysia”, Journal
of Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol.15, Issue 1, pp. 705-712, January
2011
Clough, L. D. (2007), Energy Profile of Malaysia, Retrieved May 5, 2011
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Energy_profile_of_Malaysia
CMI (2006), “Comments to the DTI Energy Review,” The Cambridge-MIT Institute, UK
Droege, P. (2006). Renewable city: a comprehensive guide to an urban revolution.
Newcastle: John Wiley & Sons
Elhassan, Z.A.M et al (2011), Output Energy of Photovoltaic Module Directed at Optimum
Slope Angle in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Research Journal of Applied Sciences, 6(2),
104-109.
EIA. (2006). International Energy Annual 2006 Energy Information Administration (EIA).
Official Energy Statistics from the U.S Government. Retrieved 21.05, 2011, from
<http://www.eia.doe.gov/>
11
EIA. (2008). International Energy Annual 2008 Energy Information Administration (EIA).
Official Energy Statistics from the U.S Government, Retrieved 21.05, 2011, from
http://www.eia.doe.gov/
EIA (2008), The South China Sea, the U.S Government, Retrieved from
<http://www.eia.doe.gov/cabs/South_China_Sea/pdf.pdf>
Fadzil, S.F.S, and Byrd, H., (2010), Energy and Building Control Systems in the
Tropics, Unpublished manuscript.
Fee, C. V., Sani, A., Nidzam, A., Barlow, H. S., Michael, J., Gurupiah, et al. (2005). The
Encyclopedia of Malaysia, Volume 5 : Architecture (Vol. 5). Kuala Lumpur: Archipelogo
Press,
Hussain,
K.S.K. (2005),
Bekalan
Elektrik
Terputus
Lagi, Retrieved from
http://pengguna.blogspot.com/2005/02/bekalan-elektrik-terputus-lagi_03.html
Ibrahim, M., Sopian, K., Daud, W. R. W., & Alghoul, M. A. (2009). An experimental analysis
of solar-assisted chemical heat pump dryer. International Journal of Low-Carbon
Technologies, 4(2), 78-83.
Jalal, T. S. and Bodger, P. (2009), “National Energy Policies and the Electrical Sector in
Malaysia,” Proceedings of ICEE 2009 3rd International Conference on Energy and
Environment, Malacca, Malaysia, pp. 440-448, Dec 2009
Lau, K. Y., Yousof, M. F. M., Arshad, S. N. M., Anwari, M., & Yatim, A. H. M. (2010).
Performance analysis of hybrid photovoltaic/diesel energy system under Malaysian
conditions. [doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2010.04.008]. Energy, 35(8), 3245-3255.
Michael, W. (2007), “Power plays: Energy and Australia’s security,” ASPI
Malaysia (2006), The Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006-2010
M Hamdan Ahmad, D. R. O., Chia Sok Ling,. (2004). Impact Of Solar Radiation On HighRise Built Form In Tropical Climate. Paper presented at the SENVAR 2005, UTM.
Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries. (2009). OPEC Bulletin Retrieved
17/12/2010, from http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/
O'Donnell, T. (2009). China's Oil Aims in South China Sea. Sunday's Edition, 2009, from
http://www.petroleumworld.com/sunopf11072401.htm
Rasdi, M. T. M., Ali, K. M., Ariffin, S. A. I. S., Mohamad, R. a., & Mursib, G. (2004). Warisan
Seni Bina Dunia Melayu Rumah-Rumah Tradisional (The Architectural Heritage of
Traditional Malay Houses). Skudai, Johor: Univ Teknologi Malaysia (UTM).
Sathaye, J. and S. Meyers (2005). "Energy Use in Cities of the Developing Countries."
Annual Review of Energy 10(1): 109-133.
Seely, O. (2011). Some Observations on Photovoltaic Cell Panels. Retrieved 29 August,
2011, from http://www.csudh.edu/oliver/smt310-handouts/solarpan/solarpan.htm
Suruhanjaya Tenaga (2007), Electric Supply Industry in Malaysia Performance and
Statistical
Information
2007,
Retrieved
May
25,
2010
from
http://www.st.gov.my/images/stories/upload/st/st_files/public/Report_Performance.pdf.
Teh, C. (2010), Electricity demand, economic growth, and sustainable energy resources in
Malaysia, Retrieved May 5, 2011 http://christopherteh.com/blog/2010/09/07/electricitydemand/
The Department of Statistics Malaysia (2007), Malaysia Household Income Distribution
2007, Household Income Survey (HIS), Government of Malaysia
The Ministry of Rural and Regional Development (2010), Pelan Induk Pembangunan Luar
Bandar, The Ministry of Rural and Regional Development, Putrajaya, Malaysia
Randall, T and Max, F. (2001), Photovoltaics and Architecture, London, Spon Press
Yuan, L. J. (1991). Part II: Indigenious and traditional knowledge and practices The Malay
House: Rediscovering Malaysia’s Indigenous shelter system (pp. 152). Kuala Lumpur:
Institut Masyarakat.
TN ref ??
12