Daniel GarciaCastellanos
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Research interests
Interaction between erosion and climate with the tectonic deformation of
the Earth's lithosphere:
Desiccation & flood of the Mediterranean
during the Messinian?
Ebro Basin evolution (Pyrenees,
Iberia) and internally-drained
basins
Lake overtopping and outburst
floods
High plateaus and climate
Messinian Salinity Crisis
Isolation of the Mediterranean by competing tectonic
uplift and erosion in Gibraltar?
code used - license
asalted by Daniel Garcia-Castellanos is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.
[publication in progress; see also Urgeles et al., 2010, Basin Res.]
For the calculations we use a code written in C under Linux. The program is
called asalted and is available for download here.
Post-Messinian flood of the Mediterranean
[related scientific publications: Garcia-Castellanos et al., 2009, Nature; Urgeles et al., 2010, Basin Res.]
[related diffusion publications: ScienceNews; Science; La Recherche]
The flood that put an end to the Messinian desiccation of the Mediterranean is the largest known in
Earth's history, yet its abruptness and evolution are poorly constrained. The record in the Mediterranean
sediments indicates an abrupt change from Messinian (evaporitic) to normal (open marine) environments,
but in geosciences this can mean a transition lasting for tens of thousands of years. We used geophysical
observations in the Alboran Sea and the Gulf of Cadiz and computer modeling techniques to investigate
the feedback between water flow and erosion during the Zanclean flood.
At the ICTJA-CSIC, we developed a simple formulation that allows calculating the evolution of floods
produced by overspill of a water basin into another, incorporating feedback between sill incision and
water flow velocity. We used this formulation to model the geometry of an erosion channel crossing the
Gibraltar Strait from west to east. The 300-650 m-deep erosion seen in borehole and seismic data
(previously interpreted as the result of river erosion) are found to be consistent with erosion parameters
obtained from independent river-incision studies. According to the model predictions, feedback between
incision and water flow implied that the flood necessarily ended as a catastrophic event reaching peak
discharges of about 1000 times the present Amazon River, producing incision rates above 0.4 m/day and
a sea level rise in the Mediterranean faster than 10 m/day. Although the whole flooding process may have
lasted up to several thousand years, 90% of the water was transferred in a short period ranging between
months and a few years.
In the initial stage of our model, water starts seeping through an arbitrarily small water gate located in a
bathymetric sill separating the Atlantic and the dry Mediterranean basins. As basal shear-stress incises
the sill, water flow increases and so does the incision rate, in a feedback that leads to exponential
increase in discharge during the early model stages. All models show a long first phase with very little
incision due to the reduced amount of water flow allowed by the initial sill depth of 1 m. As the Gibraltar
gate grows deeper and wider, water flow and incision rate increase exponentially. This situation persists
until the flow reduction due to the rising level of the Western Mediterranean becomes more important than
the growth of the water gate. This event is labeled as Stage 1. Later, the effective slope S is progressively
reduced and so does the flow velocity V, the water discharge Q and the erosion rate dzs/dt. As the Sicily
Sill is reached (Stage 2), the level of the western Mediterranean remains constant while all water crossing
the Gibraltar gate is transferred to the eastern basin. After the eastern basin also fills up to the Sicily sill
(Stage 3), the whole Mediterranean will rise synchronously. Headloss across Gibraltar reduces gradually
to zero, towards an asymptotic equilibrium (Stage 4) where there is no significant level difference
between both oceans.
The figure shows an example run (this one adopting the stream unit power approach):
Source code used for the modeling
The code (spillover) is developed for Linux platforms in C language. It's available
here. A simplified version (spreadsheet calculator) of outburst flood evolution is
available here. The model incorporates feedback between incision and water flow
using finite difference techniques and an explicit solving scheme at regular time
steps.
Publications
[pdf's here] [Scopus list]

Vergés. J., Saura, E., Casciello, E., Fernàndez, M., Villaseñor, A., Jiménez-Munt, I. & D. GarciaCastellanos, 2011. Crustal-scale cross-section across the NW Zagros Belt: Implications for the
Arabian Margin reconstruction. Geological Magazine. doi:10.1017/S0016756811000331 [pdf]

Urgeles, R., A. Camerlenghi, D. García-Castellanos, B. De Mol, M. Garcés, J. Vergés, I. Haslam,
M. Hardman, 2010. New constraints on the Messinian sealevel drawdown from 3D seismic data
of the Ebro Margin, Iberian Peninsula, and implications for the evolution of the Ebro Basin. Basin
Res. , doi:10.1111/j.1365-2117.2010.00477.x [pdf]

Minshull, T.A., O. Ishizuka, D. Garcia-Castellanos, 2010. Long-term growth and subsidence of
Ascension Island: Constraints on the rheology of young oceanic lithosphere. Geophys. Res.
Lett. 37, L23306, doi:10.1029/2010GL045112 [pdf]

Leever, K., L. Matenco, D. Garcia-Castellanos, S.A.P.L. Cloetingh, 2010. The evolution of the
Danube gateway between Central and Eastern Paratethys (SE Europe): Insight from numerical
modelling of the causes and effects of connectivity between basins and its expression in the
sedimentary record. Tectonophysics, doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2010.01.003 [pdf]

Jimenez-Munt, I., M. Fernàndez, J. Vergés, J.C. Afonso, D. Garcia-Castellanos, J. Fullea, 2010.
The lithospheric structure of the Gorringe Bank: insights into its origin and tectonic evolution.
Tectonics 29, TC5019, doi:10.1029/2009TC002458. [pdf]

Garcia-Castellanos, D., F. Estrada, I. Jiménez-Munt, C. Gorini, M. Fernàndez, J. Vergés, R. De
Vicente, 2009. Catastrophic flood of the Mediterranean after the Messinian Crisis. Nature 462,
778-781 doi:10.1038/nature08555 [pdf]

Fullea, J., Afonso, J.C., Connolly, J.A.D., Fernàndez, M., Garcia-Castellanos, D., Zeyen, H. 2009.
LitMod3D: An interactive 3-D software to model the thermal, compositional, density,
seismological, and rheological structure of the lithosphere and sublithospheric upper mantle,
Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 10, Q08019, doi:10.1029/2009GC002391 [pdf]

Garcia-Castellanos, D., 2007. The role of climate in high plateau formation. Insights from
numerical experiments. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 257, 372-390, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2007.02.039 [pdf]

Garcia-Castellanos, D., 2006. Long-term evolution of tectonic lakes: Climatic controls on the
development of internally drained basins. In: Tectonics, Climate, and Landscape evolution. Eds.:
S.D. Willett, N. Hovius, M.T. Brandon & D.M. Fisher. GSA Special Paper 398. 283-294.
doi:10.1130/2006.2398(17) [pdf]

Jimenez-Munt, I., D. Garcia-Castellanos, A. Negredo & J. Platt, 2005, Gravitational and tectonic
forces controlling the post-collisional deformation and present-day stress of the Alps. Insights
from numerical modelling. Tectonics 24, doi:10.1029/2004TC001754 [pdf]

Carrapa, B. & D. Garcia-Castellanos, 2005. Western Alpine back-thrusting as subsidence
mechanism in the Western Po Basin. Tectonophysics 406, 197– 212.
doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2005.05.021 [pdf]

Jimenez-Munt, I., D. Garcia-Castellanos & M. Fernàndez, 2005, Thin sheet numerical modelling
of continental collision. Tectonophysics 407, 239-255. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2005.08.015 [pdf]

Cloetingh, S., P.A. Ziegler, F. Beekman, P.A.M. Andriessen, L. Matenco, G. Bada, D. GarciaCastellanos, N. Hardebol, P. Dèzes & D. Sokoutis, 2005. Lithospheric memory, state of stress
and rheology: Neo-Tectonic controls on Europe’s intraplate continental topography. Quaternary
Sc. Rev. 24, 241-304. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2004.06.015 [pdf]

Fernàndez, M. Torne, D. Garcia-Castellanos, J. Vergés, W. Wheeler & R. Karpuz, 2004. Deep
Structure of the Vøring Margin: the Transition from a Continental Shield to a Young Oceanic
Lithosphere. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 221, 131-144. doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(04)00092-5 [pdf]

Tarapoanca, M., D. Garcia-Castellanos, G. Bertotti & S. Cloetingh, 2004. Subsidence
mechanisms for the South-eastern Carpathians bend foreland. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 221, 163180. doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(04)00068-8 [pdf]

Gaspar-Escribano, J.M., D. Garcia-Castellanos, E. Roca & S. Cloetingh, 2004. Cenozoic vertical
motions of the Catalan Coastal Ranges (NE Spain): The role of tectonics, isostasy, and surface
transport. Tectonics 23, doi:10.1029/2003TC001511 [pdf]

Persson, K.S., D. Garcia-Castellanos & D. Sokoutis, 2004. River transport effects on
compressional belts: first results from an integrated analogue-numerical model. J. Geophys.
Res. 109, B1, B01409, doi:10.1029/2002JB002274 [pdf]

Cloetingh, S., F. Horváth, C. Dinu, R.A. Stephenson, G. Bertotti, G. Bada, L. Matenco, D. GarciaCastellanos and the TECTOP Working Group, 2003. Probing tectonic topography in the aftermath
of continental convergence in Central Europe. EOS transactions 84, 89-93. [pdf]

Garcia-Castellanos, D., J. Vergés, J.M. Gaspar-Escribano & S. Cloetingh, 2003. Interplay
between tectonics, climate and fluvial transport during the Cenozoic evolution of the Ebro Basin
(NE Iberia). J. Geophys. Res. 108 (B7), 2347. doi:10.1029/2002JB002073 [pdf]

Garcia-Castellanos, D., 2002. Interplay between lithospheric flexure and river transport in
foreland basins. Basin Res. 14 (2), 89-104, doi:10.1046/j.1365-2117.2002.00174.x [pdf]

Cloetingh, S., E. Burov, B. Andeweg, F. Beekmann, P.A.M. Andriessen, D. Garcia-Castellanos,
G. de Vicente & R. Vegas, 2002. Lithospheric folding in Iberia. Tectonics 21 (5), 1041,
doi:10.1029/2001TC901031 [pdf]

Garcia-Castellanos, D., M. Fernàndez & M. Torné, 2002. Modelling the evolution of the
Guadalquivir foreland basin (South Spain). Tectonics 21(3), doi:10.1029/2001TC001339 [pdf]

Gaspar-Escribano, J.M., J.D. van Wees, M. ter Voorde, S. Cloetingh, E. Roca, L. Cabrera, J.A.
Muñoz, P.A. Ziegler & D. Garcia-Castellanos, 2001. Three-dimensional flexural modelling of the
Ebro Basin (NE Iberia). Geophys. J. Int.145, 2, 349-368. doi:10.1029/2003TC001511 [pdf]

Garcia-Castellanos, D., S.A.P.L. Cloetingh & R.T. van Balen, 2000. Modeling the middle
Pleistocene uplift in the Ardennes-Rhenish Massif: Thermo-mechanical weakening under the
Eifel? Global Planet. Change 27, 39-52, doi:10.1016/S0921-8181(01)00058-3 [pdf]

Garcia-Castellanos, D., M. Torné & M. Fernàndez, 2000. Slab pull effects from a flexural analysis
of the Tonga and Kermadec Trenches (Pacific Plate). Geophys. J. Int. 141, 479-485,
doi:10.1046/j.1365-246x.2000.00096.x [pdf]

Garcia-Castellanos, D., 1998. Desarrollo de modelos numéricos de flexión litosférica: aplicación a
fosas oceánicas y cuencas de antepaís. PhD thesis. Advisors: Manel Fernandez i Ortiga y
Montserrat Torné i Escasany, Universitat de Barcelona / CSIC (in spanish only; english abstract).
ISBN 84-475-2012-9, 170 pp. [pdf]

Garcia-Castellanos, D., M. Fernàndez & M. Torné, 1997. Numerical modeling of foreland basin
formation: a program relating thrusting, flexure, sediment geometry and lithosphere rheology.
Computers & Geosciences 23, 993-1003, doi:10.1016/S0098-3004(97)00057-5 [pdf]
Climatic controls on the formation of high plateaus
[related scientific publication here]
Computer simulations combining tectonic convergence, isostasy, erosion/sedimentation, and climate
suggest that the formation of high plateaus within orogens depends on how dry the weather was during
the early stages of orogenesis.
Further details in this article. Calculations have been performed using the tAo software. You can freely
download the program version used for this paper and the corresponding scripts and parameter files (targzipped).
The two evolutions shown below are examples of a cross-section computer model of orogen growth (time
shown in million years) differing only in climatic parameters (tectonic and lithological parameters and kept
constant). The numerical model simultaneously computes the dynamics of fault generation, precipitation,
erosion and sediment transport carried out by rivers. The two evolutions below differ only in the chosen
climatic parameters, but they result in very different orogenic structures, one of them (to the left)
developing a high plateau isolated between two cordilleras. They have been calculated using a modified
version of the software tAo using a minimum work fault criterion, a shortening rate of 5 mm/yr during 18
million years, and a river transport capacity proportional to water discharge and slope.
M1. Leftwards wind flow with
orographic rain shadow
M2. Humid weather; Non-preferential
wind direction
The horizontal axis corresponds to distance across the orogen. From top to bottom: Time in millions of
years; Precipitation (plain blue line) and evaportation (dashed blue line); River sedimet load (brown) and
water discharge (blue); Erosion rate (red) and total erosion (dashed brown); Model geometry (1:7
vertically exaggerated and 1:1): Crustal bedrock in brown, sediments in yellow, water in blue, vertical bars
are plot as markers of shortening.Schematic diagram of processes and aproximations implemented in the
numerical model. See details in the paper linked above.
Schematic diagram of processes and aproximations implemented in the numerical model. See details in
the paper linked above.
Summary of the proposed mechanism of climatic control of high plateau growth. Dry climate induces the
accumulation of sediment in closed intraorogenic basins, leading to higher pressure along the main
tectonic faults that widen the orogen.
Abstract. High plateaus are generally thought to result from tectonic compression interfering with preexisting structural heterogeneities of the crust and in association with tectonic processes promoting uplift
such as viscous lower-crustal flow or mantle delamination. Instead, results from a novel computer
modeling technique integrating climatic, erosional and tectonic processes suggest that dry climate prior to
the uplift of the Andean Altiplano was a first order process controlling orogenic deformation and the
eventual formation of a high-plateau. According to these numerical modelling results, dry climatic
parameters (particularly if imposed at the early stages of tectonic shortening) favor sediment trapping
within the orogen transferring the accommodation of tectonic shortening towards the external parts of the
orogen and eventually leading to the formation of a high plateau. This feedback operates in the following
steps: 1) Dry climatic conditions at the early stages of orogenesis favor the tectonic defeat of rivers
draining the orogen, promoting lake formation, intramountain sediment trapping, and the eventual
formation of an internally-drained (endorheic) basin; 2) Endorheism extends the life of intramountain
basins thus increasing dramatically the mass trapped within the orogen and expelling deformation
towards the external parts of it; and 3) This propagation of tectonism further isolates the central parts of
the orogen from incoming precipitation, reinforcing intramountain sediment trapping and flattening. This
feedback phenomenon predicts basic topographic, drainage, and tectonic differences between orogens
lacking a high-plateau, such as the Alps, and orogens with a well-developed high plateau like the Andes,
without invoking tectonic controls or inherited weaknesses in the crust. It also suggests that internal
drainage and high-plateaus might be a natural stage of orogeneses starting under dry climatic conditions
and/or rapid tectonic shortening rates.