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Prospect Vol. 16 No. 1 April 2001
A cognitive approach to language learning
Skehan, P. 1998. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Reviewed by Paul Moore
Two assumptions underpin this book:
Assumption One: there is a critical period, after which language learning
joins other forms of learning as a mainly cognitive pursuit.
Assumption Two: meaning in comprehension and production takes
priority over form for older learners.
Though the assumptions upon which this book are based are not groundbreaking, from the outset it is noted that the book represents Skehan's 'personal view of SLA from a processing perspective' (p vii) . It is an argument
for psycholinguistic research as opposed to sociolinguistic or structural
linguistic research; an attempt to forge links between universalist theories
and those which focus on individual differences; and a proposal for a taskbased pedagogy which is rooted in theory.
The first four chapters outline the theoretical bases of Skehan's approach.
In Chapter 1, he rejects the value of comprehension and communication
strategies because of the inability of the research to provide evidence that they
have any relationship to systematic interlanguage development. Similar criticisms are made of the negotiation studies (reviewed by Pica 1994), whereas
the output hypothesis (Swain 1985) is seen as worthy of further inquiry in
that it concerns itself with psycholinguistic aspects of a focus on form. Chapter 2 provides support for a dual-mode processing psycholinguistic model
whereby a rule-based mode competes with a lexical mode in real-time communication.
Chapter 3 develops this processing model with regard to language learning, drawing on Schmidt's (1990) hypothesis that conscious noticing of new
elements of language is essential for them to be available for intake. Chapter 4
outlines the strengths and weaknesses of three models of language learning,
and concludes that formal models are unable to account for the relationship
between language performance and interlanguage development. Skehan
therefore proposes not a model, but a set of principles which allows connections between learning and performance.
The next three chapters focus on task-based methodology, and provide
a rationale for its use before discussing its implementation in instruction
and testing. In Chapter 5, on the basis of a survey of research into tasks with
a range of theoretical underpinnings and presenting sometimes conflicting
findings, Skehan puts forward tentative generalisations.
In Chapter 6, he draws on a critical synthesis of two other approaches,
one structure-based (Loschky and Bley-Vroman 1993), the other communicative (Willis 1996), to propose an alternative to Willis' set of five principles for the implementation of task-based instruction. These principles
are as follows (p 132):
1. Choose a range of task structures.
2. Choose tasks which encourage the use of particular structures (the utility
condition).
3. Select and sequence tasks to achieve balanced goal development.
4. Maximise the chances of focus on form through attentional manipulation.
5. Use cycles of accountability.
It is here that the practitioner is warned against accepting Skehan's argument uncritically because of its inconclusive theoretical foundations. However, Skehan discusses these principles at some length, providing a range of
supporting research findings. Chapter 7 develops the argument from a testing
stance, first outlining the limits of updated models of communicative competence: namely that they ignore effects of both task characteristics and
psycholinguistic processes on performance. He draws on McNamara (1995)
for a model of oral test performance, and develops this model along the lines
of task characteristics and dual coding.
From this point the following four chapters tum their attention to individual differences in language learning. The argument here is that a processing
model can incorporate both universalist and individualist perspectives of
language acquisition.
Chapter 8 reviews research into language aptitude and relates it to ability
for encoding. analysing, and producing language. Chapter 9 turns to evidence
from successful and unsuccessful learners, as well as neurolinguistic research
in first and second language acquisition.
Among several generalisations based on research findings, the critical
period hypothesis is supported, and the difference between language
acquisition before and after the critical period is seen as modular. While the
language systems of child acquirers of language are divided between competing syntax and semantics modules, according to Skehan, there appears to
be evidence that adult learners' systems are based on competition between
the stages of input and output processing. This conclusion is based on the
findings that weak language learners performed poorly on tests related to
input processing, while exceptional language learners only performed exceptionally on tests of memory, particularly retention of verbal material, which
Skehan associates primarily with output.
In Chapter 10, Skehan urges a fresh research effort into learning styles
to discover how far they might be separable from aptitude (which is seen
as constant) and therefore how they might be accommodated, or indeed
manipulated, by task-based instruction. The relatively sparse research and
arguments in the area are reviewed, and gaps for research are explored before
a processing framework is offered. This framework contrasts independent
dimensions of memory and analysis as they apply to language use and organisation of the interlanguage system.
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Chapter 11 returns to pedagogical concerns, this time with the focus
squarely on the learner. The chapter discusses learner autonomy, learner strategies and procedural versus process syllabuses before outlining the advantages
of projects as the central task in task-based syllabuses.
Chapter 12 concludes by restating the aims and claims of the book and
suggesting further research into (among other things) :
•!•
discovering how much output is lexicalised (created from memorised
chunks of language) as opposed to rule-based, and how far this may reflect
a dual-mode interlanguage system;
•!•
the role of attention in language acquisition and how this might be
influenced by instruction; and
•!•
how a contrived focus on form such as that proposed in Skehan's five
principles for task-based instruction may contribute to interlanguage
development.
The book represents a cognitive approach, somewhat unified, providing
many suggestions in many areas of language-learning research and pedagogy.
As such, it critically appraises much research and provides many possible
avenues of development. In this, it does fulfil the author's first aim of regaining ground for psycholinguistics in SLA. Perhaps the most important
contribution of this book is its focus on output processing and the development of the argument for a more central cognitive role for output in SLA
research.
Regarding the debate on the relative importance of psycholinguistics and
sociolinguistics to SLA, Tarone (2000) argues the opposite view to that proposed by Skehan, that is, that 'too much SLA research focuses on psycholinguistic processes in the abstract and does not consider the social context
of L2 learning' (p 182). It is interesting to note in the context of this debate
that Swain has recently modified her output hypothesis (Swain 2000) to place
it firmly within a sociocultural theory of mind, thereby emphasising the
importance of collaborative dialogue as the basis for language learning.
Skehan manages to develop the thread of dual-mode processing throughout his argument and thereby provide us with a unified account of how this
version of psycholinguistic theory can augment and inform all areas of language learning from theory to the classroom. However, because of the allencompassing range of inquiry, at times it appears that the thread runs thin.
For example, as a basis for classroom intervention, it seems difficult to accept
such a strong connection between language production in real-time and
aptitude/individual learning preferences as that which Skehan proposes.
Consistent in presentation, at times assertive and tentative at others,
Skehan pursues far-reaching aims and provides us with:
•!•
an interesting and thorough perspective on how psycholinguistic research
can be applied to language learning;
I..
•:• a comprehensive attempt to match his version of the universal with his
earlier research on individual differences in language learning; and
•:• an exploration of the middle ground between theory and pedagogy in the
form of principles for the implementation of task-based instruction, as
well as a model of task-based approaches.
References
Loschky Land R Bley-Vroman 1993. Grammar and task-based methodology. In
G Crookes and S Gass (eds). Tasks and language learning: Integrating theory and
practice. Clevedon, Avon: Multilingual Matters
McNamara T 1995. 'Modelling performance: opening Pandora's box'. Applied
Linguistics, 16: 159- 79
Pica T 1994. 'Research on negotiation: What does it reveal about second language
learning. conditions. processes, outcomes?'. Language Learning, 44: 493-527.
Schmidt R 1990. The role of consciousness in second language learning'. Applied
Linguistics, 11: 17-46
Swain M 1985. 'Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input
and comprehensible output in its development'. In S Gass and V Madden
(eds). Input and second language acquisition. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House
Swain M 2000. The output hypothesis and beyond: Mediating acquisition through
collaborative dialogue'. In J Lantolf (ed). Sociocultural theory and second
language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Tarone E 2000. 'Still wrestling with "context" in interlanguage theory'. Annual Review
of Applied Linguistics, 20: 182- 98
Willis j 1996. A framework for task-based learning. London: Longman