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NITROGEN HARVEST INDEX AND ITS
ASSOCIATION WITH CROP YIELDS
N. K. Fageria
a
a
National Rice and Bean Research Center of EMBRAPA , Santo
Antônio de Goiás , Brazil
Accepted author version posted online: 24 Jan 2014.Published
online: 01 Apr 2014.
To cite this article: N. K. Fageria (2014) NITROGEN HARVEST INDEX AND ITS ASSOCIATION WITH CROP
YIELDS, Journal of Plant Nutrition, 37:6, 795-810, DOI: 10.1080/01904167.2014.881855
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Journal of Plant Nutrition, 37:795–810, 2014
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Copyright ISSN: 0190-4167 print / 1532-4087 online
DOI: 10.1080/01904167.2014.881855
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NITROGEN HARVEST INDEX AND ITS ASSOCIATION
WITH CROP YIELDS
N. K. Fageria
National Rice and Bean Research Center of EMBRAPA, Santo Antônio de Goiás, Brazil
2
Nitrogen (N) is one of the most yield-limiting nutrients in crop production around the world.
The main reasons of N deficiency are low recovery efficiency (RE) of applied N fertilizers. The RE
efficiency of N by most crop plants is lower than 50%. The lower RE of this element is associated
with losses by volatilization, leaching, denitrification, and soil erosion. Some part of N is also
immobilized in undecomposed organic materials and by soil microbial population. Nitrogen harvest
index (NHI) is a ratio between N accumulated in grain to N accumulated in grain plus straw. The
NHI is an important index in determining crop yields because it is positively associated with grain
yield. Relationship between GHI and crop grain yield may be positive linear or quadratic depending
on crop genotypes and soil and crop management practices adopted. In cereals retranslocation of
previously assimilated N in the vegetative parts is the predominant source of N for the grain. The
most important practices that can improve NHI are liming acid soils, use of adequate N rates, source
and timing, planting N efficient crop species or genotypes within species, and use of appropriate crop
rotation.
Keywords:
plant tops
grain yield, N concentration and uptake, N use efficiency, N distribution in
INTRODUCTION
Nitrogen harvest index (NHI) is defined as the ratio between nitrogen
(N) uptake in grain and N uptake in grain plus straw or shoot. Since N in
the roots has little influence on the efficiency of N partitioning (Fawcett,
1980), the NHI ratio refers only to N in the aboveground parts of the
plant (Rattunde and Frey, 1986). The NHI is an important index to measure retranslocation efficiency of absorbed N from vegetative plant parts to
grain. This index is very useful in measuring N partitioning in crop plants,
which provides an indication of how efficiently the plant utilized acquired
Received 7 July 2010; accepted 28 August 2010.
Address correspondence to N. K. Fageria, National Rice and Bean Research Center of EMBRAPA,
Caixa Postal 179, Santo Antônio de Goiás, CEP 75375-000, GO, Brazil. E-mail: [email protected]
795
796
N. K. Fageria
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FIGURE 1 Relationship between nitrogen harvest index and grain yield of lowland rice grown on
Brazilian Inceptisol (Fageria, 2009).
N for grain production (Fageria and Baligar, 2003a). Since GHI is positively associated with grain yield (Figure 1), it is important that more N
should be retanslocated to grain. Rattunde and Frey (1986) reported that
the NHI was positively associated with grain yield of oats and response of
grain yields to environmental productivity, but was inversely related to mean
straw yield. Similarly, Kairudin and Erey (1988) also reported that NHI
of oats was positively correlated with grain yield and groat protein yield
in low and high N environments. In addition, the NHI and protein content are positively and significantly correlated in oats (Fawcett and Frey,
1982). This means that increasing NHI will also increase grain quality of
cereals.
A high NHI indicates increased partitioning of N to the grain (Bulman
and Smith, 1994). Amount of N remobilized from storage tissues is important
in grain nitrogen use efficiency and varies among genotypes and appears to
be under genetic control (Moll et al., 1982; Dhugga and Waines, 1989). Genetic variation exists for NHI in wheat (Austin et al., 1977; Desai and Bhatai
1978), barley (Grant et al., 1991; Tillman et al., 1991), and rice (Fageria
and Baligar, 2003b). High NHI is associated with efficient utilization of N
(Fageria and Baligar, 2005). Thus, the variations in NHI are characteristic of
genotypes and this trait may be useful in selecting crop genotypes for higher
grain yield (Fageria and Baligar, 2005).
Small grain crops take up most N before anthesis (Murata and
Matsushima, 1975; Austin et al., 1977; Fawcett 1980). Dhugga and Waines
(1989) reported that genotypes accumulate little or no N after anthesis had
low grain yields and low NHIs. In wheat, the amount of N present at anthesis
can be as high as 90 to 100% of total plant N at maturity (Loffler et al., 1985;
Clarke et al., 1990; Heitholt et al., 1990). Although N uptake in small grain
cereals often declines after anthesis, plants still retain the ability to absorb
N, and appreciable quantities of N can be assimilated during grain filling
(Austin et al., 1977). High levels of available soil N encourage postanthesis N uptake (Campbell et al., 1977; Heitholt et al., 1990) and depress the
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NHI and Crop Yields
797
amount of N retranslocated to the grain (Halloran, 1981; Bulman and Smith,
1994).
High NHI is associated with efficient utilization of applied N (Fawcett
and Frey, 1983) and grain protein yield (Welch and Young, 1980; Fawcett
and Frey, 1982). Selecting for high NHI may give simultaneouslt improvement for grain yield and grain protein (Fawcett and Frey, 1983), or increase
in grain yield with constant grain protein content (Loffler and Busch, 1982).
Fawcett and Frey (1982) found NHI of oats was associated with responsiveness of grain yield to increasing soil N levls. The 10 entries with highest
NHI values had a positive yield response of 0.25 Mg ha−1, whereas the 10
lowest NHI lines had a decrease of 0.50 Mg ha−1. Similarly, Rattunde and
Frey (1986) reported that in oat selection for NHI in the high N environment gave realized heritabilities of 1.01 for high and 0.85 for low NHI lines.
The objective of this review is to discuss importance of NHI in improving
crop yields and how NHI can be improved for better utilization of N in crop
plants.
Values of Nitrogen Harvest Index in Crop Species/Genotypes
The NHI values varied from crop species to crop species and among
genotypes of the same species. Mean NHI values of 0.82 were reported for
faba bean (Kaul et al., 1996); López-Bellido et al., 2003). Soil and crop
management practices also influence NHI. In winter wheat, NHI values
ranged from 0.51 to 0.54 for moldboard plowed conditions compared with
58 to 64% for no-till conditions (Rao and Dao, 1996). These results indicated
that subsurface N fertilizer placement in plowed plots had no significant
effect on grain yield or grain N content. In contrast, N banded below the
seed in no-till conditions improved both grain yield and grain N contents
compared with surface broadcast N (Rao and Dao, 1996).
Values of NHI of 20 dry bean genotypes grown on Brazilian Oxisol are
presented in Table 1. The NHI values varied from genotypes to genotypes
and were also influenced by N levels. At low N rate (0 mg kg−1), values
varied from 0.43 to 0.82, with an average value of 0.63. The cultivar ‘Perola’
had the maximum NHI and genotype CNFP 7624 had the minimum NHI.
The NHI values at higher N level (400 mg kg−1) also varied from 0.53 to
0.88, with an average value of 0.75. The overall, increase in NHI with the
application of 400 mg N kg−1 of soil was 19% compared to the control
treatment. The cultivar ‘Perola’ produced highest NHI at low N level did
not produce highest NHI at high N level. Similarly, the genotype CNFP 7624
produced minimum NHI at low N rate, and did not produce low NHI at
high N rate. This means that NHI in dry bean genotypes is controlled by
plant environmental conditions. From this data it can also be concluded
that NHI should not be determined at one level of N but at variable N
levels.
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N. K. Fageria
TABLE 1 Nitrogen harvest index (NHI) of 20 dry bean genotypes grown at two N rates
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Genotype
Pérola
BRS Valente
CNFM 6911
CNFR 7552
BRS Radiante
Jalo Precoce
Diamante Negro
CNFP 7624
CNFR 7847
CNFR 7866
CNFR 7865
CNFM 7875
CNFM 7886
CNFC 7813
CNFC 7827
CNFC 7806
CNFP 7677
CNFP‘7775
CNFP 7777
CNFP 7792
Average
F-Test
N rate (N)
Genotype (G)
NXG
0 mg N kg−1 of soil
400 mg N kg−1 of soil
0.82a
0.44a
0.80a
0.57a
0.67a
0.67a
0.65a
0.43a
0.80a
0.47a
0.71a
0.45a
0.44a
0.47a
0.71a
0.69a
0.71a
0.70a
0.79a
0.62a
0.63
0.73ab
0.53b
0.79ab
0.68ab
0.69ab
0.75ab
0.71ab
0.78ab
0.85a
0.74ab
0.69ab
0.85a
0.78ab
0.85a
0.85a
0.78ab
0.85a
0.85a
0.88ab
0.72ab
0.75
∗∗
∗∗
∗∗
∗∗ Significant at the 1% probability level. Within same column, means followed by the same letter do
not differ significantly at 5% probability level by Tukeys test.
Nitrogen Uptake and Its Association with Grain Yield
Uptake of N in crop plants is the most important among the essential
plant nutrients. However, N uptake is second to potassium (K) in some
cereal crops such as rice (Fageria and Baligar, 2005). Nitrogen is mainly
absorbed as nitrate (NO3 −) and ammonium (NH4 +) by roots. In oxidized
soils, NO3 − is the dominant form and absorption of this form predominates.
In reduced soil conditions, such as flooded rice, NH4 + may predominate in
the absorption process. The topic of NH4 + vs. NO3 − nutrition of plants has
been extensively reviewed (Mengel et al., 2001). It has been proven that most
annual crops grow best when supplied mixtures of NH4 + and NO3 − under
controlled conditions (Bock et al., 1991; Wang and Below, 1996; Fageria and
Baligar, 2005).
Generally, N in crop plants has positive association with grain yield
(Fageria and Baligar, 2005). Figures 2 and 3 show that N uptake in lowland rice grain and shoot had a significant positive relationship with grain
yield. Grain yield was linear when N uptake in the grain was between 75 to
300 mg plant−1. Variation in grain yield due to N uptake in grain was 70%.
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NHI and Crop Yields
799
FIGURE 2 Relationship between nitrogen uptake in grain and grain yield of lowland rice grown on
Brazilian Inceptisol (Fageria, 2009).
Similarly, N uptake in shoot was also significantly and quadratically associated with grain yield (Figure 3). The variation in grain yield due to N uptake
in shoot was 47%. This means that N uptake in grain has higher correlation
with grain yield compared to shoot. Grain N of cereals is derived largely
from remobilization and translocation of N from vegetative parts after anthesis and N content in grain is always high compared to shoot (Kairudin
and Frey, 1988; Fageria and Baligar, 2005).
Management Practices to Improve Nitrogen Harvest Index
Management practices that can improve N uptake and use efficiency in
crop plants generally improve N harvest index in crop genotypes (Fageria
and Baligar, 2005). Some management practices that can improve N uptake
and use efficiency include liming acid soils, use of adequate rate, source,
and timing of application, planting N efficient crop genotypes, and use
of legumes in crop rotation. A synthesis of these management practices is
presented here.
FIGURE 3 Relationship between nitrogen uptake in shoot and grain yield of lowland rice grown on
Brazilian Inceptisol (Fageria, 2009).
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N. K. Fageria
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Liming Acid Soils
Soil acidity is major constraint for crop production worldwide (Sumner
and Noble, 2003; Fageria and Baligar, 2003a). Theoretically, soil acidity is
measured by determining hydrogen and aluminum ions in soil solution.
However, for crop production soil acidity is a complex issue involving availability of many essential plant nutrients and toxicity of some elements (Fageria and Baligar, 2003a; Baligar et al., 2001). Furthermore, soil acidity also
influences activities of beneficial microorganisms in the soil. Adverse effects
of soil acidity on plant growth has been observed by reducing plant morphology, yield, and yield components (Foy, 1992; Fageria and Baligar, 2003a).
Soil acidity arises from several different sources. Soils become acidic due to
leaching of basic ions in humid areas, parent materials initially low in basic
cations [calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), K +, and sodium (Na+)], use of
acidic fertilizers, fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by legumes, deposition of
acid rains, nutrient cycling processes [carbon (C, N, and sulfur (S)], higher
uptake of cations compared with anions, and microbial decomposition of
organic matter (Sumner and Noble, 2003; Bolan and Hedley, 2003).
In Brazilian Oxisols, deficiencies of most essential macro- and micronutrients have been reported for the production of upland rice, corn, wheat,
dry bean, and soybean (Fageria and Baligar, 1997). Positive effects of liming
on crop growth may be associated with amelioration of one or more of the
above mentioned factors (Hayns, 1984), and possibly from reduced weed
growth (Legere et al., 1994; Arshad et al., 1997). Liming is the most common and effective practice for reducing soil acidity related problems. Lime
significantly increased grain yields of annual crops such as common bean,
corn, and soybean grown on Brazilian Oxisols (Fageria, 2001, 2002; Fageria
and Baligar, 2001, 2003a). Figure 4 shows that dry bean yields increased
significantly and in a quadratic fashion with increased soil pH at 0–10 and
10–20 cm soil depths in a Brazilian Oxisol. Overall, maximum yield calculated on the basis of regression equation was obtained at a soil pH of 6.5.
variation in grain yield due to increase in soil pH was 82% at 0–10 cm soil
depth and 77% at 10–20 cm soil depth.
Adequate N Rate, Source and Timing
Use of adequate rate and source of N is an important aspect in improving
N uptake and use fficiency and consequently NHI in crop plants. Nitrogen
is very dynamic in soil-plant systems and changes with time and space. In
addition, most of the N in the soils-plant systems is in the organic form and
its mineralization rate also varies with variation of environmental factors.
Hence, there no appropriate soil test for making fertilizer recommendations, like phosphorus (P) and K as immobile nutrients. The best method
of making N recommendations is crop growth response curve. These curves
should be developed for each crop species under different agroecological
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NHI and Crop Yields
801
FIGURE 4 Influence of soil pH on dry bean yield (Fageria, 2008).
regions. Figure 5 shows lowland rice response to N fertilization. There was
a quadratic increase in grain yield with increasing N rate from 0 to 200 kg
ha−1. However, 90% of maximum yield considered as an economic level was
obtained with the application of 136 kg N ha−1. Similarly, shoot dry weight
FIGURE 5 Relationship between N rate and grain yield of lowland rice genotypes grown on Brazilian
Inceptisol. Values are averages of 12 genotypes (Fageria and Santos, 2006).
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N. K. Fageria
FIGURE 6 Relationship between N rate and shoot dry weight of upland rice (Fageria, 2009).
was also increased in a quadratic fashion with increasing N rate in the range
of 0 to 200 kg ha−1 (Figure 6). The 90% of maximum shoot dry weight was
achieved with the application of about 120 kg N ha.
In relation to source of N for crop production, there are several N carriers
(Fageria and Baligar, 2005). In developing countries, ammonium sulfate
and urea are two most common fertilizers. In developed countries, liquid
ammonia is also used as a N fertilizer. Liquid ammonia requires special
equipment for soil application, and this facility is not easily available in
developing countries. Results related to ammonium sulfate and urea with
lowland rice are presented in Figure 7. Based on 90% of the relative yield,
(corresponds to 5750 kg grain ha−1) was obtained with the application of
84 kg N ha−1 in the case of ammonium sulfate. Similarly, in case of urea, 90%
of the relative grain yield (corresponds to 4811 kg grain ha−1) was obtained
with the application of 130 kg N ha−1. Hence, ammonium sulfate is better
FIGURE 7 Lowland rice grain yield s influenced by N fertilization by two sources (Fageria et al., 2010).
803
NHI and Crop Yields
TABLE 2 Lowland rice grain yield at different N timing during crop growth cycle. Total N used was
90 kg ha−1
Timing of N application
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Total at sowing
1/3 at sowing 1/3 at 45 days after sowing + 1/3 at panicle
initiation growth stage
1/3 at sowinh + 13 at 45 days after sowing
1/2 at sowing + 1/2 at panicle initiation growth stage
2/3 at sowing +1/3 at 45 days after sowing
2/3 at sowing + 1/3 at panicle initiation growth stage
1/3 at sowing + 2/3 at 20 days after sowing
Grain yield (kg ha−1)
6925ab
7071a
7093a
6834ab
6879ab
6866ab
6575b
Source: Fageria and Prabhu (2004).
fertilizer for lowland rice compared to urea. The reason for this may be that
ammonium sulfate produce acidity (Fageria and Baligar, 2001) and rice is
highly tolerant to soil acidity (Fageria et al., 2010).
In relation to timing of N application, one part should be applied at sowing and remaining should be fractioned or topdressed during crop growth
cycle according to plant needs. This may avoid N losses due to leaching and
denitrfication. Data in Table 2 show that maximum grain yield of rice was
obtained with the application of 1/3 at sowing +1/3 at 45 days after sowing
+1/3 at panicle initiation growth stage. However, there was no significant
FIGURE 8 Relationship between nitrogen application rate and grain yield of 5 lowland rice genotypes
grown on Brazilian Inceptisol (Fageria, 2009).
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N. K. Fageria
FIGURE 9 Nitrogen harvest index of lowland rice genotypes (Fageria, 2009).
difference between this treatment and 1/2 N applied at sowing and remaining half at 45 days after sowing. Minimum grain yield was obtained when
1/3 of N was applied at sowing and remaining 2/3 at 20 days after sowing
or at tiller initiation growth stage. This may be associated with loss of N
by leaching and desnitrification when plants roots were not well developed
(Fageria and Prabhu, 2004).
Planting Nitrogen Efficient Crop Species/Genotypes
Use of N efficient crop species or genotypes within species is an important
management strategy for improving N use efficiency and consequently NHI
in crop plants. Differences in N uptake and utilization among crop species
and cultivars within species for wheat, sorghum, corn, ryegrass, and soybean
have been reported (Fageria and Baligar, 2005; Fageria et al., 2010). Similarly, many researchers have found significant variations of N use efficiency
among lowland rice genotypes (Singh et al., 1998; Fageria and Barbosa Filho,
2001; Fageria and Baligar, 2005). Pandey et al. (2001) reported that agronomic efficiency of N was higher in sorghum compared to pearl millet and
corn over four N rates (45, 90, 235, and 180 kg N ha−1). Fowler (2003) reported significant yield differences among wheat genotypes with increasing
N rates from 0 to 240 kg ha−1.
Isfan (1993) reported highly significant variation among oat genotypes
in both yield and physiological efficiency of absorbed N. According to this
NHI and Crop Yields
805
TABLE 3 Soil and plant mechanisms and processes and other factors influencing genotypic differences
in nutrient use efficiency in plants
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Nutrient acquisition
Diffusion and mass flow in soil: buffer capacity, ionic concentration and properties, tortuosity, moisture,
bulk density, temperature.
Root morphological factors: number, length, extension, density, root hair density.
Physiological: root/shoot ratio, root microorganisms (rhizobia, azotobacter, mycorrhizae), nutrient
status, water uptake, nutrient influx and effux, nutrient transport rates, affinity for uptake (Km),
threshold concentration (Cmin)
Biochemical: enzyme secretion (phosphatases), chelating compounds, phytosiderophores, proton
exudates, organic acid exudates (citric, malic, trans-aconitic)
Nutrient movement in root
Transfer across endoderma cells and transport in roots
Comprtmentalization/binding within roots
Rate of nutrient release to xylem
Nutrient accumulation and remobilization in shoot
Demand at cellular level and storage in vacuoles
Retransport from older to younger leaves and from vegetative to reproductive tissues
Rate of chelation in xylem transport
Nutrient utilization and growth
Nutrient metabolism at reduced tissue concentrations
Lower element concentrations in supporting structure, particularly stems
Elemental substitution (Fe for Mn, Mo for P, Co for Ni)
Biochemical: peroxidase for Fe efficiency, ascorbic acid oxidase for Cu, carbonic anhydrase for Zn,
metallothionein for metal toxicities
Other factors
Soil factors
Soil solution: ionic equilibria, solubility, precipitation, competing ions, organic ions, pH, phytotoxic
ions
Physiochemical properties: organic matter, pH, aeration, structure, texture, compaction, moisture
Environmental effects
Intensity and quality of light (solar radiation)
Temperature
Moisture (rainfall, humidity, drought)
Plant diseases, insects, and allelopathy)
Source: Baligar et al. (2001), Fageria and Baligar (2003b); Fageria et al. (2010).
author, ideal genotypes could be those that absorb relatively high amounts
of N from soil and fertilizers, produces high grain yields per unit of absorbed
N, and stores relatively little N in the straw. Similarly, many workers found
corn genotype differences for absorption and utilization of N (Kamprath
et al., 1982; Anderson et al., 1984; Moll et al., 1987).
Figure 8 shows responses of five lowland rice genotypes to N fertilization. These genotypes differ in yield response to applied N. The genotype that produced above average yields compared to all the genotypes
tested at the low N level and responded well to applied N. Genotype
BRSGO Guará fall in this group. Genotypes CNAi 8569 produced well under low N rate but did not respond well to higher N rates. Genotypes BRS
Biguá and BRS Jaburu produced lowest grain yield at lower N rates but
806
N. K. Fageria
TABLE 4 Quantity of nitrogen fixed by legume cover crops
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Crop species
Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.)
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.)
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.)
Soybean (Glycine max L.)
Fava bean (Vicia faba L.)
Hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth.)
Ladino clover (Trifolium repens L)
Red clover (Trifolium pratense L.)
White lupine (Lupinus albus L.)
Field peas (Pisum sativum L.)
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)
Pigeon pea (Cajnus cajan L. Huth.)
Kudzu (Pueraria phaseoloides Roxb. Benth)
Chick pea (Cicer arietinum L.)
Greengram (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek.)
Lentil (Lens culinaris L.)
N2 fixed (kg ha−1 crop−1)
Reference
40–80
30–50
78–222
50–150
177–250
50–100
164–187
68–113
50–100
174–195
24–84
150–280
100–140
24–84
71–112
57–111
Brady and Weil (2002)
Brady and Weil (2002)
Heichel (1987)
Brady and Weil (2002)
Heichel (1987)
Brady and Weil (2002)
Heichel (1987)
Heichel (1987)
Brady and Weil (2002)
Heichel (1987)
Heichel (1987)
Brady and Weil (2002)
Brady and Weil (2002)
Heichel (1987)
Chapman and Myers (1987)
Smith et al. (1987)
responded well at higher N rates. From a practical point of view, the genotypes that fell into the efficient and responsive group would be the most
desirable because they can produce well at low soil N levels and also respond well to applied N. Thus, this group could be utilized with low as well
TABLE 5 Nitrogen fertilizer equivalence (NFE) of legume cover crops to succeeding non-legume crops
Legume/non-legume Crop
Hairy vetch/cotton
Hairy vetch + rye/corn
Hairy vetch/corn
Hairy vetch/sorghum
Hairy vetch/corn
Hairy vetch + wheat/corn
Crimson clover/cotton
Crimson clover/corn
Crimson clover/sorghum
Common vetch/sorghum
Bigflower vetch/corn
Subterranean clover/sorghum
Sesbania/lowland rice
Alfalfa/corn
Alfalfa/wheat
Arachis spps/wheat
Subterranean clover/wheat
White lupin/wheat
Arachis spps/corn
Pigeon pea/corn
Sesbania/potato
Mungbean/potato
Chickpea/wheat
Source: Compiled from Smith et al. (1987) and Kumar and Goh (2000).
NFE (kg ha−1)
67–101
56–112
78
89
78
56
34–67
50
19–128
30–83
50
12–103
50
62
20–70
28
66
22–182
60
38–49
48
34–148
15–65
NHI and Crop Yields
807
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as high input technology with reasonably good yields (Fageria and Baligar,
2005).
Data presented in Figure 9 show that there significant variation in NHI in
lowland rice genotypes. Genotypes BRS Biguá, CNA 8885, and BRSGO Guará
had maximum NHI, and genotype CNA 8569 had minimum NHI. There
are several reasons have been proposed for difference in genotypes for N
use efficiency and consequently NHI. The mechanisms that are responsible
for differences in uptake and use efficiency of N among crop species or
genotypes are synthesized in Table 3.
Use of Appropriate Crop Rotation
Use of appropriate crop rotation is an important crop management
strategy to improve N uptake. Crop rotation is a planned sequence of crops
growing in a regularly recurring succession on the same area of land, as contrasted to continuous culture of one crop or growing a variable sequence of
crops (Soil Science Society of America, 2008). The use of crop rotation in
crop production has been in existence for thousands of years. Early writers
reported that crop rotation was in use in ancient Greece and Rome (Karlen
et al., 1994). MacRae and Mehuys (1985) reported that crop rotations were
practiced during the Han dynasty of China more than 3000 years ago. In
an appropriate crop rotation, a legume should be included with cereals.
Legume fixes atmospheric N and could potentially reduce N requirements
of succeeding cereal crops (Tables 4 and 5). Nitrogen requirements of cereals are reduced when grown after legume crops. One method for quantifying the N contribution of legumes is the estimation of fertilizer replacement
value (FRV) (Iragavarapu et al. 1997). Hesterman (1988) defined FRV as
the amount of inorganic N fertilizer required to produce yields in a nonrotated crop equivalent to that obtained in the same but nonfertilized crop
following a legume. Crop rotation is an effective disease, insect, and weed
control practice (Karlen et al., 1994). Furthermore, crop rotation benefits
are improved water use efficiency, increased nutrient use efficiency, reduced
allelopathy, and improved soil quality.
CONCLUSIONS
Nitrogen is one of the most yields limiting nutrients in crop production in most of the agroecological regions of the world. The N limitation
in crop production is associated with its low recovery efficiency (<50%)
of applied fertilizers. The low recovery of N is associated with its losses in
soil-plant systems mainly by volatilization, leaching, denitrification, and soil
erosion. Hence, improving N use efficiency is fundamental in crop production to increase yields of grain crops, reduce cost of crop production and
also environmental pollution. After absorption N by crop plants it should
be partitioned between vegetative and reproductive or economic part of the
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N. K. Fageria
plants like grains. This N partitioning efficiency, which is measured as the
ratio of grain N to total plant N (grain plus straw), called nitrogen harvest index (NHI). The NHI is characteristic of genotypes, however, can be improve
by better environmental conditions of the growing plants. The NHI can be
improved in crop plants by adopting appropriate soil and plant management
practices. These practices are use of adequate N rate, source and timing of
application, planting efficient crop species or genotypes within species and
use of legumes in the crop rotation.
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