心理科学进展
2011, Vol. 19, No. 6, 775–793
Advances in Psychological Science
DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2011.00775
·主编特邀(Editor-In-Chief Invited)·
编者按：
科学赋予心理学的一项重大任务是去揭开人类意识之谜。随着心理学实验技术和认知神经科学手段
的不断发展, 人们似乎已经开始接近其中的某些核心问题, 如前意识现象, 如认知过程与脑神经过程的
交互作用等。笛卡尔的身心二元论将不仅继续受到思辨的挑战, 更要受到实证研究的挑战。
Ernst Pöppel 等人的“‘时间窗’—— 认知加工的后勤基础”一文, 以德国人所具有的欧洲大陆哲学的
视角, 提出了认知神经系统的“时间窗”概念, 并系统介绍了有关时间窗与认知加工的实证研究。时间窗
是大脑在进化过程中发展出来的减少复杂性和时间不确定性的特殊机制, 正是在刺激所触发的神经震
荡的窗口期, 神经系统可以控制和减低时间的不确定性和噪音。时间窗概念使人们可以将神经基础如何
作用的机制与意识表征的内容之间作出区分。来自视觉、听觉、触觉通道研究的证据, 来自单细胞和群
组细胞的研究证据, 以及来自于传统反应时和时间知觉阈研究的证据, 都支持有关时间窗的理论思考。
文本还着重介绍了 20~60 毫秒范围的“时间窗”、2~3 秒范围的“时间窗”、以及人类日常生活中所熟
悉的 24 小时的“时间窗”, 并呈现给读者三种时间窗的研究对于回答基本科学问题、以及对于解决人类
现实生活中的实际问题的重大意义。
本刊编辑部特邀请 Ernst Pöppel 及其合作者为本刊撰写此文, Ernst Pöppel 教授欣然接受了邀请, 并
很快成文寄送给我们。在此我们对他表示十分感谢。我们希望通过此文的发表, 能够启发我国心理学工
作者的思路, 促进心理学研究更深入和更广泛的创新。
(本文责任编辑：张建新)
“Temporal Windows” as Logistical Basis for Cognitive Processing
Ernst Pöppel1,2, Yan BAO1,2, Bin ZHOU1,3
1
( Institute of Medical Psychology and Human Science Center, University of Munich, Germany)
2
( Department of Psychology and Key Laboratory of Machine Perception (Ministry of Education), Peking University,
Beijing 100871, China) (3 Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China)
Abstract: Temporal processing is an intrinsic feature of cognitive processing. Thus, it is important to have
an understanding about temporal processing in perception or cognition in general. To overcome some
extrinsic challenges in central information processing, the brain has apparently developed special temporal
windows within which information is integrated. One such window has been found in the range of some tens
of milliseconds, and it serves to create the necessary building blocks for conscious activity. Empirical
evidence comes from studies on reaction time, temporal order threshold or oscillatory responses in neuronal
structures. Another temporal window operates in the range of two to three seconds and it serves to create the
“subjective presence”, or temporal integration intervals within which the identity of percepts is maintained.
Empirical evidence comes from studies on the reproduction of time intervals, ambiguous figures,
sensorimotor synchronization or neurophysiological research. Another kind of temporal window is given
with the diurnal rhythms; all psychological or physiological functions show apparently a 24-hour variability.
Received date: 2011-03-07
Correspondence to: Dr. Yan Bao, E-mail: [email protected]
775
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心 理 科 学 进 展
Disturbances in temporal windows may show up in neurological or psychiatric diseases indicating the
importance of studies in temporal processing beyond basic research.
Key words: temporal perception, order threshold, reaction time, neuronal oscillation, circadian rhythm
1
Temporal Processing from a Historical
Perspective
When psychology defined itself some 150
years ago (Fechner, 1860), “time” was a central
topic. Important questions with respect to time
estimation or temporal perception have been
formulated already in the sixties of the nineteenth
century. And in a textbook published 100 years ago,
Wilhelm Wundt, who started the first laboratory in
experimental
psychology,
summarized
already
important results. What were such early insights
into how we deal with time, what questions were
attacked at the beginning of scientific psychology?
It was for instance the Baltic biologist Karl Ernst
von Baer (1865) who came up with a notion of the
interested in the discrimination of different temporal
durations, and in studying differential sensitivity in
the auditory modality, he observed that there is no
experience of duration for intervals that are shorter
than 40 milliseconds using technology that already
then was available; such durations can be said to be
experienced as “points in time” - but physically
speaking they have a duration. On the basis of this
observation one can interpret such a time point as a
representation of the moment for humans as
hypothesized by Karl Ernst von Baer. The time
point with a finite duration can also be looked at as
a “temporal window” within which “primordial
events” are constructed which are the building
blocks for our conscious activity (see below and
Pöppel, 1994, 1997, 2009).
moment, i.e. the longest possible time interval to be
Today, one and a half centuries after the first
objectively measured without apparent duration.
experimental
Von Baer pointed out that different organisms
perception, probably every psychological laboratory
because of a different organization of their sense
uses measurements of reaction time as a paradigm
organs and their brains presumably have different
to look into the complexity and dynamics of
moments if measured with external means, namely
cognitive processing. Chronometric analyses have
with clocks. This concept of a moment has
become important indicators for brain processes and
important consequences for an understanding of
cognitive activities. This experimental paradigm
psychological processes; it implies that we step out
goes back to the Dutch scientist Karl Donders
of the continuous flow of time as described by Isaac
(1868), who used simple and choice reaction times
Newton
to get a better understanding for instance of
(Philosophiae
Mathematica,
1687):
Universalis
“Absolute,
Principia
true
attempts to
understand
temporal
and
decisions. His experiments started perhaps the most
mathematical time by itself and from its own nature
important success story in experimental psychology
flows equably without relation to anything external”.
and cognitive neuroscience. It is worth noting,
In spite of this early insight we tend to forget its
however, that the use of reaction times as indicators
implications for a deeper understanding of cognition,
for
and we usually treat time as a continuous variable,
hypothesis that indeed such operations are of
i.e. looking at time as a “container” within which
sequential
cognitive processing is implemented.
possibility that mental operations may actually be
mental
operations
nature.
This
rests
on
the
hypothesis
implicit
hides
the
An empirical answer to the question how long
parallel (Pöppel and Bao, 2011a), and that the
a moment could be for humans was given shortly
experimental setup selects from these parallel
after the speculation of Karl Ernst von Baer by the
operations one activity and shifts it into a frame of
Austrian physicist Ernst Mach (1865). He was
sequentiality; by doing so the experimenter might
第6期
“Temporal Windows” as Logistical Basis for Cognitive Processing
777
be seduced to conclude that other activities which
the construction of such reference points might be
have not been selected are in fact non-existent.
that stimuli with higher probability should be
Whereas Karl Ernst von Baer, Ernst Mach and
processed with better differential sensitivity which
Karl Donders were looking at rather short temporal
is suggested to happen closer to the reference point.
intervals being basic for cognitive processing, Karl
Such a mechanism of temporal adaptation would
Vierorth (1868) from Tübingen in Germany was
imply the existence of a special temporal memory
interested
humans can
which is continuously calibrated by stimuli of
reproduce the duration of temporal intervals which
different durations. Such a mnemonic system might
last for several seconds. He observed that short
be the basis for temporal impressions of events
temporal intervals are reproduced longer than the
lasting long or short.
in
the
question
how
stimulus, and longer intervals are reproduced
shorter than the stimulus. This observation implies
that between long and short intervals there must be
2
Challenges for Cognitive Processing
Caused by Temporal Uncertainties
an interval which is reproduced correctly; this
interval is usually referred to as “indifference point”.
One essential feature of perception or action is
The question came up whether such an indifference
their effortless availability. We have an effortless
point is an experimental artifact, or whether it
access to images, words, smells, memories or
reflects an underlying neuronal process which
movements (Pöppel and Bao, 2011a). When we
determines temporal perception (Pöppel, 1971).
open our eyes, we see immediately something;
Interestingly, both answers are correct. If in an
without hesitation we can speak in our mother
experiment temporal intervals to be reproduced are
tongue and understand the language of others; if we
chosen between one second and several seconds
smell something, we do not have to think about it;
(like seven seconds), one observes an indifference
in daily life our memory serves us to recognize our
point at approximately three seconds. Furthermore,
family members immediately; and walking in a
reproductions up to this indifference point show a
bipedal way, which really distinguishes us from
small variance whereas reproductions beyond this
other mammals, happens automatically. Everything
point show a sudden increase of variance. The
said is, however, only true if our brain is intact, if
indifference point at this stimulus duration may
our “neuronal machinery” works properly. When
reflect a neuronal process of high temporal stability
patients have suffered injuries, this effortless
being perhaps responsible for pre-semantic temporal
processing may no longer be possible. In fact, we
integration (Pöppel, 2009). It can, however, also be
learn about effortless processing in the normal case,
demonstrated
regions
because it can be lost. Looking at the complexity of
indifference points are observed which do not
the neuronal representation of information, the easy
reflect a temporally stable integration process, but
and effortless availability of the basic repertory of
which are created by the specific experimental
conscious phenomena is difficult to understand.
conditions. As has been suggested in the adaptation
Apparently the nervous system has developed
level theory by Helson (1964) human observers
strategies
mentally construct a reference point, if they are
complexity and in particular of temporal uncertainty.
exposed in an experimental setting to stimuli of
Where do these problems come from and how are
different intensity or different duration. These
they solved? There are several sources giving rise to
reference points may correspond to the geometric
complexity and temporal uncertainty, namely the
mean
physics and the biophysics of the stimuli and in
of
all
that
in
stimuli
other
temporal
presented
during
an
experimental situation. The ecological reason for
to
overcome
inherent
addition their central representation.
problems
of
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心 理 科 学 进 展
One source of complexity comes from stimulus
neuroanatomical studies there is a large degree of
transduction which is principally different in
divergence in the projection systems (Nauta and
different sensory modalities. For instance, the
Feirtag, 1986). It has been estimated that each
transduction takes less than 1 ms in the auditory
central neuron innervates approximately 10,000
system and more than 20 ms in the visual system
other neurons. This means that local information is
(Pöppel et al., 1990b). Thus, auditory and visual
spread out over a broad field of receptive neurons
information arrive at different times in central
and because of the different transmission times
structures. Matters become more complicated by the
along the axons, this local information is not only
fact that the transduction time in the visual modality
distributed spatially but it is also spread out over
is flux-dependent, i.e. that surfaces with less flux
time leading to temporal uncertainty.
Another increase of complexity is provided by
require more transduction time at the receptor
surface. Thus, to see an object with areas of
the
mode
of
different brightness or to see somebody talking,
experimental evidence using imaging technology
different temporal availabilities of local activities
like fMRI, MEG or PET indicates that each
within the visual modality and similarly different
functional state is characterized by a spatiotemporal
local activities across the two modalities engaged in
pattern
stimulus processing have to be overcome. If in
Gutyrchik et al, 2010; Ilg et al., 2007). Different
addition somatosensory information has to be
modules in the visual modality (being for instance
integrated to identify an object, the neuro-cognitive
responsible
system is confronted with even more temporal
recognition) and similarly in the auditory modality
challenges
of
functional
modular
for
representation.
activities
colour
(Pöppel,
perception
New
1989;
or
facial
the
(being for instance responsible for the prosody or
somatosensory system again is different compared
the semantics of speech) are co-activated. Thus, not
to the auditory or visual modality.
only on the cellular but also on the modular level
as
transduction
time
in
For intersensory integration besides these
biophysical problems as a consequence of the
the brain has to deal with the integration of spatially
distributed and temporally ill-defined information.
transduction times also physical problems have to
How can this high degree of complexity and
be considered. The distance of objects to be
temporal uncertainty be overcome? In a radically
perceived is obviously never predetermined. Thus,
cognitive approach (which in an epistemological
the speed of sound (not of light) becomes a critical
sense would imply dualism with respect to the
factor. Approximately at a distance of 10 to 12
mind-body problem) one could argue that there is
meter transduction time in the retina under optimal
no problem at all; the problems as described above
conditions corresponds to the time the sound takes
are irrelevant as the amount of temporal noise (up to
to arrive at the recipient. Up to this “horizon of
some tens of ms) is very small and on the basis of a
simultaneity” (Pöppel et al., 1990b) auditory
situational analysis the categorical definition of
information is earlier than visual information;
percepts follows a top-down analysis in which
beyond this horizon, visual information arrives
problems of sensory input or representational
earlier. Again, there must be some kind of
specifics become irrelevant. But in advanced
mechanism
temporal
cognitive neuroscience and psychology such a
uncertainty of information which is represented in
metaphysical attitude appears to be inappropriate.
the two sensory modalities.
There is “no ghost in the machine” that solves the
which
overcomes
the
Besides biophysical and physical challenges
problem
the
brain
is
confronted
with.
The
there is a further temporal problem introduced by
neuro-cognitive system has to solve the problems
the specific brain architecture. As has been shown in
itself
with
mechanisms
that
allow
reliable
第6期
“Temporal Windows” as Logistical Basis for Cognitive Processing
779
information processing. The hypothesis suggested to
numerical values are obtained, this fact strongly
overcome
temporal
supports the validity of these observations as a basis
uncertainty is based on the concept of “temporal
for deriving a general principle. One might refer to
windows” presumably implemented by oscillatory
this
activities (Wiener, 1958, Pöppel, 1971; Pöppel et al.
“induction” as a mental operation as the “Darwinian
1990a).
Principle” as Charles Darwin in his seminal work
the
complexity
and
the
mode
of
a
scientific
conclusion
using
“The Origin of Species” (1859) equally based his
3
“Temporal Window” for Reduction of
Temporal Uncertainty
conclusions on many independent observations.
An important example supporting the
conceptual notion of a temporal window in this time
It is argued that the brain has developed
domain comes from observations with patients who
specific mechanisms to reduce complexity and
have to undergo a general anesthesia (Madler and
temporal uncertainty. One essential support for this
Pöppel, 1987; Schwender et al., 1994). During
hypothesis comes from the fact that the same
wakefulness, one observes an oscillatory activity
temporal
is
with periods of 30 to 40 ms in the auditory evoked
observed in the visual, auditory or tactile modality,
potential (Galambos et al., 1981). During anesthesia
on the level of single-cell or neuronal group
this
activities,
assemblies
value
on
of
the
information
level
processing
of
cognition,
in
oscillatory
activity
disappears
within
which
the
neuronal
under
normal
measurements of reaction times or of temporal order
circumstances presumably reflects such internal
thresholds. It is suggested that temporal noise can
system states. The auditory information is still
be brought under control if the nervous system uses
transduced on the receptive surface as can be
stimulus triggered neuronal oscillations. One period
concluded from the presence of brain stem
of such a “relaxation oscillation” is supposed to
potentials, but further processing states appear to be
represent the logistical basis for a system state
blocked. As a result patients in such a state process
within which temporally and spatially distributed
no sensory information that might be used for a
information can be integrated. These states are
conscious representation. Such patients report that
“a-temporal” because the before-after relationship
other than during sleep no time seems to be have
of stimuli processed within such states is not
passed between the beginning of the anesthesia and
these
the reawakening after anesthesia. This oscillatory
hypothetical states is observed in the time domain of
process which is apparently implemented in the
30 to 60 milliseconds (Pöppel, 1970, 1994, 1997a,
cortico-thalamic
2009). Interestingly, the concept of elementary
framework for the reduction of temporal uncertainty.
integration units has also become fruitful for
It can be argued that this process is the neuronal
physical theories on time (Ruhnau, 1994), stressing
basis for the creation of “primordial events” or the
the interdisciplinary nature of research.
building blocks of conscious activity.
defined.
Experimental
evidence
for
pathway
provides
a
formal
What is the empirical evidence for “time
It is important to note that this temporal
windows” within the indicated range of some tens
window in its duration is not determined by what is
of
processed,
milliseconds?
There
are
indeed
many
i.e.
the
prior
content,
to
any
but
that
content.
it
is
Thus,
it
experimental observations using different paradigms
implemented
that such a mechanism must be at work, old and
represents an automatic presemantic process to be
new (Pöppel, 1978). The reference to “different
used for different kinds of information. This issue
paradigms” is important: If it can be shown that
will come up again later when referring to a
using different experimental setups always similar
temporal window in the range of a few seconds, and
780
第 19 卷
心 理 科 学 进 展
it is of utmost importance for an understanding of
order threshold can also be successfully measured in
cognitive processing. One has to distinguish
animal models (Wada et al., 2005), indicating the
between
universality of a temporal window going beyond
logistical
or
“How-Functions”
that
represent the necessary neuronal infrastructure, and
human temporal perception.
content or “What-Functions” that become the basis
But one should also be aware of the flexibility
of conscious representation (Pöppel, 1989, 2010;
of temporal order perception in humans. In a recent
Pöppel and Bao, 2011b; Pöppel and Ruhnau, 2011).
study it could be demonstrated that there is a
Strong experimental evidence for a temporal
fundamental difference between temporal order
window or elementary processing units comes also
thresholds for click stimuli and for tone stimuli
from research on temporal order threshold (Hirsh
(Bao et al., 2011c). Whereas click stimuli with a
and Sherrick, 1961; Lotze et al. 1999; Kanabus et al.,
duration of 1 ms do not indicate any difference
2002; Fink et al., 2006). In such experiments
between subjects coming from different speech
subjects have to indicate in which temporal order
environments, temporal order thresholds for tone
stimuli have been presented, like which ear was
stimuli of 10 ms duration result in a double
stimulated first when both ears are stimulated by
dissociation: Chinese subjects have a rather short
acoustic signals with a short temporal delay. It has
temporal order threshold for tones with near
been shown that temporal order threshold has
frequencies and a high threshold for tones with far
approximately the same value of some tens of
frequencies (600 vs 1200 HZ in the first case; 400
milliseconds for the visual, auditory and tactile
vs 3000 Hz in the second case), Polish subjects
modality. The correspondence of these values in
show exactly the reverse pattern. Although temporal
spite
order threshold for tone stimuli with monaural
of
qualitatively
different
transduction
processes in the sensory modalities favors the
presentation
mode
is
demonstrated
to
be
hypothesis of a common central mechanism for
independent of tone frequencies (Fang and Bao,
these systems. As the indication of a temporal order
2011), the double dissociation results of tone stimuli
requires that events have to be defined in the first
with binaural presentation mode suggest a strong
place to be brought into a sequence, one can
impact of speech experience on temporal order
conclude that this mechanism is also necessary to be
perception. Presumably Chinese as a tonal language
used for the identification of “primordial events”
imprints the brain in a selective way to develop a
which are the building blocks of conscious activity.
higher sensitivity for perceiving the temporal order
The usefulness of measuring temporal order
of near frequency tones, whereas Polish as a
threshold in brain injured patients has been
language rich in consonants does it the other way
convincingly
and
around. These studies also indicate that the choice
colleagues (2004). In general, it has been shown
of an experimental paradigm can be essential for the
how useful experimental procedures on temporal
conclusions to be derived, and that contradictory
processing can be applied for clinical populations
results sometime can be the consequence of
(Hari and Kiesilä, 1996), although one has to be
intervening variables which are outside the focus of
aware of the individual differences due to age,
attention.
demonstrated
by
Wittmann
gender or other factors (Szymaszek et al., 2006,
A different domain of research, i.e. the study of
2009; Kolodziejczyk and Szelag, 2008). Recent
eye movements, also supports the notion of a
experiments
tools
temporally segmented information processing with
support the practicality of measuring temporal order
successive steps of approximately 30 to 40
thresholds on the clinical level (Lewandowska et al.,
milliseconds. If a subject initiates pursuit eye
2008). And it has been demonstrated that temporal
movements when a visual target starts to move, the
using
electrophysiological
第6期
“Temporal Windows” as Logistical Basis for Cognitive Processing
781
latency of these movements shows a multimodal
plateau of performance when choice reaction time is
distribution of responses with temporal intervals
measured which would indicate then stationarity or
between the modes of 30 to 40 ms (Pöppel and
stable
Logothetis, 1986); unimodal response histograms
(Steinbach et al., 1991). The answer came as a
are usually the consequence of too broad a bin
surprise as it takes many thousand trials when a
width in measuring the latency; with a bin width of
choice has to be made between auditory and visual
20 ms or even more selective response modes with a
stimuli presented in random order. This observation
temporal separation of 30 to 40 ms are necessarily
suggests that most of the experiments done in
masked.
conditions
for
systematic
observations
response
cognitive science when response time is used as a
histograms can also be seen when saccadic eye
variable to get insight into the cognitive machinery
movements are measured although their latency is
are done under conditions of instationarity as
much longer than the one for pursuit eye movements
usually only some tens or hundreds of trials are
(Frost and Pöppel, 1976).
recorded.
Such
multimodalities
in
Multimodal response histograms have also
In a further experiment additional knowledge
been observed for choice reaction time (Pöppel,
about the underlying mechanism of learning in a
1968, 1970; Harter and White, 1968; Ilmberger,
reaction time task could be gathered (Pöppel et al,
1986; Jokeit, 1990). Thus, latency distributions of
1990c). Initially response histograms showed a high
two
response
variance without an indication of modes being
histograms for choice reaction time show identical
separated from each other by some tens of
characteristics. Apparently, an underlying decision
milliseconds
process to initiate a movement shares the same
temporal windows. After this initial learning phase,
temporal characteristics in spite of the fact that the
however, the response histograms became more
execution of the movement is implemented in
structured, and a clear bimodality developed. In
different systems. In all cases – and this is important
successive steps of learning the first module
for the concept to assume a temporal window - the
representing the fastest reaction attracted more
same temporal distance of response modes is
responses until finally the histogram became
observed. The underlying temporal machinery
unimodal at a temporal location of the first module.
processes
of
This observation also implies that learning of a
approximately 30 to 40 ms; these elementary
sensorimotor task might use temporal windows to
processing units should not be understood as
reach a high level of performance.
types
of
eye
information
movements
in
and
successive
units
“physical constants” but as operating ranges with
some individual variability.
which
would
indicate
discrete
And there is further evidence for a temporal
window in this operating range: Recordings of
What is the reason that quite often one does not
single cells show that the visual channel is
observe the multimodalities in response histograms
characterized by oscillatory responses at an early
when choice reaction time is measured, in addition
stage of information processing (Podvigin et al.,
to an inappropriate choice of bin width for the
1992, 2004), indicating that in the afferent pathways
registration of responses? Another reason is that
before
most of the experiments are done under conditions
segmentation is taking place that allows the creation
of “instationarity”. Usually, subjects have not
of temporal windows. Single neurons in the lateral
reached a plateau of performance and they are still
geniculate nucleus of the cat which receive input
in a learning phase for their responses which
from the retina, and before they send this
increases the variance of responses. To clarify this
information to the visual cortex, show stimulus-
issue it was tested how long it takes to reach such a
triggered oscillations in the same frequency domain.
the
cortex
is
reached
a
temporal
782
心 理 科 学 进 展
第 19 卷
Oscillations with a similar frequency have been
approximate speed of 30 ms per item. Another
observed also in the somatosensory cortex (Gardner
example: In well-trained tasks such as typing or
and Costanzo, 1980). These results again support
piano playing, up to 30 bits per second are
the notion of a general principle of temporally
transferred; within approximately 30 ms one-bit
segmented information processing as all organisms
decisions can be made (Augenstine, 1962), and
have to deal with the same challenges.
Latour (1967) observed that visual thresholds
A rich source of knowledge with respect to this
oscillate with a period close to 30 ms. Finally, two
temporal window comes also from experiments on
experiences that can be distinguished from each
sensorimotor synchronization. The task of the
other are reported when the overall duration of the
subjects in such experiments is to synchronize with
two stimuli is 60 ms, i.e., 30 ms for each of the
manual responses the regular and sometimes
temporally contiguous stimulus events (Efron,
irregular sequence of tone stimuli. One usually
1967). Taken together, there is overwhelming
observes a small anticipation of the tone by the
evidence for the robustness of this time window
manual response if the temporal distance of the
which serves as a logistical basis for cognitive
tones is kept within an operating range of a few
processing.
seconds. This anticipation of a response itself is
often characterized by multimodality (Radil et al.,
1990); i.e. the anticipatory movement might occur
4
“Temporal Window” for the Creation of
a Subjective Present
30 or 60 ms prior to the stimulus. This observation
indicates that the precise execution of an anticipated
On a higher level of processing the primordial
movement for instance in one second is controlled
events as they are made available by the temporal
by a temporally segmented process of much higher
window discussed above are linked together.
frequency; the movement cannot occur at any time
Observations made within different experimental
but has to select a specific time window to be
paradigms provide evidence of the operative
executed. Further insight into temporal mechanisms
importance of such an integration mechanism and
of sensorimotor synchronization comes from a
point to a temporal window of just a few seconds
systematic
experimental
(Pöppel, 1997a, 2004, 2009). Although these
parameters (Franek et al. 1991a, 1991b; 1994;
variation
of
different
observations have been made in different contexts a
Mates et al. 1992). One such variation is to
common underlying principle is detected in spite of
introduce temporal noise in the regular sequence of
obvious observational diversities. To look for
stimuli which have to be synchronized by manual
common principles in different realms of activities
responses (Muto et al., 2011). It turns out that a
is again guided by the “Darwinian principle” that if
temporal variation in the sequence of stimuli
a phenomenon shows up in qualitatively different
remains unnoticed by the subjects if this variability
experiments or situations a general principle has to
is kept within the time window to be used for the
be suspected. In what follows an answer shall be
reduction of temporal uncertainty.
given to the question of what the "state of being
In most studies as indicated above a value
conscious" (Pöppel, 1997b) could mean. The anchor
close to 30 ms, or to be more conservative, between
point of the reasoning is that one can understand
20 and 60 ms, has been suggested. Additional
consciousness only if one analyzes temporal
support for this temporal window comes also from
mechanisms of neuronal processes and behavioral
memory studies. For instance, when using a reaction
acts.
time paradigm, Sternberg (1975) observed that the
The “subjective present” as a basic temporal
scanning process which is exhaustive has an
phenomenon has interested psychologists for more
第6期
“Temporal Windows” as Logistical Basis for Cognitive Processing
783
than one hundred years (James, 1890; Stern, 1897).
to be quite useful in developmental studies (Szelag
We are now in a situation to indicate how long such
et al., 2002), and also in research with autistic
a subjective present may actually last. A numerical
children (Szelag et al., 2004). If such children have
answer
of
to reproduce the duration of either visual or auditory
experiments or observations which all converge to a
stimuli, they show a tendency to reproduce different
value of approximately 2 to 3 seconds. Support
intervals always close to 2 to 3 seconds. It appears
comes
can
be
derived
from
a
number
temporal
as if they are no longer capable to modulate their
perception itself, speech, movement control, vision
internal time on the basis of the duration of external
and audition, working memory and also the arts
stimuli. This experimental task allows a view into
(like music or poetry). All these observations
the eigen-operations of the brain by indicating
suggest that conscious activities are temporally
temporal integration as a basic operation of the
segmented into intervals of a few seconds and that
mental machinery in humans.
from
different
domains
like
this segmentation is based on an automatic
(presemantic)
integration
process
providing
a
The link of a temporal window to attention has
already
been suspected in the 19th
century
temporal platform for conscious activity. It should
(Urbantschitsch, 1875), and recent research using
be stressed again that the temporal platform does
the paradigm of inhibition of return (Zhou, 2008)
not have the characteristics of a physical constant
has substantiated this close relationship (Bao et al.,
but that an operating range of approximately 2 to 3
2004, 2011b). A return with full power of attention
seconds has been identified; as is typical for
to a region in visual space which has been attended
biological phenomena, one has to expect some intra-
previously is only possible after a few seconds delay.
and inter-individual variability.
Interestingly, this return takes a little longer for
What is the experimental evidence? If subjects
more peripheral positions in the visual field which
have to reproduce the duration of either an auditory
supports the notion of its functional subdivision
or a visual
stimulus one observes veridical
(Bao & Pöppel, 2007; Bao et al., 2010; Bao et al.,
reproductions with small variance up to 2 to 3
2011a), which has been suggested also for other
seconds, and large errors of reproduction with a
functions (Frost & Pöppel, 1976; Pöppel et al., 1975,
strong tendency for a shorter reproduction with
2011).
longer intervals (e.g., Pöppel, 1971). It appears as if
Temporal integration can also be studied by
short intervals can be experienced as a whole while
subjective accentuation of metronome beats. One of
longer intervals temporally disintegrate, i.e., during
the founding fathers of experimental psychology,
short intervals of a few seconds it is possible to
Wundt (1911), pointed out that temporal grouping
focus the attention continuously onto the stimulus.
of successive stimuli has a temporal limit of
Possibly, this phenomenon is related to the so called
approximately 2.5 seconds. In such a metronome
“time-order error” which has been described a long
task the subject imposes a subjective structure onto
time ago (Köhler, 1923). If one has to compare the
identical physical events. If auditory stimuli like
intensity of two stimuli, the second one will be
click sounds follow each other with an interstimulus
judged to be more intense, but apparently only if the
interval of for instance one second, it is easy to
temporal distance between the comparisons of the
impose a subjective structure by giving a subjective
two stimuli is too large; for a veridical comparison,
accent to every second of the stimuli. If, however,
both stimuli have to be presented within a time
the temporal interval between the stimuli becomes
window of a few seconds only.
too long (for instance 5 seconds), one is no longer
The value of this rather simple experimental
capable to impose such an apparent temporal
paradigm of temporal reproduction has been proven
structure. The two sequential stimuli no longer can
784
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心 理 科 学 进 展
be united into one percept, i.e. temporal binding for
operative range of a time window for 2 to 3 seconds
temporally adjacent stimuli is no longer possible
(Elbert et al., 1991), and the auditory thalamus can
because
integration
be suspected to be an important structure to be part
windows. In experiments with brain injured patients
of its implementation as slow oscillations in this
it
they
fall
into
successive
temporal
temporal range could be identified (He, 2003).
integration process as studied with this metronome
Some data in a study by Sams and colleagues (1993)
paradigm is selectively impaired after injuries in
where the amplitude of the mismatch negativity as a
frontal areas of the left hemisphere (Szelag et al.,
function of the interstimulus interval (ISI) was
1997). Patients with injuries in these areas adopt a
investigated also support the above considerations.
new strategy of integration by consciously counting
The mismatch negativity, a component of the
successive events; the "pop-up" impression of
auditory event-related potential, is elicited by a
belongingness of successive tones is apparently lost
physical deviant stimulus such as frequency or
in these patients and, thus, they reconstruct
intensity of a tone in a homogeneous stimulus
togetherness by abstract means.
sequence. If during the experiment the ISI is altered,
could
be
demonstrated
that
the
A qualitatively different paradigm providing
the largest amplitude of the mismatch negativity is
further insight into the integration process comes
observed with an ISI of 3 seconds, i.e., shorter and
from studies on temporal reversal of ambiguous
longer ISIs result in smaller amplitudes of the
figures (Gomez et al., 1995; Ilg et al., 2008; Pöppel,
mismatch
1997a; Radilova and Pöppel, 1990). If stimuli can
increased neuronal activity, this result suggests that
be perceived with two perspectives (like the Necker
the auditory channel is characterized by a higher
cube, or a vase versus two faces looking at each
neuronal
other) there is an automatic shift of perceptual
modulation is endogenously determined, being a
content after on average approximately 3 seconds.
property of the neuro-cognitive machinery itself,
Such a perceptual shift also occurs with ambiguous
and it implies that approximately every 3 seconds
auditory material, such as the phoneme sequence
the sensory channel is more sensitive than at other
KU-BA-KU-BA-KU…BA-KU-BA-KU where one
times for new information coming from the external
hears either KUBA or BAKU; one can subjectively
or internal environment.
negativity.
activity
As
in
negativity
regular
indicates
intervals.
This
not prevent that after approximately 3 seconds the
Temporal integration for intervals of 2 to 3
alternative percept takes possession of conscious
seconds is also seen in sensorimotor control. If a
content. The spontaneous alteration rate in the two
subject is requested to synchronize a regular
sensory modalities, i.e., vision and audition, suggest
sequence of auditory stimuli with finger taps,
that normally after an exhaust period of 2 to 3
stimuli are anticipated with very small variance by
seconds attentional mechanisms are elicited that
some tens of milliseconds (Mates et al, 1994;
open the sensory channels for new information. If
Miyake et al., 2001). This kind of sensorimotor
the sensory stimulus remains the same, the
synchronization is, however, only possible within
alternative
control.
the operating range of a few seconds. If the next
Metaphorically speaking, every 2 to 3 seconds, an
stimulus lies too far in the future (like 5 seconds) it
endogenously generated question arises "what is
is
new", and with unusual stimuli such as the
movement that is precisely linked to stimulus
ambiguous material the temporal eigen-operations
occurrence; in such a case movements become
of the brain are unmasked.
irregular and subjects prefer to react to the stimulus
interpretation
will
gain
In addition to behavioral studies there is
electrophysiological
evidence
supporting
the
not
possible
to
program
an
anticipatory
instead of anticipating it.
Observations on the duration of intentional
第6期
“Temporal Windows” as Logistical Basis for Cognitive Processing
785
movements coming from ethological studies gave
seconds is a general principle of the neuro-cognitive
similar numerical values (Schleidt et el., 1987).
machinery. This universal integration process is
Members of different cultures including those from
automatic and presemantic, i.e. it is not determined
old ethnia (for instance Yanomami Indians in South
by what is processed, but it defines a temporal
America) show very similar temporal patterns for
window within which conscious activities can be
homologous movements, the preferential duration
implemented. Because of the omnipresence of this
being 2 to 3 seconds. The same time constant could
phenomenon, it can be used as a pragmatic
be observed when the duration of embraces during
definition of the subjective present which is
the 2008 olympics in Beijing was measured (Nagy,
characterized by the phenomenal impression of
2011); after a victory the winners embraced for
"nowness". Temporal integration in the range of 2 to
instance their coaches on average three seconds.
3 seconds defines, however, also the singular "state
Interestingly,
showed
of being conscious" or STOBCON (Pöppel, 1997 b).
slightly shorter embraces than Asians or Europeans.
The 3-second-window provides a logistic basis for
On the basis of studies in humans Gerstner and
conscious representation, a working platform for
Fazio (1995) have observed in various species of
our phenomenal present.
winners
from
America
higher mammals that they also tend to segment their
But may there be another reason that such a
motor behavior in the same temporal range as
temporal window has been developed in evolution?
humans do. This observation suggests that we are
One of the greatest challenges for the neuronal
dealing with a universal principle of temporal
systems is to maintain the identity of a mental
integration that transcends human cognition and
representation over some time; an additional
behavioral control.
challenge is to maintain such an identity only for a
Supporting evidence for a specific temporal
limited time to allow new input to be processed
integration mechanism comes also from studies on
after some time. Thus, both maintenance of identity
memory and speech. In a classical study (Peterson
for a mental representation and openness after some
and Peterson, 1959) it was shown that the working
time
platform for short-term retention is just a few
requirements for our cognitive machinery. On a
seconds; only if rehearsal is allowed are we capable
conceptual level it is the complementarity of
to
maintenance and of dynamics that characterizes
store
information
for
longer
intervals.
for
another
mental
representation
are
of
conscious activity (Pöppel, 2010; Pöppel and Bao
spontaneous speech on adults (Vollrath et al., 1992)
2011a, 2011b). This concept of “complementarity as
and on children (Kowal et al., 1975) also show that
a generative principle” characterizes many domains
spoken language is embedded in temporal windows
of cognition as in visual processing (Chen, 2005;
of up to 3 seconds duration giving speech its
Pöppel, 2005), where both bottom-up and top-down
rhythmic structure. The importance of a rhythmical
mechanisms have to be united to recognize
structure in speech and other behavior has already
something in its identity. Another example of
been stressed some time ago (Martin, 1972).
complementarity as a generative principle is given
Experiments
on
the
temporal
structure
As the experimental and other observations
in the taxonomy of functions (Pöppel, 1989) which
referred to above employ qualitatively different
distinguishes between logistical functions (like the
paradigms covering perceptual processes in audition
“temporal windows”) and content functions (like
and vision, cognitive evaluations, movement control,
percepts). The representation of content functions is
speech,
perceptual
a necessary condition for conscious activity, but it is
accentuation or temporal integration, it is proposed
not a sufficient condition; without logistical support
that temporal integration in the range of 2 to 3
there would be no consciousness. Thus, the
mnemonic
representation,
786
第 19 卷
心 理 科 学 进 展
temporal window of a few seconds can be conceived
These
of as the operative basis both for the maintenance of
variations can be used as an experimental paradigm
experiments also indicate
that diurnal
identity and the creation of new identities in
to get deeper insight into the functional architecture
percepts or other mental contents.
of neuro-cognitive systems.
Although time estimation shows a diurnal
5
Temporal Processing
Applications
and
some
rhythm, this effect is apparently not directly
controlled by the circadian oscillator itself. It could
be demonstrated (Aschoff, 1985) that there is a
Whereas the temporal windows of 20 to 60
significant correlation between the time to be awake
milliseconds, and of 2 to 3 seconds represent
and the estimation of longer time intervals like
mechanisms of self-organization in neuro-cognitive
hours, but that there is no such correlation between
systems, there is another temporal window which is
the estimation of short time intervals and the
imposed onto human behavior by the regular cycle
duration of wakefulness. These conclusions have
of day and night. Research in “chronobiology” has
been drawn from experiments when subjects lived
shown that the 24-hour rhythm in physiological and
for several weeks in complete isolation; under such
psychological functions is controlled by an “internal
experimental conditions one can observe natural
clock”
fluctuations of the time being awake allowing the
which
functions
like
a
self-sustained
oscillator (Aschoff, 1965). If subjects live under
completely isolated conditions, their internal clock
indicated correlative analyses.
The
importance
of
the
internal
clock
continues to run, although the “circadian cycle” no
controlling the daily behavior of humans can also be
longer is exactly 24 hours, but usually a little longer.
seen in people who do shift work, or when one has
This observation implies that humans have to be
to travel to new time zones; it usually takes several
synchronized every day with the natural day-night
days to be synchronized again with the new time.
cycle speeding up the internal clock on average one
Interestingly, research on circadian rhythms may
hour.
also be important for space research. Astronauts,
One example of a diurnal rhythm can be seen
cosmonauts or taikonauts live in space no longer
in time estimation. If subjects have to produce an
under the natural conditions of the day night cycle,
interval of 10 seconds, they will produce longer
and the question arises how their diurnal behavior is
intervals in the morning and in the evening, and
controlled. In one experiment that served as
shorter ones around noon and the early afternoon
preparation for space flights (Pöppel, 1968) it could
(Pöppel and Giedke, 1970). It has been suspected
be shown that social synchronization between
that the flow of subjective time might be a
potential members of a space crew can be very
consequence of the diurnal rhythm of body
strong. A group of four male subjects lived for three
temperature, but this causal relationship has been
weeks under constant conditions in an underground
disproven (Pöppel, 1971); (the hypothesis has been
bunker. During the first half of the experiment the
that as in chemical reactions higher temperature
subjects lived synchronized with each other with an
results in a speeding up of processes, in this case of
average period of 26.2 hours; in the second half of
subjective
imaging
the experiment three subjects lengthened their
technology (fMRI) a diurnal variation for particular
period to 27.2 hours, and one subject lived
areas of the motor system could be described (Peres
desynchronized from the group with a period of
et al., 2011); and some time ago such a variation has
24.1 hours. This subject also showed some negative
been shown for the visual field size in patients who
psychological effects possibly due to the different
have suffered a postretinal lesion (Zihl et al. 1977).
time window he lived in compared to the other
time).
Using
advanced
第6期
“Temporal Windows” as Logistical Basis for Cognitive Processing
787
group members. Such experiments indicate how
very selective. In experiments on the effect of
important temporal synchronization might be for
alcohol on reaction time an interesting dissociation
being socially embedded in a group.
of function was observed (Pöppel and Steinbach,
The importance of temporal windows and
1986). Auditory or visual stimuli were either
temporal processing in general has been proven to
presented to the left or to the right hemisphere by
be of particular importance in medicine. As already
presenting stimuli either in the right or left visual
mentioned above, a time window in the operating
field, or to the right or left ear. Under control
range of 30 ms is crucial to understand the effect of
conditions it was observed that auditory stimuli
anesthesia (Madler and Pöppel, 1987; Schwender el
processed in the left hemisphere elicit shorter
al., 1994, 1997; Schwilden et al., 2005), and the
reaction times compared to stimulation of the right
time window of 2 to 3 seconds contributes to a
hemisphere;
better understanding of autism (Szelag et al., 2004).
processed in the right hemisphere elicit shorter
As a general rule it can be stated that injuries to the
reaction times compared to stimulation of the left
brain usually result in a slowing down of processing.
hemisphere. Thus,
In one patient with a severe injury to the visual
selective advantage for processing of auditory
cortex several functions showed a significant
stimuli in the left and visual stimuli in the right
retardation of processing, but this was limited to the
hemisphere. Under alcohol this selective advantage
visual modality (Pöppel et al., 1978). Simple
disappeared, i.e. reaction times to visual or auditory
reaction time to visual stimuli became much longer
stimuli were the same in either hemisphere. This
than those to auditory stimuli. The multimodality in
result also implies that there was no or only a
the response histograms could still be observed, but
minute effect of alcohol for auditory processing in
the temporal distance between adjacent modes
the right and for visual processing in the left
became much longer indicating a central slowing
hemisphere.
down of visual processing. Of particular interest
temporal processing in the two cerebral hemispheres
was also the lengthening of visual processing in
create
experiments on binocular rivalry: Whereas in
understanding of neuro-cognitive mechanisms.
normal cases the switching of percepts occurs
a
on
the
Such
unique
contrary
both
visual
stimuli
hemispheres
experimental
perspective
show a
paradigms
for
a
on
better
Another selective effect of temporal processing
patient
was observed in patients with brain injuries in
approximately half a minute for the alternative view.
subcortical regions (Rubia et al., 1997). These
Because of this considerable slowing down the
patients were required to simply count in steps of
patient could describe how the sequential percepts
seconds. Under normal circumstances this is no
replaced each other; the alternative view moved
challenge for anybody. However, these patients
gradually across the visual field replacing smoothly
showed an unusual pattern of counting: some of
the old view. This observation is of general
them counted twice as fast as normal, others
importance as it suggests that percepts are not
counted half as fast. A very small injury in
constructed at the same time in distributed areas,
subcortical
but that they are constructed in a sequential way
strategically important structures which normally
which, however, normally remains unnoticed. Such
have to interact to allow counting in seconds as one
a slowing down of visual processing after brain
has learned it. The selection of either double or half
injury has also been observed when patients had to
the speed of normal counting indicates that two
read (Pöppel and Shattuck, 1974; Woods and Pöppel,
oscillatory processes of high and of low frequency
1974).
provide a logistic frame for interaction to create a
within
a
few
seconds,
it
took
the
However, a central slowing down can also be
areas
apparently
disconnected
stable temporal process between these frequencies.
788
第 19 卷
心 理 科 学 进 展
An understanding of temporal processing is
motives in western music like Johann Sebastian
also important for the restitution of functions in
Bach, Ludwig van Beethoven or Richard Wagner,
patients who have suffered a brain injury (von
one often observes that the duration of these
Steinbüchel and Pöppel, 1993). In a taxonomy of
musical expressions uses the time window of 2 to 3
functions which is based on neuropsychological
seconds; if a motif is played too slow or too fast,
observations (Pöppel, 1989; Pöppel and Ruhnau,
immediately the aesthetic value is compromised.
2011) it has been stressed that it is necessary to
Recent experimental evidence suggests a close link
distinguish
functions
between temporal patterns and movements of the
(“How-functions”) like temporal processing and
body (Su and Pöppel, 2011) stressing how important
content functions (“What-functions”). If patients
the human body is for the experience of music.
between
logistical
have suffered for instance an injury affecting their
Finally,
a
completely
different
field
of
competence in speech (e.g., Szelag et al., 1997) it is
application is the use of temporal processing as a
not sufficient to concentrate in the therapeutic
research paradigm, i.e. using temporal processing as
process only on aspects of linguistic competence
an experimental window to better understand
like the lexical, syntactic or semantic competence,
neuro-cognitive mechanisms. One such paradigm is
but one has also to take into account basic
for instance provided by using voluntarily delayed
mechanisms of temporal processing. A slowing
responses with feedback (Szelag et al., 2001). If a
down of central mechanisms in the auditory system
subject does not have to react as fast as possible to a
can make it impossible for a patient to understand
stimulus, but has to delay the response by a
speech as it is normally spoken (Albert and Bear,
pre-defined interval, one observes a unique response
1974). Only if the logistical basis of temporal
pattern íf one analyzes the variance of reactions. For
processing is also appreciated will it be possible to
delayed responses up to approximately half a
obtain satisfactory rehabilitation of function.
second the variance is very high, but for longer
A completely different domain where temporal
delayed responses the variance is significantly
processing has been shown to be important is the
smaller although this phenomenon may appear
arts, i.e., poetry and music. If one analyzes the
contra-intuitive. This observation implies that
temporal structure of poems in different languages,
conscious control on the passage of time sets in only
one observes that the duration of a verse is usually
after approximately half a second, in spite of the
embedded within the time window of 2 to 3 seconds
fact that it is possible to react much faster.
1994).
Using temporal indicators for a deeper insight
Irrespective of the syntactic rules, word length or
into neuro-cognitive processing has in particular
semantic preferences in different languages, poets at
been harvested successfully by Zhou and colleagues.
all times apparently have had an implicit knowledge
It could for instance be shown using temporal
(Pöppel
structure
processing as an indicator that the human visual
temporally a poem, be it Sappho in old Greece more
field is subdivided into different functional domains
than 2500 years ago, be it Li Bai during the Tang
(Zhou et al, 2010a) verifying previous observations.
Dynasty in China some 1300 years ago, be it
In other experiments it could be demonstrated how
Shakespeare some 400 years ago, or poets of our
conscious
time. The human brain imposes a temporal window
temporal experience (Zhou et al., 2010b). And
of 2 to 3 seconds which is used for an optimal
finally, in another experimental paradigm it could
aesthetic representation. Interestingly, this temporal
be demonstrated that temporal perception can be
window also dominates musical expression (Pöppel,
used as an indicator to get a better understanding of
1988). If one measures the duration of musical
visual feature (e.g. orientation) processing in the
(Turner
and
and
Pöppel,
Bao,
1988;
2011a)
Pöppel,
how
to
and
subconscious
processing
affect
第6期
“Temporal Windows” as Logistical Basis for Cognitive Processing
visual cortex (Zhou and Han, 2011). Thus, temporal
windows and temporal processing in general prove
to be important for deeper insights into cognitive
processing.
Donders, K. (1868 / 1969). On the speed of mental processes.
Acta Psychologica, 30, 412−431.
Efron, R. (1967). The duration of the present. Annals of the
New York Academy of Sciences, 138, 713−729.
Elbert, T., Ulrich, R., Rockstroh, B., & Lutzenberger, W.
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“时间窗”—— 认知加工的后勤基础
Ernst Pöppel1,2; 包
燕 1,2; 周
斌 1,3
(1 德国慕尼黑大学医学心理研究所及人类科学中心)
( 北京大学心理学系及机器感知与智能教育部重点实验室, 北京 100871)
(3 中国科学院心理研究所, 北京 100101)
2
摘
要
时间加工是认知加工的内在属性。因此, 理解发生在知觉或更广泛的认知过程中的时间加工极为重
要。为了应对中枢信息加工所面临的外部挑战, 大脑显然已形成了一些用于整合信息的特殊时间窗。已经发
现, 其中一个时间窗介于数十毫秒的范围内, 它用于为意识活动产生必要的建构单元。来自反应时、时序阈限
以及神经元结构振荡反应的研究为该时间窗的存在提供了实证证据。另一个时间窗的作用范围是 2~3 秒, 它
用于产生“主观现在感”或作为使知觉体的标识保持不变的时间整合区间。支持该窗口存在的实验证据来自时
距再现、两可图形、感觉运动同步以及神经生理学研究。还有一种时间窗以昼夜节律的形式存在。所有的心
理和生理功能似乎都有着 24 小时的周期性变化。时间窗的紊乱会以神经或精神疾病的形式表现出来, 这恰恰
表明了在基础研究之外对时间加工进行研究的重要性。
关键词
时间知觉; 顺序阈限; 反应时; 神经元振荡; 昼夜节律
分类号
B842