Curr Psychol
DOI 10.1007/s12144-016-9424-4
Cognitions About Problematic Internet Use: the Importance
of Negative Cognitive Stress Appraisals and Maladaptive
Coping Strategies
Emre Senol-Durak 1 & Mithat Durak 1
# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016
Abstract The effects of cognitive appraisals of stress and
coping strategies on cognitions about problematic Internet
use have not been studied together in the literature. The
Lazarus’s cognitive-relational theory is selected as the theoretical framework to further our understanding of problematic Internet use. The aim of the present study is to
examine the mediator roles of uncontrollability appraisals
of stress and maladaptive coping strategies on threat appraisals of stress and cognitions about problematic Internet
use. The roles of negative stress appraisals and maladaptive coping strategies on the cognitions about problematic
Internet Use are determined by using structural equation
modeling (SEM) in a sample of 549 Turkish university
students. The results reveal that by playing a mediator role,
both escape-avoidance and accepting responsibility maladaptive coping strategies were found to be related with
uncontrollability and hence indirectly influenced the relationship between threat appraisal and cognitions about
problematic Internet use. Examining the role of the negative stress appraisals and maladaptive coping strategies
will provide a new starting point for further research.
Keywords Cognitions about problematic Internet use .
Negative cognitive appraisal . Threat . Uncontrollability .
Maladaptive coping styles
* Emre Senol-Durak
[email protected]; [email protected]
1
Department of Psychology, Arts and Science Faculty,
Abant Izzet Baysal University, 14280 Bolu, Turkey
Introduction
A range of terms has been used to describe problems mainly
associated with Internet use, such as Internet addiction (Chou
and Hsiao 2000; Mitchell 2000; Pratarelli et al. 1999), pathological Internet use (Davis 2001; Morahan-Martin and
Schumacher 2000; Brandon and Evans 1984) and problematic
Internet use (Davis et al. 2002). Among these terms, problematic Internet use has been preferred by many researchers
(Caplan 2002; Davis 2001; Brandon and Evans 1984). Some
of its symptoms are failure of control over Internet use
(Morahan-Martin and Schumacher 2000; Young 1999), preoccupation with Internet use (Chou 2001), obsessive thoughts
about the Internet, reduced impulse control (Young 1999) and
intensive use of the Internet (Morahan-Martin and
Schumacher 2000). If the internet use is not controlled, aforementioned problem behaviors can cause serious harm to user’s
life especially in the domains of social and familial relationships (Douglas et al. 2008; Kraut et al. 1998; Ozcan and Buzlu
2007). The condition might (also) result in failure to fulfill
academic responsibilities (Huang et al. 2009; Chou and
Hsiao 2000). Time spent online and its relations with wellbeing have been investigated into various studies. When the
amount of time spent online increases, lower social integration
and well-being (Weiser 2001), and self-esteem and also higher
compulsive interne use, loneliness and depression were reported (Van der Aa et al. 2009).
In the literature, researchers have conceptualized various
factors to explain problematic Internet use. Cognitive appraisals and coping are some of the factors that influence the
development of problematic Internet use. It is noted that
Internet use is a way of releasing stress (Douglas et al. 2008;
Chou 2001; LaRose et al. 2001; Wan and Chiou 2006) caused
by face-to-face interaction (Caplan 2010). Similarly, Brandon
and Evans (1984) argued that individuals use the Internet to
Curr Psychol
gain positive responses and to compensate for negative selfappraisals (or cognitive distortions of the self). To reveal the
effect of adaptive cognitive appraisal, several conditions are
identified (Burleson and Goldsmith 1998). For example, when
the Internet conversation involves discussing upsetting matters in a way that facilitates reappraisals, cognitive appraisals
increase adaptive responses (Burleson and Goldsmith 1998).
Cognitive appraisal helps to organize and clarify thoughts and
feelings about upsetting events (Burleson and Goldsmith
1998). Caplan and Turner (2007) stated that stigmatized matters could be appraised as more challenging and less threatening when individuals use the Internet to seek emotional support. For instance; as individuals’ worry about sharing
embarrassing matters is diminished (White and Dorman
2001; Wright 2002) discussing stigmatized topics on a computer (online) is perceived as less threatening than during the
face-to-face interaction (Walther and Boyd 2002).
In addition to stress appraisals, the distinction between
adaptive and maladaptive coping was mentioned. For instance, Spada and his colleagues differentiate between those
individuals exhibiting problematic Internet use and those who
do not (Spada et al. 2008). The former use the Internet as a
way of escaping from life problems, while the latter use the
Internet as a way of coping with life problems through solving
and challenging them. In another study, individuals exhibiting
problematic Internet use had significantly higher scores on
avoidant coping strategy than the others (Li et al. 2009). In
addition, it is mentioned that individuals who use the Internet
to relieve stress, loneliness, depression, or anxiety are more
likely to experience life difficulties such as unfunctionality
(LaRose et al. 2001, 2003). In other words, (Douglas et al.
2008), the (urge/wish) to release stress can be accepted as one
of the Bpush factors^ to develop problematic Internet use, and
coping activities can be accepted as Bcontrol strategies^ for
problematic Internet use. These coping activities help individuals pass their time until the next online session.
Furthermore, problematic Internet use is accepted as a way
of coping with stress (Davis et al. 2002) and coping with
existing relationships (Chou et al. 2005). By using the problematic internet use term and internet addiction interchangebly
(Yellowlees and Marks 2007), for instance; Internet addiction
may be considered a coping mechanism to deal with identity
and relationship problems during adolescence (Chou et al.
2005). Similarly, it is noted that Internet use is a procrastination or Bcognitive task avoidance^ from high perceived stress
(Davis et al. 2002). As can be seen in this example, Internet
use serves as a distraction method (Davis et al. 2002) that can
be accepted as an avoidance coping strategy (Endler and
Parker 1994). Similarly, it is noted that problematic Internet
use leads to an escape from daily problems (Meerkerk et al.
2010). Consistently, the relationship between stressful life
events and generalized problematic Internet use was mediated
by avoidance coping strategies in a study conducted on
Chinese college students (Li et al. 2009). Apart from its being
a way of coping with stress, problematic Internet use occurs
due to maladaptive coping strategies (Hall and Parsons 2001)
and Bdiminished confidence in coping^ (Spada et al. 2008).
Researchers have tested various factors to explain problematic Internet use without considering theoretical models. On
the other hand, there are various models to explain factors
aforementioned above. Among these models, Lazarus’
Cognitive-Relational Theory of Stress is beneficial for understanding cognitive appraisals associated with coping (Lazarus
1991). The Brelational^ aspects of the model considers the
influence of environment and Bcognitive^ aspects includes
personal thinking (Lazarus 2000). Similar to Lazarus’s model,
Folkman notice the role of cognitive appraisal and defined
cognitive appraisal as an individual’s subjective perception,
interpretation, and evaluation of the degree of experienced
distress (Folkman 2008). As mentioned in the model, there
are two types of cognitive appraisals—primary (threat, challenge) (Roesch and Rowley 2005) and secondary appraisals
(controllable-by-self, controllable-by-others, and uncontrollable-by-anyone) (Peacock and Wong 1990). According to
Lazarus model (1991), internal and external stressors foreshadow the primary appraisal, which is a subjective evaluation
of potential consequences of a situation based on goal relevance, goal congruence, and type of personal involvement. In
turn, primary appraisal can shape secondary appraisal in
which individuals decide how to manage or cope with a stressful situation. Ultimately, secondary appraisal can influence
coping strategies, which include cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific internal or external demands. This
model is modified by adding psychological distress as an outcome variable after coping strategies (Andenaes et al. 2006).
Another modification might be accepting there are two
patways between appraisals and stress which are negative appraisals of stress- maladaptive coping strategies and positive
appraisals of stress—adaptive coping strategies. In this respect, also, there might be negative (threat, uncontrollability)
and positive appraisals of stress (challenge, controllable-byself, controllable-by-others).
Considering Internet use is repeated behaviors that are positively rewarded (Turkle 2011), cognitive processes would
clarify the problematic Internet use in an organized way.
Furthermore, Caplan and Turner stated that the relationship
between cognitive appraisals, coping, and Internet use should
be examined with empirically testable theories (Caplan and
Turner 2007). There have been a limited number of studies
examining the role of cognitive appraisal and coping on cognitions about problematic Internet use (Li et al. 2009). On the
basis of Lazarus theory, there are positive and negative cognitive appraisals while dealing with life issues. Negative cognitive stress appraisals are supposed to be associated with
negative outcomes. In this study, negative cognitive stress
appraisals are chosen since cognitions about problematic
Curr Psychol
internet use is a negative outcome variable. Therefore, the role
of threat among primary appraisals, uncontrollability among
secondary appraisals are supposed to be associated with negative outcomes (maladaptive coping strategies and cognitions
about problematic internet use). In this respect, negative cognitive appraisals and coping strategies are primarily considered in this article as a generation of alternative model.
The main purpose of the present study is to examine the
role of threat, uncontrollability and maladaptive coping strategies within the Lazarus’ theoretical framework (1991). As
considering an alternative model of Lazarus’s, the model consists of threat (primary appraisal), uncontrollability (secondary
appraisal), and two maladaptive coping strategies (escapeavoidance, and accepting responsibility) as exogenous variables and one outcome variable (problematic Internet use). It
is hypothesized that threat and uncontrollability and maladaptive coping strategies would altogether influence the cognitions about problematic Internet use. In particular, the following hypotheses are tested using the structural equation model
(SEM) in a sample of university students: (i) the cognitive
appraisal of threat would be related with the cognitive appraisal of uncontrollability; (ii) uncontrollability would be related
with maladaptive coping strategies of escape-avoidance and
accepting responsibility; (iii) two maladaptive coping strategies would be related with cognitions about problematic
Internet use, (iv) uncontrollability would mediate the relationship between threat and Online Cognition Scale (OCS), (v)
both uncontrollability and maladaptive coping strategies
would mediate the relationship between threat and OCS.
scale (Davis 2001; Brandon and Evans 1984). Confirmatory
factor analysis results revealed that the scale had four subscales, namely loneliness-depression (i.e. Bfeeling helpless
when not having access to the Internet^), diminished impulse
control (i.e. Bnot being able to stop thinking about the
Internet^), social comfort (i.e. Bbeing most comfortable
online^), and distraction (i.e. Bwhen being online not thinking
about responsibilities^). Turkish standardization of the scale
was done by Ozcan and Buzlu, who found test-retest reliability
as .90 and internal consistency as .93 (Ozcan and Buzlu 2007).
The Ways of Coping Questionnaire (WCQ)
The WCQ consists of 66 items that were developed and revised to evaluate coping styles (Folkman and Lazarus 1980,
1985). The questionnaire was adapted to Turkish culture by
shortening 31-item with 5-point Likert-type scale from Bnot
used at all^ (1) to Bused a great deal^ (5) (Senol-Durak et al.
2011; Senol-Durak and Durak 2010). In the present study, two
of seven subscales associated with maladaptive coping strategies were used. These are, escape-avoidance (i.e. Btrying to
get away of the problem by delaying the decision^, and
accepting responsibility (i.e. Baccusing myself as the cause
of the problem^).
The Stress Appraisal Measure (SAM)
A demographic Information Form was administered to participants to gather gender, age, class, and monthly income
related data.
The SAM was developed to assess cognitive appraisal of general stress with the 24-item Likert-type scale rated on 5-point
Likert-type scale from Bnot at all^ (0) to Bextremely/a great
deal^ (4) (Peacock and Wong 1990). The scale consists of
three subscales of primary appraisals (threat, challenge, and
centrality), and three subscales of secondary appraisals (controllable-by-self, controllable-by-others, and uncontrollableby-anyone). The internal consistencies (alphas) of its various
subscales ranged from .51 to .90. The SAM was adapted to
Turkish culture (Senol-Durak and Durak 2012; Durak and
Senol-Durak 2013). A five-factor solution model adequately
fit the samples of both university students and adults. The
negative appraisals of stress called as threat (i.e. Bthreatening
situation^), and uncontrollable-by-anyone (i.e. Boutcome
uncontrollable^) were used in the present study. The internal
consistencies ranged from .70 to .90 for university students
and from .68 to .87 for adults (Durak and Senol-Durak 2013).
The concurrent and discriminant validity of the scale was supported on the basis of the association of the SAM with conceptually related (state anxiety) or unrelated measures (social
desirability) (Durak and Senol-Durak 2013).
The Online Cognition Scale (OCS)
Procedure
The OCS was developed to evaluate cognitions about Problem
Internet Use (PIU), with 36 items rated on a 7-point Likert
The scales were distributed to the university students in a
classroom setting. All subjects were informed about the aim
Method
Participants
The sample of the study is composed of 549 students; 383
females (69.8 %) and 166 males (30.2 %). Ages of the students
ranged between 17 and 29 years (M = 20.63, SD = 1.67). 17.3 %
of the subjects were preparatory (n = 95), 59.4 % were freshmen
(n = 326), 16.9 % were sophomores (n = 93), 4.6 % were juniors
(n = 25), and 1.8 % were seniors (n = 10). The mean of Internet
usage in a day was 106.84 (SD = 95.05) minutes.
Measures
Curr Psychol
of the present study, and their consent was obtained. All participants took part voluntarily and were not remunerated for
participation.
Results
Descriptive Statistics and Correlations Among Variables
The descriptive statistics of the variables and the correlations
among the variables are presented in Table 1. Also, correlations between total online hours in a day and the OCS subscales were significantly correlated. When the Internet use in a
day increased, their scores obtained from loneliness depression (r = .30, p < .001), diminished impulse control (r = .37,
p < .001), social comfort (r = .29, p < .001) and distraction
(r = .24, p < .001) increased.
Model Testing
To test the adequacy of the negative pathways associated with
cognitive appraisals of stress and maladaptive coping strategies as suggested model (see Fig. 1), Structural Equation
Modeling (SEM) was conducted. To examine the fitness of
the model, Goodness of Fit Indices (GIF) such as The
Incremental Fit Index (IFI), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), and
Comparative Fit Index (CFI) were reported. Goodness of fitness values illustrated by these GIF measures varied between
.00 and 1.00; the larger values indicated that the model was a
better fit (Bentler 1990; Bollen 1989). As a rule of thumb,
values of .90 or greater are interpreted as well fitting models.
In addition to these indexes, smaller root-mean-square error of
approximation (RMSEA) values support better-fitting models,
especially values of .05 or lesser ones indicating good fit
(Browne and Cudeck 1993). The ratio of χ2 to degrees of
Table 1
freedom (df) should be less than 3 (Kline 2005). Therefore,
all indexes mentioned are handled to evaluate the model fit.
To examine the role of observed variables on the OCS, the
SEM was employed using AMOS 21.0 software (Arbuckle
2012). The results revealed the adequacy of the model: χ2
(16, N = 549) = 24.197, p = 085. Furthermore, the χ2 ratio
was below the suggested 2:1 ratio (χ2 /df = 1.512). GIF
showed that the fit could be regarded as adequate;
RMSEA = .031, IFI = .995, TLI = .991, CFI = .995.
Based on the standardized regression estimates, threat was
significantly positively related to uncontrollability
[Regression Estimate (RE) = .52, p < .001]. Therefore, the first
hypothesis related to the relationship threat and uncontrollability was supported. Furthermore, uncontrollability was positively associated with escape-avoidance (RE = .12, p < .01)
and accepting responsibility (RE = .13, p < .01). Therefore uncontrollability and maladaptive coping strategies relationship
was completely supported as suggested in the second hypothesis. In addition to uncontrollability, threat was also significantly positively related to coping dimensions of escapeavoidance (RE = .17, p < .001) and accepting responsibility
(RE = .30, p < .001). Consequently, 4 % of variance in escape
avoidance and 11 % of variance in accepting responsibility
were explained by threat and uncontrollability.
Likewise assumed in the third hypothesis, both escapeavoidance (RE = .17, p < .001) and accepting responsibility
(RE = .20, p < .001) were significantly positively related to
OCS. In addition to coping styles, uncontrollability was also
significantly positively correlated with OCS (RE = .15,
p < .001). Consequently, 9 % of variance in OCS was explained by three variables: uncontrollability, escape-avoidance, and accepting responsibility.
As shown by the indirect effects among the variables of the
model, the examination of the indirect effect of threat appraisal
on OCS via uncontrollability indicated that threat appraisal
showed significant indirect effect on OCS as predicted in the
The descriptive statistics of the variables and the correlations among the variables
1
1. Loneliness-Depression
2. Diminished Impulse Control
3. Diminished Social Comfort
4. Distraction
5. Threat Appraisal
6. Uncontrollable-by-Anyone
7. Accepting Responsibility
8. Escape-Avoidance
Mean
Standard Deviation
Possible Range
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001
11.07
5.61
6–42
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
.754***
.715***
.726***
.627***
.638***
.198***
.162***
.206***
.198***
.198***
.222***
.196***
.199***
.615***
.217***
.253***
.197***
.214***
.520***
.234***
.254***
.363***
.282***
.180***
.213***
.229***
.208***
.152***
17.96
8.22
7–49
26.87
5.99
8–40
10.28
2.87
4–20
10.74
3.26
4–20
14.92
3.44
5–25
20.70
9.71
9–63
26.97
12.09
13–85
Curr Psychol
.17**
Escape - Avoidance
.17**
Loneliness Depression
.12*
.86**
.87**
.52**
Threat
.15**
Uncontrollability
Diminished
Impulse Control
OCS
.83**
Diminished
Social Comfort
.74**
.13*
Distracon
.30**
Accept
Responsibility
.20**
Fig. 1 The SEM model
fourth hypothesis related to the mediator role of secondary appraisal in the relationship between primary appraisals and OCS
(RE = .08, p < .001). As well as uncontrollability, escapeavoidance (RE = .03, p < .01) and accepting responsibility
(RE = .06, p < .001) mediated the relationship between threat
and OCS as assumed in the fifth hypothesis related to the mediator role of maladaptive coping in the relationship between threat
and OCS.
As assumed in the fifth hypothesis related to the mediator
role of uncontrollability and maladaptive coping strategies in the
relationship between threat and OCS, the examination of the
indirect effect of threat appraisal on OCS via uncontrollability
and escape-avoidance indicated that both uncontrollability and
escape-avoidance had mediator role on the relationship between
threat and OCS (RE = .01, p < .01). In addition, uncontrollability
and accepting responsibility had mediator role on the relationship between threat and OCS as predicted (RE = .01, p < .01).
Discussion
Studies concerning the effect of primary appraisal and secondary appraisal and coping strategies on the problematic Internet
use are limited. Also, theoretically driven theories have not
extensively examined in the problematic Internet use literature. The purpose of this study was to determine the mediator
role uncontrollability and maladaptive coping strategies between threat and cognitions about problematic Internet use
within the Cognitive-Relational Theory of Stress (Lazarus
1991). In the frame of this theory, present study generate a
new further model about of negative self-appraisals and maladaptive coping strategies in relation to cognitions about problematic Internet use. Therefore, as mentioned in the literature
understanding stress appraisal and coping relationship help to
identify person-environment transaction (Folkman et al.
1986a, b). Likewise person- Internet use transaction in the
present study, interaction between negative stress appraisals
and maladaptive coping relationship would help professionals
to regulate problematic Internet use.
As for the effect of negative stress appraisals, the role of threat
and uncontrollability on cognitions about problematic Internet
use was found significant in the present study. As expected,
cognitions about problematic Internet use were positively correlated with the appraisals of threat and uncontrollability. In other
words, individuals who perceive threat and uncontrollability had
higher scores on cognitions about problematic Internet use. The
current results are inconsistent with the findings of earlier studies
that have revealed that individuals use the Internet because it is
less threatening than face-to-face relationships (Walther and
Boyd 2002). This discrepancy can be explained by the presence
of various cognitive appraisal and coping strategies related to
problematic Internet use (Spada et al. 2008). Another discrepancy lies between the findings of the present study and Caplan and
Turner (2007). They identified the association between challenge
and controllable-by-self with problematic Internet use. In the
present study, however, in addition to controllable-by-self, the
association between challenge and controllable-by-others with
problematic Internet use were significant.
As for the effect of maladaptive coping strategies, both
escape-avoidance and accepting responsibility strategies were
significantly correlated to cognitions about problematic
Internet use. Consistent with the results in literature (Meerkerk
et al. 2010; Spada et al. 2008), individuals with problematic
Internet use utilize the Internet as a way to escape from their
problems. It is explained as Bprocrastination^ or Bcognitive task
avoidance^ (Davis et al. 2002). Moreover, it is noteworthy that
accepting responsibility is significantly associated with cognitions about problematic Internet use. Individuals with higher
scores of accepting responsibility (being aware of one’s role in
solving problems) had higher scores from the online cognition
Curr Psychol
scale. Accepting responsibility is identified as a maladaptive
coping style (Manne 1999) due to the fact that it leads to an
excessive and irrational burden, and thus results in poor psychological health (Penley et al. 2002) such as cognitions about
problematic Internet use in the present study. This suggests that
participants tend to blame themselves for problematic Internet
use and think that it is solely their responsibility to address the
problem. Furthermore, the effect of some maladaptive coping
strategies (escape-avoidance and accepting responsibility) were
found to be significant.
In addition to the direct effects of cognitive appraisal of stress
and coping strategies, the role of threat and uncontrollability on
cognitions about problematic Internet use were explained by the
effect of two maladaptive coping strategies, namely escapeavoidance and accepting responsibility. Likewise, being mediators in the social support-depression relationship (Bigatti et al.
2011), and stress-problematic Internet use relationship (Li et al.
2009), both escape-avoidance and accepting responsibility had a
mediator role on the relationship between negative cognitive
appraisals of stress (threat and uncontrollability) and cognitions
about problematic Internet use. Through the mediation of these
coping strategies, higher scores of threat and uncontrollability
were associated with higher scores on distorted cognitions about
internet use.
The effects of uncontrollability and maladaptive coping
strategies (accepting responsibility, escape-avoidance), and
cognitions about problematic Internet use are explained through
relating them to the processes of self-control failure. This failure
is explained by deficient self-regulation (LaRose et al. 2003). In
this frame, problematic Internet use might be seen as the results
of such automatic processes than a rational cognitive appraisal
process. Consistent with the findings of related studies (Endler
and Parker 1994), in the present study, the maladaptive coping
styles (i.e. accepting responsibility, escape-avoidance) rather
than the active coping styles (i.e. planful problem solving, seeking social support) were found to be significantly effective on
the cognitions about problematic Internet use. Correspondingly
problematic Internet use was accepted as an attempt to escape
from daily problems (Meerkerk et al. 2010). Likewise, it is
highlighted that using avoidant coping strategies leads to
short-term relief, therefore it is accepted as maladaptive in relation to stressful life events and problematic Internet use (Li et al.
2009). As a result, cognitions about problematic Internet use are
influenced by the automatic and habitual processes and therefore they are related to coping strategies including little effort.
Regarding the clinical implications, comprehensive intervention with individuals having problematic internet use could
involve dealing with maladaptive coping styles and negative
appraisals of stress. Working with cognitions as well as introducing coping skills training would encourage their involvement during intervention when considering their passive style.
Also, self-management might be useful to increase sense of
control over internet use.
Sample size is one of the important limitations of the present study. Since the SEM is based on variances, the larger the
sample size is, the higher the homogeneity of variances and
explained variances are. The Parsimony Adjustment to CFI
index (.569), one of the case-sensitive measures of goodness
of fit (Mulaik et al. 1989), confirmed that the model indicated
an adequate fit. However, a larger sample size might have
provided a more adequate fit of the model to the data. Also,
since majority of participants were women, this decrease the
generalizability of our findings.
Factors related to the problematic Internet use may differ
from one study to another depending on the characteristics of
the sample. The sample of the current study is only composed
of university students. Therefore, results should only be
interpreted within that context. Further research using various
samples such as adolescents, adults, and elderly persons is
required to evaluate the divergent validity of the findings.
The effect of some other variables on cognitions about problematic Internet use is suggested to be taken into consideration
in future research. These variables include but are not limited
to affective components of subjective well-being (SenolDurak et al. 2011; Senol-Durak and Durak 2010), personality
variables such as—neuroticism (Tsai et al. 2009) and conscientiousness (Durak and Senol-Durak 2013), and psychological well-being variables such as depression (Kraut et al. 1998;
Yang and Tung 2007) and social anxiety (Shapira et al. 2000).
In summary, four variables (higher threat, higher uncontrollability, higher escape avoidance and higher accepting responsibility) were found to play a significant role on cognitions
related to problematic Internet use. Further studies are encouraged to examine stress appraisal and coping strategies in the
context of problematic Internet use.
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