Belgrade report 2007
Sub-chapter 2.1 Air quality
First draft
Developed by Jaroslav Fiala, EEA
and Hans Eerens, ETC/ACC
Commented by Frank de Leeuw and Steinar Larssen, ETC/ACC
Abstract
Air pollution has long been recognised as a significant risk to human health and the environment. Europe
has made great strides in reducing many forms of air pollution. Actions have focused on establishing
minimum quality standards for ambient air and tackling the problems of acid rain and ground-level ozone.
Polluting emissions from large combustion plants and mobile sources have been reduced and fuel quality
improved. In particular, it has eliminated smog in many areas and reduced acid rain.
Despite remarkable reduction of air pollutant emissions, atmospheric pollution still poses a significant
threat to human health and the environment as a whole. Limit values for particulate matter (PM10), ozone
and, to a lesser extent for nitrogen dioxide, are extensively exceeded in Europe.
Current levels of air pollution by fine particles and ozone are causing significant damage to health resulting
in several hundreds of thousands of premature deaths in Europe each year, increased hospital admissions,
extra medication, millions of lost working days, shortening life expectancy by almost one year, and affecting
the healthy development of children.
Although as a result of the economic restructuring in the EECCA region, pollutant levels in ambient air
have decreased, and air pollution levels above maximum admissible concentrations still occur in many
cities. Although limited data is available, they do also indicate that , similar to western Europe, the main
public health impact is caused by air pollution by small particles, their toxic constituents like heavy metals
and polyaromatic hydrocarbons, and by ozone.
The growth in (private) road transport substantially contributes to air pollution in cities. Recent
development in some EECCA countries to introduce EURO standards is a positive step in reversing this
trend. However, emissions from industry, power production and households also contributes substantially to
air pollution in urban areas in many parts of EECCA, central and eastern Europe and in the Balkan
countries.
Acidification and eutrophication of ecosystems by air pollution and exposure of vegetation to excessive
concentration of ozone in lower part of atmosphere still pose a serious threat to the environment and
agricultural production in many parts of Europe and the EECCA region.
The specific air quality policies of the EU (CAFE) Strategy are aimed to significantly improve air quality
and reduce the impacts both for human health and ecosystems. Fuel quality standards, introducing best
available emission control techniques for stationary sources along with stricter standards for the transport
sector (e.g. EURO4-5) are expected to have net cost-benefit ratios for the EU as a whole.
To ensure a level playing field for the industry, to increase the effect of measures, to reduce the costs, and to
protect all European citizens equally requires European countries to as far as feasible, cooperate and
coordinate their efforts to reduce air pollution. Eight UN-ECE LRTAP protocols that have been signed and
ratified, have proven that Europe can work together. The upcoming review of the Gothenburg protocol will
offer a new opportunity for European countries on work at a common framework to prevent and reduce the
effects of air pollution on human health and the environment.
1
1. Progress in air quality protection policy since Kiev
Air pollution is a transboundary, multi-pollutant, multi-effect environmental problem. Significant and well
directed efforts over more than two decades have led to a reduction in emissions. However, air pollution in
Europe still poses risks and has adverse effects on human health and on natural and man-made
environments.
Air pollution issues in the UNECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe) region are
preferably addressed by the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP), which has
been one of the main means of protecting public health and the environment from the harmful effects of air
pollution across the region.
Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution
With its eight protocols, CLRTAP has developed comprehensive and strong commitments covering all
major pollutants. It has substantially contributed to the development of international environmental law and
has created the essential framework for controlling and reducing the damage to human health and the
environment caused by transboundary air pollution. To combat air pollution, each party to CRLTAP is
obliged to develop effective policies and strategies, including air quality monitoring and management
systems.
All EU and EFTA countries are parties to CLRTAP and almost all have signed protocols under the
Convention. Nine EECCA countries – Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, the
Republic of Moldova, the Russian Federation and Ukraine – are parties to the Convention. Belarus, the
Russian Federation and Ukraine have accepted the first three protocols. In 2002 the Republic of Moldova
has ratified protocols on heavy metals and POPs (see Annex 1).
By March 2005, the sixteen parties (most of EU and EFTA countries) had ratified the 1999 Protocol to
abate acidification eutrophication and ground-level ozone, the Gothenburg protocol, and it went for into
force. The ceilings of the Gothenburg protocol represent cost-effective and simultaneous reductions of
acidification, eutrophication and ground-level ozone (Table 1.1).
Table.1.1: Emission reduction targets for 1990-2010 (%) of the Gothenburg protocol (UNECE, 1999)
Acidification (SO2, NOx and NH3)
Eutrophication (NOx and NH3)
Ozon precursors (NOx, VOC, CO and CH4)
Western Europe
-56
-36
-53
Central and eastern Europe
-40
-10
-21
EECCA
-40
-25
-36
European Union policy on air quality
Air quality is one of the environment areas in which European legislature has been most active in recent
years. The aim has been to develop a coordinated overall EU strategy through the twin-track approach of
both long-term air quality objectives and pollutant emission limits.
The aim of the European Union policy on air quality has been to develop an overall strategy through the
setting of long-term air quality objectives. A series of directives has been introduced in recent years to
control levels of certain pollutants and to monitor their concentrations in the air.
Ambient air quality legislation
Over the period 1999–2004 the Framework Directive 96/62/EC (FWD) on ambient air quality assessment
and management (EC, 1996) has been complemented by four daughter directives (EC, 1999; EC, 2000; EC,
2002 and EC, 2004). While FWD sets common objectives and basic principles, the daughter directives set
limit and target values for pollutants listed in FWD. FWD and its daughter directives are aimed at
establishing a harmonised structure for assessing and managing air quality throughout the European Union.
The first three daughter directives set limit values for sulphur dioxide, particulate matter (PM10), nitrogen
dioxide, nitrogen oxides and lead, carbon monoxide and benzene and target values for ozone. The fourth
daughter directive issued in 2004 sets target values for benzo(a)pyrene, cadmium, arsenic, nickel and
mercury.
2
Besides establishing numerical limit or target values and alert thresholds for the identified pollutants, the
daughter directives harmonise monitoring strategies, measuring methods, calibration and quality assessment
methods to arrive at comparable measurements throughout the European Union and to provide effective
public information. Air quality directives require EU member States to draw up a list of zones and
agglomerations where the levels of one or more pollutants are higher than the limit values or programmes
then have to be prepared and implemented for those zones in order to attain the limit values within the time
limit.
Emission legislation
A key element of EU legislation on emissions is the national emission ceilings directive (NECD) (EC,
2001), which sets emission ceilings for sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ammonia and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) by 2010. These have to be achieved through EU-wide and national policies and
measures aimed at specific sectors. Member States are obliged to prepare a national programme presenting
their approaches to achieve the emission ceilings.
EU sectoral emission legislation sets emission standards for specific source categories. There are a number
of EU directives controlling emissions from vehicles (EC, 1998), large combustion plants (EC, 2001b) and
industry (VOC directive — EC, 1999a and integrated pollution prevention and control directive — EC,
1996a).
The air quality directives have target years of 2005 and 2010; both the NEC directive and the CLRTAP
protocol have 2010 as target year, by which limit values, targets or ceilings have to be achieved.
Over and above these EU legislative measures there are however a number of directives and other moves at
EU level that can have an indirect effect – such as those aimed at reducing the emissions of greenhouse
gases, and others capable of influencing developments in the energy, transportation and agricultural sectors.
With the aim of reviewing current air quality policies and assessing progress towards attainment of EU’s
long-term air quality objectives as laid down in the Sixth Environment Action Programme the European
Commission launched in 2001 the Clean Air for Europe (CAFE) programme. CAFE has dealt with health
and environmental problems related to fine particles (PM 2.5)1, ground-level ozone, acidification, and
eutrophication.
CAFE has provided the analysis (Amman, et al., 2004, 2005) for EU’s thematic strategy on air pollution,
which was adopted by the Commission in September 2005 and it represents a key achievement in EU air
quality protection policy in recent years. The idea is that CAFE should evolve into an ongoing five year
cyclical programme, in which the 2005 thematic strategy on air pollution simply marks the first milestone.
EECCA region
In the EECCA region ministers adopted the EECCA Environmental strategy (UNECE, 2003). It represents
a political framework of a similar nature as the 6th Environmental Action Programme for the 25 EU member
states.
In the air quality protection area the EECCA Environmental strategy is focussed preferably on an
improvement of the environmental legislation, policies, and institutional framework. One of the objectives
is an optimization of environmental quality standards; making sure that the substances regulated can be
effectively monitored; setting realistic standards based on risk management considerations and
internationally accepted norms. To reduce the risks to human health the EECCA Environmental strategy
wants to implement Pollution Prevention and Control similar to EU IPPC procedures.
The Environmental strategy identified several problems of urban air pollution:
1
The WHO Systematic Review of Health Aspects of Air Pollution in Europe (WHO, 2004a) indicates that many
studies have found that fine particles (PM 2.5) have serious effects on health, such as increases in mortality rates and
in emergency hospital admissions for cardiovascular and respiratory reasons. Up to now, coarse and fine particles have
been evaluated and regulated together, as the focus has been on PM10. However, the two types have different sources
and may have different effects. The systematic review therefore recommended that consideration be given to assessing
and controlling coarse as well as fine particles PM2.5.
3
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urban air pollution, particularly from mobile sources, has a major impact on the human health
eakness of air quality control systems
excessively strict ambient air quality standards
weak technological capacity, resulting in higher emissions
lack of economic incentives for facilities to reduce their emission intensity per unit of output
inadequacies of regulation of road transport emissions.
The level of implementation of abatement measures in the EECCA region varies greatly. Mobile source
abatement began in Moscow in 1996 with control of the technical condition of cars more than 15 years old.
In Dushanbe, emission permits are given to vehicles that meet required standards. Turkmenistan has set a
reduction by 2005 for emissions from mobile sources. In Kiev, however, it is expected that air pollution
from road transport will continue to be a problem for at least 10–15 years due to the slow change in the car
fleet (Cherp, A., et al, 2003).
The obligations under the signed UNECE protocols, taken by the Republic of Belarus at present time are
fulfilled and in 2004 the total reduction of sulphur dioxide emissions reached 83% in comparison to 1980;
reduction of nitrogen oxide emissions reached 47% in comparison to 1987.
For stationary sources, the aim is reconstruction and modernisation, often with international assistance, but
environmental control under conditions of intermittent operation is complicated. Lack of funding and a
focus on energy issues has meant that no environmental programme exists in Tbilisi.
2. Atmospheric emissions

Emissions decreased substantially in the whole of Europe between 1990 and 2004:
 acidifying gases by 47%,
 particulates and particulates forming gases by 45%,
 eutrophying gases by 30%,
 ozone-forming gases (ground-level ozone precursors) by 21%.

Progress since the Kiev assessment (1990-2000) has been more diverse, between 2000 and 2004
emission over whole Europe still decreased, but not in all countries and regions.
EU15 as a whole has made good progress towards meeting the 2010 targets of the NEC Directive but
additional effort is still required in order to meet the respective targets. The new member countries have
made excellent progress in terms of meeting their respective NEC Directive targets, with seven
countries already having met their NEC Directive targets.
Rapidly increasing road transport has become a major problem for the urban environment in EECCA
countries. The main causative factors include the increasing numbers, average weight increase (SUVs),
the (old) age of the vehicle fleet, the low quality and high sulphur content of fuel, and declining public
transport.
Industrial sources have declined in importance in EECCA countries, but still remain relevant and
difficult to assess.
Compared to land-based emissions it seems likely that sea ship emissions could exceed land-based
emissions in the near future. The scope for reducing emissions through best available technology in the
shipping sector is still very large for NOx and SO2 – 88% and 78% respectively.
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Background
At present thousands of substances are emitted into the atmosphere daily. Over the last decades substances
have been regulated by forbidding its emissions, e.g. the Russian Federation has a list of 44 substances that
are not allowed to be emitted (WHO, 2005), or by regulating its emission or allowed concentration in the
atmosphere. The last choice can results in long lists. The Russian Federation has a list of 665 substances
with an allowed standard value. While an assessment of the hazards presented by such a broad range of
pollutants might be justified, their comprehensive and regular control is extremely difficult and costly.
4
The national strategies of many countries have focused on a relatively small set of key pollutants, often
indicative of a broader range of pollutants emitted simultaneously. A 2005 WHO consultative meeting in
Moscow (WHO, 2005), concluded that:
• The key pollutants to be addressed by the national strategies of the EECCA countries in the future
should be: particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5), NOx, SO2, and ozone (O3).
• In special situations (e.g. depending on the kind or proximity of the source) further pollutants, or their
groups, could be added to the list for local monitoring and control (e.g. certain volatile organic
compounds, VOCs).
• WHO Air Quality Guidelines should be used as a primary source for assessment of the health relevance
of the pollutants included in the strategy.
The above outlined strategy is in broad line in agreement with the European Union approach.
In this section the trend in emissions will be analyzed in four clusters:
 Acidifying gases (SO2, NOx and NH3)
 Eutrophying gases (NOx and NH3)
 Ozone-forming gases (ground-level ozone precursors: NOx, NMVOC, CO and CH4 )
 Particulates and particulates forming gases (Primary emitted PM10, SO2, NOx and NH3)
The substances are not summed up by the amount they emit, but are scaled, taking into account their
contribution to these effects. For details see de Leeuw (2002).
Emission trends
Figure 2.1: present the general trend for particulates and ozone forming substances for 3 regions of Europe
for the last 15 years and a projection for the next 25 years (EEA, 2006).
PM10 percursor - trend emissions and projections by sub-region.
50000
40000
50000
EECCA
NWE
SEE
EECCA
NWE
SEE
kt/y
40000
kt/y
30000
Ozone percursor - trend emissions and projections by sub-region.
60000
30000
20000
20000
10000
10000
0
1990
1995
2000
1990-2004 official country reports to UNECE
2005
0
2030
1990
2005-2030 CAFE Baseline current
legislation with moderate climate
policy scenario, IIASA/RAINS
1995
2000
1990-2004 official country reports to UNECE
2005
2030
2005-2030 CAFE Baseline current
legislation with moderate climate
policy scenario, IIASA/RAINS
Figure 2.1: Trend emissions Europe by sub-region, 1990-2003: official country reports to UN/ECE-EMEP,
2005-2030 projection (CAFE baseline current legislation with climate policies) IIASA/RAINS
The emissions of all pollutants have decreased since 1990, for north west Europe (NWE) and EECCA, but
not in SEE. Due to different sources for historical trends (incomplete official reported data) and projections
(consistent and complete but only partly endorsed by governments) a discontinuity appears between 2004
(reported) and 2005 (projected). The same trend has occurred for acidifying and eutrophying substances,
with reductions of 47% and 30% since 1990, whereof -8% and -4% between 2000 and 2004.
The highest reduction since 1990 was reported for EECCA countries (-52% and -44%) followed by NWE
(–50% and -25%). SEE lags somewhat behind with -21% and -20%. More recently, between 2000 and 2004
(since the Kiev assessment) NWE has taken the lead with a reduction of -11% and -6%. The EECCA
countries continued to report a decrease (-5% and -1%) while the SEE countries reported an increase of 2%
for acidifying and eutrophying substances.
5
Emission by topic and sector
Europe
Ozone precursor emissions
North-west Europe is responsible for 70% of the ozone-forming gases potential, and the EECCA region for
21%. Transport (figure 2.2) is the dominant source of ozone precursors and contributed 49% of the total
emissions in 2004 in Europe, followed by energy (28%) and industry (19%). Compared to 1990 the shares
remained constant with the exception of the transport sector where we see a shift, non road transport
increasing from 7 to 11% and road transport decreasing from 43 to 38%. Non-methane volatile organic
compounds (NMVOC) and nitrogen oxides are the most significant pollutants which contributed to the
formation of tropospheric ozone in 2004. The emissions of NOx and NMVOC were reduced with 30% and
41% respectively between 1990 and 2004, for Europe. Since 2000 the NOx and NMVOC emissions are
rising in the EECCA countries (+13% and +11%) while further reductions are reported for NWE countries
(-9% and -14%). Emission reductions that have occurred since 1990 are mainly due to further introduction
of catalytic converters for cars and for NMVOC the implementation of the EU Solvents Directive in
industrial processes.
PM precursor and primary PM10 emissions
The most important sources (figure 2.2) of PM precursor emissions in 2004 were the energy sector (38%)
and the transport sector (32%) followed by the industry sector (19%) and agriculture and waste sector
(13%). Compared to 1990 we see a declining share of the energy sector (-8 percent points) and industry
sector (- 3 percent points). Road and non road transport increased both with 4 percent points. Emissions of
NOx (49%) and SO2 (27%) were the most important contributing pollutants to particulate formation in 2004.
In terms of contribution to the total reduction in primary PM10 and secondary PM precursors, the main part
of the reduction in emissions of energy-related particulate pollutants between 1990 and 2004 came from the
energy supply sector and the industry which were responsible for 55% and 24% of the total reduction
achieved. Emissions of primary PM10, and secondary PM precursors are expected to decrease in the future
as further improved vehicle engine technologies are adopted and stationary fuel combustion emissions are
controlled through abatement or use of low sulphur fuels such as natural gas.
Ozone precursor emissions per sector in
Europe 2004 (percentage of total)
PM precursor emissions per sector in Europe
2004 (percentage of total)
Agriculture &
Waste
4%
Road
Transport
38%
Road
Transport
22%
Energy
28%
Agriculture &
Waste
13%
Other
Transport
10%
Energy
37%
Other
Transport 11%
11%
Industry
19%
Industry
18%
Figure 2.2 Sector contribution in 2004 to ozone (left) and PM10 (right) generating substances
Acidifying and eutrophying precursor emissions
The most significant emission sources to acidifying and eutrophying emissions in Europe in 2004 were
energy and agriculture and waste followed by road transport and industry. In 2004, the relative weighted
contribution for acidifying substances of sulphur dioxide emissions was 42%, down from 56% in 1990, NOx
emissions 32% and NH3 emissions 27%. Emissions have decreased substantially since 1990. Total weighted
6
emissions decreased by 47% between 1990 and 2004 for acidifying substances and 30% for eutrophying
substances, despite an increase in gross domestic product (GDP) during this time. Between 2000 and 2004
the decrease was 8% and 4% respectively, an increase in SEE (+2%/+2%) and a decrease in EECCA (-5/1%) and NWE (-11/-6%) countries. Especially SO2 emission continued to decline, 20% in NWE countries
and 10% in EECCA countries.
Emission trend in EECCA countries
Rapidly increasing private transport is a major problem for the urban environment in EECCA. In capitals
such as Ashgabat, Dushanbe, Moscow, Tbilisi and Tashkent transport is the dominant source of air
pollutants — more than 80 % of the total. Mobile sources are also a major source of emissions in other large
cities in EECCA including Baku, Bishkek, Chisinau, Kiev, Minsk and Yerevan. The main causative factors
include the age of the vehicle fleet, low quality and high sulphur content fuel, and declining public
transport. Industrial sources have declined in importance, but remain relevant and difficult to address.
Sea ship emissions
Because emissions from shipping and aviation are not subject to the policy controls of the Gothenburg
Protocol and the NEC ceilings, they are not included in the emissions description in the previous section. A
baseline scenario developed by ENTEC (ENTEC, 2003, 2005) clearly shows that emissions from
international shipping are likely to increase dramatically for all pollutants. Projections for 2030 suggest that
NOx emissions from shipping may increase by 87% compared to 2000 and by 25% between 2020 and 2030.
Similarly SO2 may increase by 82% from 2000 and with almost 30% between 2020 and 2030. Emissions of
NMVOC, PM10 and PM2.5 are projected to more than double between 2000 and 2030, with substantial
increases between 2020 and 2030. Compared to land based sources emissions it seems likely that that
shipping emissions could exceed land based emissions in the not so far future. The scope for reducing
emissions through best available technology in the shipping sector is still very large for NOx and SO2 – 88%
and 78% respectively in 2030.
Emission per capita in European and EECCA countries
Figures 2.3 and 2.4 present the per capita emission for ozone and particulate precursor emissions for 2003.
For PM precursor emissions the data are incomplete due to incomplete country reports. For PM precursor
emission the European average amounts to 36 kg/cap. Liechtenstein and Moldova report less than 50% of
the European average. Bulgaria and Estonia report over twice the European average.
110
PM precursor emissions per capita
2003
100
prim. PM10
SO2
NOx
NH3
90
80
60
50
40
without prim.
PM10
without prim.
PM10
t/cap
70
European average 36 kg/cap
30
20
EECCA Countries
LI
CH
LV
DE
LT
NL
IT
SE
SK
AT
UK
FR
HU
BE
CZ
LU
PL
SI
DK
IE
MC
PT
CY
ES
GR
NO
FI
EE
AL
TR
YU
RO
MK
BA
BG
HR
KG
AM
AZ
GE
BY
KZ
0
MD
UA
RU
10
North Western Europe
South Eastern Europe
Figure 2.3: 2003 PM precursor emissions European countries, emission per capita (kg/cap),
source: official country reports to UN/ECE-EMEP
7
For ozone precursors the European average emission amounts to 50 kg/capita in 2003. Serbia and
Montenegro, Central Asia, and Moldova report less than half the European average. Norway reports more
than twice the European average.
Ozone precursor emissions per capita
2003
140
120
NOx
NMVOC
CO
t/cap
100
80
60
European average 50 kg/cap
40
20
EECCA Countries
South Eastern Europe
LI
CH
MC
HU
SK
DE
NL
LT
PL
UK
IT
FR
IE
SI
CY
CZ
BE
AT
LV
PT
SE
GR
ES
EE
LU
DK
FI
NO
YU
AL
TR
BA
HR
RO
MK
BG
KG
AZ
MD
AM
GE
KZ
UA
RU
BY
0
North Western Europe
Figure 2.4: 2003 Ozone precursor emissions European countries, emission per capita (kg/cap)
source: official country reports to UN/ECE-EMEP.
3. Outdoor air quality
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Despite continuing emission reduction of atmospheric pollutants the exposure of Europe’s
population since the late 1990s has not improved.
Emissions of particulates and precursors are reported to have declined. Ambient concentrations
have remained largely stable since 2000. By 2004, most urban areas still exceeded limit values.
Ozone is also a widespread problem. The health-related target values are frequently exceeded in
southern and central Europe and less frequently in eastern and north-western Europe.
Exposure to NO2 has steadily improved. Nevertheless, up to 30% of Europe’s urban population may
still live at concentrations in excess of limit values, and determined effort is still required if target
emissions are to be met.
Exceedances of SO2 limit values are observed only in a few eastern European countries.
Up-to-date monitoring-techniques for PM2.5 and PM10 are scarce in the EECCA region, hampering a
good assessment of air pollution.
Trends of health related air pollution
Across Europe, population is exposed to levels of air pollution that exceed air quality standards set by the
EU and the World Health Organization (WHO). This occurs predominantly within urban/suburban areas,
although for PM10 and ozone, such exposure also takes place in rural areas.
Figure 3.1 summarises developments in urban exposure to pollutant concentrations of SO2, NO2, ozone and
PM10 over limit and target values2. In the period 1996-2004 the fraction of urban population that is exposed
to SO2 concentrations above the short-term limit values decreased to less then 1% and as such the EU limit
value is close to being met. The situation for NO2 is improving, with now about 25% of the European urban
population potentially exposed to concentrations above the limit value. For ozone there is considerable
Limit values referred to are: PM10 - 50 µg/m3 24-hour average not to be exceeded more than 35 days; NO 2 – 40
µg/m3; SO2 - 125 µg/m3 24-hour average not to be exceeded more than 4 days; O3 – 120 µg/m3 8-hour daily maximum
not to be exceeded more than 25 days averaged over three years (see Annex 2)
2
8
variation from year to year. During most of the years, as much as 20-25% of the urban population are
exposed to concentrations above target value. In 2003 – a year with extremely high ozone concentrations
due to specific meteorological conditions, this fraction increased to about 60%. In the period 1997-2004,
23-45% of the urban population was potentially exposed to ambient air concentrations of particulate matter
(PM10) in excess of the EU limit value
% of urban population
EEA 32
set for the protection of the human
100
NO2
PM10
health. There was no discernible trend
O3
SO2
over the period. Meteorological
80
variability can explain a significant part
of the slightly increasing trend since
60
2000.
40
Figure 3.1 Percentage of urban
population in EEA region exposed to air
pollution over limit values and target
values.
20
0
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Source: EEA, 2006a
Particulate matter and toxic pollutants
Many areas in Europe experienced daily average PM10 concentrations in excess of 50 µg/m3 on more than
the permitted 35 days per year (Figure 3.2 ). Urban background locations in 2003 frequently exceeded the
limit value in several European regions. The highest urban concentrations were observed in Italy, the Czech
Republic and Poland, Romania, Bulgaria and the Benelux countries, as well as in cities in some other areas.
EMEP model estimates for the years 2000, 2002 and 2003 show that even regional background PM10
concentrations persistently exceed the limit of 50 μg/m3 more than 35 days in a year in several locations
(Milan and Po Valley, Paris, Benelux countries and the southern coast of Spain).
Figure 3.2 Map of PM10 concentrations in
Europe, 2003, showing the 36th highest daily
values at urban background superimposed
on rural concentrations. Maps constructed
from measurements and model calculations.
(ETC/ACC Technical Paper 2005/8)
Traditional traffic related toxic pollutants
are changing focus in EEA32 countries.
Lead is becoming more related to isolated
industrial sources. Carbon monoxide no
longer appears to be an issue. Only benzene
is still specifically traffic related pollutant.
The industry and heating sector heavy
metals cadmium and arsenic display the
potential for exceedance of target values in
both urban and rural areas. Concentrations are notably above European background (EEA, 2007)
Air pollution in EECCA region
Air pollution is among the most serious environmental problems faced by cities in the EECCA region as
well. Lack of monitoring data of sufficient quality precludes in-depth assessment of the state of air quality
in this region though air quality has been monitored in all the countries for many years. After
decentralisation, the countries redesigned their monitoring systems, but lack of funds has inhibited any
9
major progress. Obsolete measuring methods are therefore still widely in use (UNECE, 2006). Monitoring
is under the control of different authorities with often poorly defined responsibilities (WHO, 2002) and/or
quite different functional competences.
Data from air quality monitoring is scarce but indicates that the pollution levels are high in large part of
the region. Currently WHO is analysing the air quality data from 2002 – 2004 obtained from the Russian
Federation (Krzyzanovski, 2006). Data on total suspended particle (TSP) concentration in background
urban locations from 98 cities with populations of 45 million, were available for at least one of the years.
Population weighted mean (based on all available data) amounted to 244 µg/m3. Mean NO2
concentration, based on data from 111 cities with 47 million residents, amounted to 79 µg/m3.
Elsewhere the picture is similar. Concentrations above maximum allowable concentrations (MAC)3 of
pollutants like particles, NO2, benzo(a)pyrene and formaldehyde, have been observed in cities of
Kazakhstan, Moldova, Ukraine and Uzbekistan. Figure 3.3 depicts on a country level modelled annual PM10
urban concentrations, calculated by the Global Model of Ambient Particulates (GMAPS) (Pandey, et
al.,2005) and monitored PM10 concentrations in EEA countries, averaged through urban background
stations, and TSP concentrations monitored in EECCA. With exception of Belarus observed TSP
concentrations in EECCA countries are quite high comparing with the modelled data. Generally applied
sampling procedure - 20 minutes three or four times a day - seem to lead to rather unreliable, and to some
extent systematically overestimated observations (see textbox Monitoring in EECCA). Nevertheless,
modelled as well as observed PM data indicate that the pollution levels in the cities of most of the EECCA
countries are high heaving corresponding health effects on the population in these cities.
250
Modelled PM10
Monitored PM10
Monitored TSP
200
µg/m3
150
100
50
C
A
u
ze B stri
ch elg a
R ium
ep
G ub
er lic
m
a
E ny
st
on
i
S a
p
Fi ain
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U
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te F nd
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et d
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ol
P an
or d
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S ga
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S
lo S e
va lo n
k ve
R ni
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G lic
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nd
S
w It
itz al
er y
l
A an
rm d
A e
ze n
rb ia
ai
B jan
el
a
G rus
K Ka eor
yr za g
gy k ia
z hs
R ta
R
ep n
us
u
si
an M bli
c
Fe old
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r
T a
Tu aj tion
rk ikis
m ta
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is
U tan
U kra
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ek e
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n
0
Figure 3.3 Annual PM10 urban concentrations, calculated by GMAPS and monitored PM10 concentrations
in EEA countries, averaged through urban background stations, and TSP concentrations monitored in
EECCA (Dolgikh, S. 2006 )
PM concentrations were also exceeded in the central asian Republics, where elevated natural concentrations
from desertification, desert dust and the dried Aral Sea bed enhance the impact of particulates from cheap,
low-quality coal used for power generation and from road transport.
Large industrial centres regularly exceed limits, e.g. Ust-Kamenogorsk, Ridder and Temirtau in
Kazakhstan, and Donetsk, Lutsk and Odessa in Ukraine. However, a lack of monitoring data means that the
scale of the problem is unknown.
3
An overview of maximum allowable concentrations (MAC) in comparisons with EU limit values and WHO
standards is given in Annex 2
10
The level of air pollution in the largest cities of the Russian Federation, expressed by air pollution index
(API)4 has increased over the last years (Figure 3.4). The increase of API is caused mainly by an
increase in air pollution by benzo(a)pyrene in these cities. Also the number of cities with concentrations
of benzo(a)pyrene over MAC has increased in the last five years (to 47% in 2004). This increase in
benzo(a)pyrene concentration is assumed to be caused by forest fires, by an increase of industrial
production without implementation of respective abetment measures, by an increase of usage of diesel
cars and by waste incineration. High
API 14
concentrations of benzo(a)pyrene are observed
12
in winter months which indicates increased
10
consumption of solid fuels for domestic heating
(Roshydromet, 2006).
8
6
Figure 3.4 Time evolution of air quality index
API in largest cities of the Russian Federation.
4
2
Source: SoER of the Russian Federation 2004 (MNR
RF, 2006)
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
The level of air pollution in cities and industrial
centres of EECCA countries like Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan remained high in recent years. The reasons
for high air pollution in these cities are outmoded production technologies, ineffective sanitation facilities,
low-quality fuel, and scarce use of renewable and alternative energy sources.
The problem of atmospheric air pollutions in the Republic of Kyrgyzstan has basically a local character and
is peculiar for the large cities and industrial centres, first of all for Bishkek. Despite significant production
drop air quality in Bishkek remains unsatisfactory with high levels of formaldehyde, particulate matter and
benzo(a)pyrene. Annual average concentrations of formaldehyde exceed MAC 5 to 8 times, of particulate
matter 3 to 4 times, and of benzo(a)pyrene 30 to 60 times. The main contribution to air pollution today is
the transport sector with a steady increase over recent years.
In Belarus average daily exposure for urban population (based on ambient air measurements) has been
estimated as follows: to formaldehyde 32 – 80 µg/m3, to nitrogen dioxide 160 – 384 µg/m3, to carbon
monoxide 4.2 – 8.7 mg/ m3, and to sulphur dioxide 8 –56 µg/m3.
Air pollution in urban areas of the Ukraine, as well as in the other countries of the region, has reached levels
which cause negative impact on human health. Some pollutants exceed MAC. MAC for nitrogen oxides
have been exceeded by a factor of three in 60% of all towns, that is, practically in all large cities. MACs for
carbon monoxide are exceeded in 15% of towns, for PM in 40% of Ukrainian cities (Air Quality and Health
in Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia, WHO, 2003).
4
Air pollution index, API: ECE/CEP/AC.10/2006/3, (UNECE, 2006). (GOST 17.2.3.01-86)
11
Existing air quality monitoring networks in EECCA countries were generally established in the 1970s and
1980s. Measurement programmes conformed to the former USSR standard of 1986, which established four types
of measurement programmes. Complete programmes with measurements of over 20 minutes four times a day to
assess single-measurement/single-interval concentrations and 24-hour concentrations of polluting substances in the
air.
In practice, most fixed measurement stations in EECCA have incomplete or reduced programmes (e.g. three times
a day). The monitoring is based on manual sampling. There are very few automated monitors. There are 57
automated stations in the Russian Federation operated by city authorities, with the Cities of Moscow and Saint
Petersburg operating 28 and 15 stations, respectively. The Ministry of Health and Social Protection of the Republic
of Moldova operates four automated monitors, and Belarus has one such station.
Ukraine has maintained and Belarus and the Russian Federation have even somewhat increased the total number of
fixed sampling points over the past 10 years. Networks have suffered most in Georgia and Tajikistan. Seventeen
air-quality monitoring posts were destroyed during the civil war in Tajikistan.
Measured parameters for fixed sampling points generally follow the priority list of hazardous substances
established in 1983, which covers 19 polluting substances divided into basic substances (total suspended
particulates (TSP), sulphur dioxide, carbon oxide and nitrogen dioxide) and specific substances (e.g. formaldehyde,
benzo(a)pyrene, fluorides, mercury, hydrogen fluoride, cadmium, nickel, lead, chromium and zinc). Monitoring of
small particles (PM10 and PM2.5) is quite limited at present.
Most EECCA countries use as air quality standards the maximum allowable concentrations (MAC) and Guiding
Safe Exposure Levels established by the Ministry of Health of the former USSR 30–40 years ago. These standards
are only health-based and do not take into consideration the protection of ecosystems. Some EECCA countries
have recently updated and supplemented these standards. In the Russian Federation, for instance, the Ministry of
Health approved a health standard in 2003 listing MACs for some 660 substances. While an assessment of the
hazards presented by such a broad range of pollutants might be justified, their comprehensive and regular control is
extremely difficult and costly. Overall, the excessively large number of regulated pollutants imposes unrealistic
monitoring and enforcement requirements on public authorities. National monitoring strategies of EECCA
countries address only a tiny proportion of regulated pollutants. A comparison of some key EECCA MACs with
the air quality limit and target values of the European Union and guidelines of WHO is given in Annex 2.
Source: ECE, 2006
4. Impact of air pollution
Health impact
Air pollution is a significant public health concern. It is responsible for a significant reduction in average
life expectancy, several hundred thousand premature deaths, hundred thousands of additional hospital
admissions, increased use of medication and millions of days every year where activities are restricted. The
pollutants of most concern for human health are ozone and airborne particulate matter.
Most studies conclude that particulates are the main pollutant causing deaths in Europe today. Recently the
CAFE programme has put the number of premature deaths due to exposure to anthropogenic PM2.5
particulates in the EU 25 at 348 000 for the year 2000 (Amann et al., 2005). Geographically, CAFE studies
suggest that the greatest damage to health occurs in the Benelux area, in northern Italy and in parts of
Poland and Hungary. In these areas, the average loss of life expectancy from particulates may be up to two
years (Figure 5.1, left).
The WHO global diseases project calculated the health effects due to PM10 in all cities with more the
100.000 inhabitants. Table 4.1 presents the results for the various sub-regions of Europe. The annual
impacts of air pollution, indicated by particulate matter, estimated for these regions amounted to 84,000
premature deaths and of 608,000 years of life lost. These impacts constitute ca. 80% of all health effects
attributed to air pollution in all countries of WHO European Region.
Table 4.1 Calculated PM10 concentrations in European cities with over 100 000 inhabitants by the
WHO/Worldbank global health diseases project. (WHO, 2003)
12
Europe
EECCA
EU25
EFTA
South-Eastern Europe
Annual average PM10 concentration
(ug/m3 1999)
Low (average
high
average
country)
8
99
32
8
99
32
13
55
27
21
26
24
23
75
56
Urban residents
exposed
(millions)
344
114
170
4.6
49
Health impact
yearly deaths
(thousands)
104
For a long time human exposure to ground-level ozone has been found to impair human health and a range
of morbidity endpoints have been associated with increased exposure to ozone. In 2003, WHO’s systematic
review of health aspects of air quality in Europe confirmed the health relevance of exposure to ozone. The
review found that recent epidemiological studies have strengthened the evidence that effects of ozone
observed in short-term studies on pulmonary function, lung inflammation, respiratory symptoms, morbidity
and mortality are independent of those from other pollutants, in particular in the summer season. It is also
stated that controlled human exposure studies confirmed the potential of ozone to cause adverse effects.
Excessive concentrations of ozone are thought to hasten the deaths of up to 20 000 people in the EU each
year (Figure 4.1). Further, ozone is responsible for people vulnerable to its effects e.g. taking medication for
respiratory conditions for a total of 30 million person-days a year. Some studies also suggest that long-term
exposure to ozone reduces lung function growth in children.
Figure 4.1: Estimates of premature
mortality attributable to ozone for the CAFE
baseline scenario (cases of premature
deaths). These calculations are based on
regional scale ozone calculations (50*50
km) and average over the meteorological
conditions of four years (1997, 1999, 2000,
2003). (Amann, et al., 2005)
More precise estimates of health impacts for
each of the EECCA countries, as well as
their predicted changes due to the planned
emission reductions are at present not
available. Such estimates, prepared by the
Centre for the Integrated Assessment Modelling (CIAM), have been used for definition of CAFE strategy of
EU countries. However, the data necessary for modelling of population exposure to fine particulate matter
are not available, or are not precise enough. Rough estimates, covering also the western part of EECCA can
be seen on the maps produced by CIAM (Amann, M. et al., 2004)
Effects of air pollution on health based on measured data can currently not be quantified in EECCA partly
because of the lack of monitoring data, e.g. for PM10 and PM2.5. There are some indications that respiratory
disease occurs in cities such as Kiev at twice the rate found in other monitored cities. The link with air
pollution, however, can only be assumed, not demonstrated. Tbilisi reports increased illness as the major
impact of air pollution.
Acidification and eutrophication
Emissions of SO2, NOx and NH3 contribute to the acidification and eutrophication of lakes, rivers, forests
and other ecosystems, including Natura 2000 sites. Acidification can result in the loss of fauna and flora,
and ecosystems may take many decades to recover after acidifying inputs are reduced to sustainable levels.
Sulphur deposition as the main acidifying factor has fallen significantly over the past 20 years and large
areas are now expected to be protected from further acidification. However in 2000, acidifying deposition
was still above critical loads in parts of central and north-west Europe. The percentage of EU-25 forest
13
areas receiving acid deposition above their critical load is projected to decrease from 23% in 2000 to 13%
in 2020 (Figure 5.2). For those areas still at risk, ammonia is projected to be the dominant source of
acidification in the future.
Eutrophication can occur when nutrient nitrogen is deposited. Excess nitrogen deposition poses a threat to a
wide range of ecosystems endangering bio-diversity through changes in plant communities. Excess nitrogen
deposition above critical loads is currently widespread, due to the limited reductions in nitrogen deposition
over the past 10 years. For the period 2000-2020, the protection of ecosystems from eutrophication is
expected to improve only slightly (Figure 5.3) mainly because of the relatively small decline in ammonia
emissions.
Exceedances of critical loads for acidification and eutrophication in EECCA countries are usually low, due
to the low sensitivity of the soils (CCE, 1999), with the exception of North-West Russia where critical loads
are exceeded on a regular basis.
Impact of ground level ozone on vegetation
Ground level ozone can also damage forests, crops and vegetation where a critical level of ambient
concentration is exceeded. Ozone exposure of ecosystems and agricultural crops results in visible foliar
injury and in the reduction in crop yield and seed production. For vegetation under European conditions, a
long term cumulative exposure during the growing season AOT40 (accumulated ozone over a threshold of
40 ppb) is of concern rather than an episodic exposure. Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.2 show that for substantial
fraction of the agricultural area in EEA-32 countries (in 2004, about 26% of a total area of 2.06 million
km2) the target value is exceeded.
ozone exposure of agricultural crops in EEA32
fraction of total arable land (%)
100
75
no info
> 18 mg/m3.h
12-18 mg/m3.h
50
6-12 mg/m3.h
0-6 mg/m3.h
25
0
1996 1998 2000 2002 2003 2004
year
Figure 4.2 Spatial distribution of ozone ecosystem exposure in terms of AOT40, 2004 (left) and evolution
ecosystems exposure to ozone relative to target levels in recent years(right)(EEA, 2007)
5. Prospects
EU’s Sixth Environmental Action Programme establishes the objective of achieving levels of air quality
that do not give rise to significant negative impacts on and risks to human health and the environment. For
ecosystems this includes the requirement that critical loads and levels shall not be exceeded.
The 6EAP calls on the Commission to develop seven thematic strategies, including one on air pollution. To
inform and assist the development of the thematic strategy on air pollution towards the long-term objectives
of the 6EA has been one of the main tasks of CAFE programme.
Thematic Strategy on Air Pollution
Following the CAFE analysis of the various scenarios, the Commission adopted in September 2005 its
Thematic Strategy on Air Pollution (EC, 2005a). By establishing interim environmental objectives for 2020
in the strategy, the Commission sets the level of ambition regarding air quality in the EU up to 2020.
Results of the CAFE analysis are summarised in Table 5.1, which also shows the estimated costs and
benefits of the strategy.
14
(EC, 2005b)
Benefits
Natural environment ( 000 km2) ▪
Table 5.1. Summary table of the CAFE analysis and the strategy5
Human health
Level of
ambition
2000
Baseline
20206
Strategy 2020
MTFR 2020
Cost of
reduction
Monetised
health
benefits
(Euro bn)
Life years lost
due to fine
particles
(PM2.5)
(million)
Premature
deaths due to
fine particles
and O3
Acidification
(forested
area
exceeded)
Eutrophication
(ecosystem
area
exceeded)
Ozone
(forest area
exceeded)
-
3.62
370 000
243
733
827
-
2.47
293 000
119
590
764
-
42-135
56-181
1.91
1.72
230 000
208 000
63
36
416
193
699
381
7.1
39.7
(Euro bn)
The specific air quality policies of the CAFE Strategy will significantly improve air quality and reduce the
impacts both for human health and ecosystems. Projected effects are the largest for the air pollution
problem which may be considered as the most crucial one: loss of life expectancy because of PM exposure
(Figure 5.1). They are smaller, but still very significant for three other impact indicators: forest damage due
to exceedance of critical loads for acidification (Figure 5.2), damage due to excess nitrogen deposition
(Figure 5.3), and premature death due to ozone exposure. While, compared to a baseline situation of 2000,
there will be a reduction of around 44% in the area of ecosystems receiving excess acid deposition the
current data suggests only a 14% reduction in areas affected by eutrophication due to only modest
reductions in ammonia emissions.
As regards specific legislative proposals, the strategy is accompanied by a proposal to merge the air quality
framework directive and three daughter directives containing minimum requirements for air quality. It
introduces new provisions for fine particles (PM2.5). The Commission is reviewing the national emission
ceilings (NEC) directive, and will propose revised emission ceilings based on the level of ambition set out
in the strategy.
The expected economic growth in the EECCA region will not immediately bring in new technology for
industrial sources. Growth in transport and a greater proportion of new vehicles can be expected, but
improvements in air quality will take many years. In some countries, serious economic problems will
preclude strong abatement measures. Emissions can therefore be expected to rise, with consequent effects
on air quality. Emissions of PM in central Asia are expected to increase with growing energy use as control
measures for low-quality coal burning or road transport are not expected to reduce emissions sufficiently.
5
Costs and benefits are given as annual amounts for the year 2020 and only costs and benefits of moving beyond
baseline are included. Benefits to the natural environment and the cultural heritage have not monetised. MTFR is the
Maximum Feasible Technical Reduction and includes the application of all possible technical abatement measures
irrespective of cost.
6
CAFE baseline (also Current Legislation (CLE)) is the expected evolution in EU-25 pollutant emissions up to 2020
assuming that current legislation to reduce air pollution is implemented. The baseline is based upon forecasts of
economic growth and changes in energy production, transport and other polluting activities.
15
Figure 5.1. Loss in statistical life expectancy that can be attributed to anthropogenic contributions to
PM2.5 (months) for the emission levels in the year 2000 (left), and for two projected emission levels for
2020: CLE (centre) and MTFR (right).
Figure 5.2. Percentage of forest area receiving acid deposition above the critical loads for acidification for
the emission levels in the year 2000 (left), and for two projected emission levels for 2020, CLE (centre), and
MTFR (right).
Figure 5.3. Percentage of total ecosystems receiving nitrogen deposition above the critical loads for
eutrophication. For the emission levels in the year 2000 (left), and for two projected emission levels for
2020: CLE (centre) and MTFR (right). EC, 2005b)
Challenges of the Convention
Future progress in air quality protection in EECCA and UNECE region in general could be connected with
envisaged challenges of the Convention for the future. These are predominately focussed to particulate
matter pollution and air pollution and climate change issues and linkages (ECE, 2004).
16
To include particulate matter in any future air pollution strategies of the Convention requires to set not only
an emission ceiling for anthropogenic emissions of PM10 and/or PM2.5 but also to further lower the
existing emissions ceilings for their precursors.
Air pollution and anthropogenic climate change (i.e. global warming) are closely connected in a number of
ways. Both are caused to a large extent by the burning of fossil fuels; sulphur and nitrogen oxides (NOx)
cause air pollution, carbon dioxide (CO2) contributes to global warming. In addition, agriculture influences
both acidification and eutrophication (through NOx and ammonia emissions) and climate change (through
emissions of methane (CH4), nitrous oxide and CO2). Air pollutants such as NOx, VOC and CH4
(precursors of ozone) and aerosols/fine particulates not only affect air quality but also contribute to global
warming.
For acidification and air quality, the issue of integration is likely be addressed by the Convention in its
review and possible revision of the Gothenburg Protocol and by the CAFE programme for possible
amendments to the air quality daughter directives and the NEC Directive.
Positive side-effect of climate change policies on air quality
A recent study by EEA (EEA, 2006) showed that EU efforts to meet its long-term EU climate change objectives could make a
substantial contribution to reduce air pollution. In particular, benefits of climate change policies would lie in:

A reduction of costs of controlling air pollutant emissions (about €10 billion per year); Reducing greenhouse gas emissions, by
burning smaller amounts of fossil fuels, will mean less air pollution. As a result the cost of tackling air pollution will be cut
significantly.

A fall in damage to public health (more than 20 000 fewer premature death per year) and ecosystems. The reduction of
greenhouse gases introduced by climate change policies would lead to a fall in air pollutants from fossil fuel combustion (most
notably oxides of nitrogen, sulphur dioxide, and particles, see textbox figure), and their associated health effects. Although in
one case the increased use of biomass showed an increase in PM emissions.
50%
Benefits of Climate Policy in NWE countries:
lower CO2 emissions leed to PM2,5 reduction in
2030.
50%
Benefits of Climate Policy in NWE countries:
lower CO2 emissions leed to SO2 reduction in 2030.
(Baseline compared with Climate Action Scenario)
(Baseline compared with Climate Action Scenario)
40%
Reduction of SO2
Reduction of PM2.5
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
R=0.46
Y= 0.55X 0.03
-10%
30%
20%
10%
0%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
R=0.50
Y= 0.60X + 0.06
-10%
Reduction of CO2
Reduction of CO2
Such benefits are expected to be more significant in 2030 than in 2020 since a longer period of time will be necessary for
implementing measures and for changes to occur in the energy system. Nevertheless, climate change policies will reduce the overall
cost of the air pollution abatement measures needed to meet the objectives of the Thematic Strategy on Air Pollution by 2020.
However, the report also states that in order to meet the EU long-term objectives for air pollution, significant greater efforts will still
be necessary in the form of further targeted air pollution abatement measures. For example, reductions in emissions from non landbased sources, especially shipping, would be necessary to reduce health effects to targeted levels.
Source: EEA, 2006c
17
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from a WHO consultative meeting. Moscow, Russian Federation, WHO 2005
Health risks of particulate matter from long -range transboundary air pollution. World Health
Organization 2006 (http://www.euro.who.int/document/E88189.pdf)
19
Annex 1
Status of ratification of the Convention’s Protocols in AC, EECCA, EFTA, EU and West Balkan
countries
West Balkan
EU
EFTA
EECCA
AC
Convention
Bulgaria
Cyprus
Romania
Turkey
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Georgia
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Republic of Moldova
Russian Federation
Ukraine
Iceland
Liechtenstein
Norway
Switzerland
Austria
Belgium
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
European Community
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom
Albania
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Croatia
Serbia and Montenegro
FYR of Macedonia
1981
1991
1991
1983
1997
2002
1980
1999
2001
2000
1995
1980
1980
1983
1983
1981
1983
1982
1982
1993
1982
2000
1982
1981
1981
1982
1983
1980
1982
1982
1994
1994
1982
199:7
1982
1985
1980
1993
1992
1982
1981
1982
2005
1992
1992
2001
1997
1988
Nitrogen
Oxides
1989
2004
1984
EMEP
1985
Sulphur
1986
1991
2003
1985
1986
1985
1986
1989
1985
1985
1986
1986
1989
1989
1985
1985
1985
1987
1987
1993
1986
2001
1986
1986
1987
1986
1988
1985
1987
1989
1997
2003
1987
1997
1985
1988
1989
1993
1992
1987
1985
1985
1986
1986
1987
1987
1989
1993
1986
2000
1990
1994
1989
1990
1990
2000
1993
1993
2000
1993
1990
1989
1990
1998
1991
1994
1992
1987
2006
1990
1986
1986
1987
1986
1986
1989
s
1993
1993
2006
1990
1990
1990
1986
1992
1992
2001
1991
VOC
1994
Sulphur
1998
2005
2006
s
1994
1993
1994
1994
2000
1997
1996
2000
s
1994
1997
1994
s
1995
2003
s
2002
2002
s
s
s
2003
1999
2000
2003
2005
2002
2001
2006
2001
2000
2002
2003
s
2005
s
s
2004
2004
2000
s
2003
2003
1999
2000
2002
2006
2002
2001
2005
2004
2002
2003
2002
2004
s
s
2004
2006
2000
2003
2003
s
2004
s
s
s
s
2004
2004
2001
1998
1998
1997
1995
1996
2000
s
s
2002
2004
s
2000
2005
2000
s
s
2002
2005
s
2000
2005
2004
s
2005
2005
2004
2005
2002
2005
1999
s
s
s
s
s
1997
1995
1998
1998
2000
1997
1997
1993
1996
1993
1995
s
s: Protocol signed
Note: In text the multi-effect protocol is referred as the Gothenburg protocol
20
2001
2004
2003
1999
Multi
effect
2005
s
1995
1994
1993
1994
1998
POPs
s
1998
1998
1997
1998
1998
2002
1998
1998
s
1999
1998
Heavy
Metals
2003
2004
2003
s
2002
2005
s
s
2004
2002
linked with
emission of
NOx and
SO2 on a
plant by
plant basis.
(http://www.Annex 2
acidrain.org/Maximum allowable concentrations in EECCA countries, air quality limits/targets of the European
pages/public
Union for protection of the public health and WHO air quality guideline values
ations/report
EECCA
s/APC19SE.
EU
WHO7
μg/m3
μg/m3
μg/m3
pdf) Health
20 minutes
500
5008
impacts
1-hour mean
350
Sulphur dioxide,
have been
not to be exceeded > 24 times per year
SO2
quantified
24-hour mean
509
125
20
not to be exceeded > 4 times per year
principally
20 minutes
8510
against the
1-hour mean
200
200
Nitrogen dioxide,
sulphate and
not to be exceeded > 18 times per year
NO2
24-hour mean
4011
nitrate
Annual mean
40
40
aerosols –
Hourly
so-called
24-hour mean
50
PM10
not to be exceeded > 36 times per year
secondary
Annual mean
40
particles that
24-hour mean
PM2,5
are formed
Annual mean
2512
in the
20 minutes
500
TSP
24-hour mean
150
atmosphere
20
minutes
5000
following
Carbon
1-hour mean
30000
monoxide,
the
8-hour mean
10000
10000
CO
emissions of
24-hour mean
3000
20 minutes
160
SO2 and
1-hour mean
NOx.
Ozone,
8-hour mean
120, target value
100
Effects of
O3
not to be exceeded > 25, average over
three years
ozone
24-hour mean
30
formation
20 minutes
150013
Benzene,
linked to
24-hour mean
100
C6H6
Annual
514
NOx
20
minutes
1
emissions
24-hour mean
0.3
Lead,
are also
Pb
3-month mean
included,
Annual
0.5
0.5
24-hour mean
0.001
but these
Benzo(a)pyrene
Annual
0.001
make up a
very small
contribution
to total
damage
estimates.
Emissions
of primary
particles
from large
point
7
WHO air quality guidelines global update 2005. Report on a Working Group meeting, Bonn, Germany 18-20
sources,
October 2005
which in
8
10-minute exposure.
some cases 9 In Belarus – 200 μg/m3
10
may be
The revised MAC is 250 μg/m3 in Belarus and 200 μg/m3 in the Russian Federation
significant, 11 In Belarus – 100 μg/m3
12
were not
Concentration cap suggested by the proposed directive on ‘Ambient Air Quality and Cleaner Air
included in for Europe’
the
cleaner air for Europe
assessment. 13 In Belarus and the Russian Federation – 300 μg/m3
The SENCO14 As of 1 January 2010
database
covers 7,000
21
plant in
countries
throughout