STAWA DEPTH and BREADTH of CONTENT
Teacher Support Documents
Senior Secondary Science WACE 2015 – 2016
Human Biology: Unit 4
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Human Biology Yr 12 ATAR Unit 4
Depth & Breadth of Content
HUMAN&BIOLOGY&
ATAR!Year!12!
Unit!4!–!Human!variation!and!evolution!
Unit&description&
This%unit%explores%the%variations%in%humans%in%their%changing%environment%and%evolutionary%trends%in%hominids.%Humans%can%show%multiple%variations%
in%characteristics%due%to%the%effect%of%polygenes%or%gene%expression.%The%changing%environment%can%influence%the%survival%of%genetic%variation%through%
the%survival%of%individuals%with%favourable%traits.%Gene%pools%are%affected%by%evolutionary%mechanisms,%including%natural%selection,%migration%and%
chance%occurrences.%Population%gene%pools%vary%due%to%interaction%of%reproductive%and%genetic%processes%and%the%environment.%Over%time,%this%leads%
to%evolutionary%changes.%Gene%flow%between%populations%can%be%stopped%or%reduced%by%barriers.%Separated%gene%pools%can%undergo%changes%in%allele%
frequency,%due%to%natural%selection%and%chance%occurrences,%resulting%in%speciation%and%evolution.%Evidence%for%these%changes%comes%from%fossils%and%
comparative%anatomy%and%biochemical%studies.%A%number%of%trends%appear%in%the%evolution%of%hominids%and%these%may%be%traced%using%phylogenetic%
trees.%The%selection%pressures%on%humans%have%changed%due%to%the%control%humans%have%over%the%environment%and%survival.%
%
Unit&content&
This%unit%includes%the%knowledge,%understandings%and%skills%described%below.%This%is%the%examinable%content.%
Science&Inquiry&Skills&
1. identify,%research%and%construct%questions%for%investigation;%propose%hypotheses;%and%predict%possible%outcomes%
2. design%investigations,%including%the%procedure(s)%to%be%followed,%the%materials%required,%and%the%type%and%amount%of%primary%and/or%secondary%
data%to%be%collected;%conduct%risk%assessments;%and%consider%research%ethics,%including%animal%ethics%
3. conduct%investigations,%including&the&use&of&virtual&or&real&biotechnological&techniques&of&polymerase&chain&reaction&(PCR),&gel&electrophoresis&
for&deoxyribonucleic&acid&(DNA)sequencing,&and&techniques&for&relative&and&absolute&dating,%safely,%competently%and%methodically%for%valid%and%
reliable%collection%of%data%
4. represent%data%in%meaningful%and%useful%ways;%organise%and%analyse%data%to%identify%trends,%patterns%and%relationships;%discuss%the%ways%in%which%
measurement%error,%instrumental%accuracy,%the%nature%of%the%procedure%and%sample%size%may%influence%uncertainty%and%limitations%in%data;%and%
select,%synthesise%and%use%evidence%to%make%and%justify%conclusions%
5. interpret%a%range%of%scientific%and%media%texts,%and%evaluate%models,%processes,%claims%and%conclusions%by%considering%the%quality%of%available%
evidence;%and%use%reasoning%to%construct%scientific%arguments%
Human Biology Yr 12 ATAR Unit 4
Depth & Breadth of Content
6. select,%use%and/or%construct%appropriate%representations,%including&phylogenetic&trees,%to%communicate%conceptual%understanding,%solve%
problems%and%make%predictions%
7. communicate%to%specific%audiences,%and%for%specific%purposes,%using%appropriate%language,%nomenclature,%genres%and%modes,%including%scientific%
reports%
&
Green:%specific%content%related%to%Unit%2.%The%rest%of%the%statements%are%the%same%generic%ones%across%the%units.%
Unit&4&Summary&
Mutations&
SU%1,%3:%mutations%in%genes%and%chromosomes%are%the%ultimate%source%of%variation%
SU%2:%genotypes,%phenotypes%and%survival%rates%
Gene&pools&
SU%4,%5:%dynamics%of%gene%pools%
SU%6:%genetic%diseases%in%gene%pools%
SU%7,%8:%mechanisms%of%natural%selection%culminating%in%evolution%
Evidence&for&evolution&
SU%9:%biotechnological%evidence%
SIS%3:%use%of%DNA%technologies%
SU%10:%comparative%studies%evidence%
SU%11,%12,%13:%fossil%evidence%
SHE%1:%use%of%developments%in%biotechnology%
SIS%3:%fossil%dating%techniques%
Hominid&evolutionary&trends&
SU%14:%humans%as%primates%Y%trends%in%primate%groups%
SU%15:%evolutionary%pathways%for%hominids%
SIS%6:%phylogenetic%trees%
SU%16:%tool%use%of%hominid%species%
SHE%2:%development%in%many%fields%providing%evidence%for%evolutionary%relationships%
Human Biology Yr 12 ATAR Unit 4
Depth & Breadth of Content
Unit%Content%
Elaboration%
STAWA%HB%Yr%12%ATAR%workbook%
activities%8%unless%otherwise%stated
Mutations%
1.
2.
3.
mutations%in%genes%and%
chromosomes%can%result%
from%errors%in%DNA%
replication%or%cell%division%
or%from%damage%caused%
by%mutagens%
different%genotypes%
produce%a%variety%of%
phenotypes%which%are%
acted%on%differently%by%
factors%in%the%
environment%producing%
different%rates%of%survival%
mutations%are%the%
ultimate%source%of%
variation%introducing%new%
alleles%into%a%population:%
new%alleles%may%be%
advantageous%or%
Human Biology Yr 12 ATAR Unit 4
Activities%
•
mutations%as%a%permanent%change%to%the%sequence%of%DNA%
(genetic%code)%influence%protein%synthesis%and%cause%changes%in%
cellular%chemicals%(enzymes,%hormones)%or%structures%
•
mutagens%of%different%types%damage%the%DNA%or%affect%DNA%
replication%or%meiosis%
•
differentiate%between%gene%and%chromosome%mutations%
•
chromosome%mutations:%deletion,%inversion,%translocation,%non8
disjunction%can%result%during%the%processes%of%meiosis%
•
gene%mutations:%deletion,%substitution,%insertion%can%arise%during%
DNA%replication%
•
combinations%of%alleles%from%dominance,%co8dominance,%sex8
linkage,%multiple%alleles%and%polygenic%inheritance%of%
characteristics%produce%a%variety%of%phenotypes%
•
variation%in%genotype%may%result%in%phenotypes%which%provide%a%
survival%advantage%e.g.%sickle%cell%anaemia%trait%provides%a%
survival%advantage%to%individuals%in%malaria%affected%areas%
•
mutations%may%produce%new%alleles%which%may%be%advantageous%
or%disadvantageous%e.g.%variation%in%human%skin%pigmentation%8%
light%pigmentation%an%advantage%in%populations%living%far%from%
equator%(Vit%D)%but%a%disadvantage%to%those%living%close%to%
equator%(melanoma)%
Depth & Breadth of Content
Act%13%B:%Genetic%mutations%
%
Act%14:%Epigenetics%and%gene%
expression%
Research:%%
Apo%A81%Milano%gene%mutation,%
Limone,%Italy%8%highly%abnormal%lipid%
profile%linked%to%low%occurrence%of%
cardiovascular%disease%
Human%mutations%eg.%Angelman%
syndrome,%%
Assessment%
opportunities%
disadvantageous%to%
survival%
Gene%pools
4.
5.
6.
•
populations%can%be%
represented%as%gene%pools%
•
that%reflect%the%frequency%
of%alleles%of%a%particular%
gene;%gene%pools%can%be%
used%to%compare%
populations%at%different%
times%or%locations%
gene%pools%are%dynamic%
with%changes%in%allele%
frequency%caused%by:%
o
mutations%
o
differing%selection%
pressures%
o
random%genetic%drift%
including%the%founder%
effect%
o
changes%in%gene%flow%
between%adjoining%
groups%
the%incidence%of%genetic%
Human Biology Yr 12 ATAR Unit 4
gene%pool%as%the%sum%of%all%alleles%carried%by%members%of%a%
population%
Act%18:%Gene%Pools%%
gene%pools%may%vary%in%their%composition%at%different%times%and%
or%at%different%locations%e.g.%ABO%blood%groups%in%indigenous%
populations%
•
impact%of%mutations%on%gene%pools%is%affected%by%whether%it%is%a%
germ%line%or%somatic%mutation%
•
Founders%Effect%8%influence%of%a%small,%non8representative%gene%
pool%on%the%frequency%of%alleles%in%subsequent%generations%
compared%to%the%original%population%e.g.%Ashkenazi%Jews,%Bounty%
mutineers%
•
Random%Genetic%Drift%8%influence%of%random%events%such%mating%
choices,%survival%of%offspring%and%effects%of%environment%on%the%
population%gene%pool;%will%affect%small%populations%more%than%
large%populations%
•
effects%of%migration%on%gene%flow%between%populations%
influencing%the%proportions%of%alleles%in%each%population%
•
effects%of%geographical,%social,%cultural%barriers%to%gene%flow%
within%and%between%gene%pools%%
•
factors%leading%to%certain%undesirable%genetic%conditions%
remaining%in%particular%human%populations%(gene%pools):,%
Depth & Breadth of Content
Act%18:%Gene%Pools%
%
Act%18:%Gene%pools%
diseases%in%particular%
populations%illustrates%the%
effects%of%different%factors%
on%the%dynamics%of%gene%
pools%including%the%
incidence%of%Tay8Sachs%
disease,%thalassemia%and%
sickle8cell%anaemia%
7.
natural%selection%occurs%
when%factors%in%the%
environment%confer%a%
selective%advantage%on%
specific%phenotypes%to%
enhance%survival%and%
reproduction%
Thalassemia,%Sickle%cell%anaemia%(both%in%the%heterozygous%form%
give%some%sort%of%survival%advantage%in%areas%of%malaria)%and%
Tay8Sachs%disease%
•
natural%selection%as%a%result%of%the%struggle%for%survival%under%
particular%conditions%
•
the%concept%of%natural%is%supported%by%evidence%from%artificial%
selection%eg%breeding%of%particular%strains%or%breeds%in%
agriculture%8%cattle,%sheep,%horses%%
•
selection%works%on%phenotypes%8%explains%why%some%
disadvantageous%%recessive%alleles%still%exist%in%the%population%
Act%17:%Natural%Selection%
%
8.
•
the%mechanisms%
•
underpinning%the%theory%
of%evolution%by%natural%
selection%include%inherited% •
variation,%struggle%for%
existence,%isolation%and%
•
differential%selection%
producing%changes%to%
gene%pools%to%such%an%
extent%that%speciation%
occurs%
•
Human Biology Yr 12 ATAR Unit 4
Variation%8%from%processes%of%meiosis,%mutations%and%epigenetics%
Struggle%for%existence%8%being%able%to%survive%long%enough%to%
reproduce%passing%the%alleles%onto%the%next%generation%
Isolation%8%no%gene%flow%between%similar%gene%pools%
(populations),%due%to%geographic,%cultural,%behavioural%barriers%
Differential%selection%8%when%the%probability%of%survival%for%a%
particular%phenotype%is%greater%than%others%in%the%population%
allowing%more%of%this%phenotype%to%survive%and%reproduce,%
therefore%leaving%more%offspring%with%the%advantageous%allele%in%
the%next%generation%
When%the%gene%flow%between%similar%populations%is%restored,%
Depth & Breadth of Content
Act%18:%Gene%pools%
interbreeding%does%not%occur%thus%there%are%two%species%rather%
than%populations%
Evidence%for%evolution%
9.
•
biotechnological%
techniques%provide%
evidence%for%evolution%by%
using%Polymerase%Chain%
Reaction%to%amplify%
•
minute%samples%of%DNA%to%
testable%amounts,%
bacterial%enzymes%and%gel%
electrophoresis%to%
facilitate%DNA%sequencing%
of%genomes%
•
Processes%involved%in%polymerase%Chain%Reaction%(PCR)%%
o
denaturing,%hybridisation%and%synthesis%of%DNA%involving%the%
change%in%temperature%and%use%of%primers%and%DNA%
polymerase%
Gel%electrophoresis%for%the%purpose%of%DNA%sequencing%
o
o
o
separation%of%DNA%fragments%is%due%to%electrical%charge%and%
the%size%of%the%DNA%fragments%
DNA%fragments%are%tagged%with%fluorescent%nucleotides%for%
easy%identification%%
DNA%is%cut%into%fragments%using%restriction%enzymes%
DNA%sequencing%by%Sanger%method%and%be%aware%of%new%
technologies%to%sequence%faster%and%more%accurately%
Act%12:%PCR%
Act%10:%DNA%profiling%
Act%11:%Human%genome%project%
(DNA%sequencing)%
%
DNA%sequencing%methods%
http://biotech.about.com/od/pcr/a/s
equencing.htm%
http://seqcore.brcf.med.umich.edu/
doc/educ/dnapr/sequencing.html%%
http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Educati
on8resources/Education8and8
learning/Resources/Animation/WTX0
56051.htm%
%
SIS%3:%
conduct%investigations,%including%the%use%of%virtual%or%real%biotechnological%techniques%of%polymerase%chain%reaction%(PCR),%gel%electrophoresis%for%
deoxyribonucleic%acid%(DNA)sequencing,%safely,%competently%and%methodically%for%valid%and%reliable%collection%of%data%%
Act%12:%PCR%
Act%10:%DNA%profiling%
Act%11:%Human%genome%project%(DNA%sequencing)%
10. comparative%studies%of%
DNA%(genomic%and%
mitochondrial),%proteins%
and%anatomy%provide%
Human Biology Yr 12 ATAR Unit 4
•
Evidence%for%evolution%gained%from%comparative%studies%of%DNA,%
retroviruses%and%proteins%(including%ubiquitous%proteins)%%
•
Comparative%anatomy%such%as%embryonic%development,%
homologous%structures%and%vestigial%organs%
Depth & Breadth of Content
Act%21:%Evidence%for%Evolution%
molecular%biology%
%
Phylogenetics%and%systematics%
additional%evidence%for%
evolution;%genomic%
information%enables%the%
construction%of%
phylogenetic%trees%
showing%evolutionary%
relationships%between%
groups%
11. the%fossil%record%cannot%
•
Similarities%and%differences%in%such%evidence%suggests%
evolutionary%relatedness%
•
Phylogenetic%trees%use%bioinformatics%to%show%the%relationships%
between%groups%of%organisms%based%on%genetic%information%
•
fossilisation%requires%the%remains%of%organisms%or%their%imprints%
to%be%covered%and%remain%undisturbed%during%rock%formation%
around%them%
represent%the%entire%
biodiversity%of%a%time%or%a%
•
location;%as%many%factors%
affect%fossil%formation,%the%
persistence%of%fossils%and%
accessibility%to%fossilised%
remains%
•
requires%a%combination%of%
relative%and%absolute%
dating%techniques%to%
locate%fossils%onto%the%
Human Biology Yr 12 ATAR Unit 4
•
Act%19%A:%Fossils%formation%%
factors%affecting%fossil%formation%including%
o
o
o
type%or%organism%8%hard%parts%fossilise%between%than%soft%
body%parts%
soil%pH,%mineral%content%of%soil%
weathering%and%erosion%
limitations%in%the%current%fossil%record%%
incomplete%fossils%
o not%all%organisms%had%representatives%in%the%fossil%record%
o not%all%conditions%produce%fossils%of%organisms%remains%
o those%not%discovered%or%recognised%
Relative%dating%8%no%age%given,%only%as%comparison%to%other%fossils%
Act%19%B:%Fossil%Dating%
as%before%or%after%or%at%the%same%time%%
o
12. sequencing%a%fossil%record%
http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolib
rary/article/phylogenetics_01%
Building%a%phylogenetic%tree%
http://www.bioscience8
explained.org/ENvol6_2/pdf/fyltreee
ng.pdf%
Learning%Evolution%Using%
Phylogenetic%Analysis%
http://compbio.soe.ucsc.edu/binf8in8
AP/evolution/pdf/phylogeny_student
_worksheet.pdf%%
•
Absolute%dating%8%dates%with%accuracy%range%given%
•
Each%of%these%is%suitable%to%particular%fossil%types%
•
The%geological%timeline%%8%chronological%order%of%geological%
Depth & Breadth of Content
geological%time%line%
formations;%can%be%sectioned%into%different%time%sections%related%
to%fossil%type%present%
SHE%1:%
developments%in%biotechnology%have%increased%access%to%genetic%information%of%species,%populations%and%individuals,%existing%now%or%in%the%past,%the%
interpretation%and%use%of%which%may%be%open%to%ethical%considerations%%%
Act%11:%Human%Genome%Project%%
• Relative%dating%techniques%including%
13. both%relative%dating%
Act%19%B:%Fossil%Dating%
o stratigraphy%8%law%of%superposition;%rock%strata%correlation%
techniques%including%
o index%fossils%8%fossils%with%a%wide%distribution%and%with%a%
stratigraphy%and%index%
limited%time%span%
fossils%and%absolute%dating%
techniques%including%
• Absolute%dating%techniques:%%%
radiocarbon%dating%and%
o radiocarbon%8%relies%on%the%known%and%constant%radioactive%
potassium8argon%dating%
decay%rate%of%carbon814,%that%the%exchange%of%carbon%
have%limitations%of%
between%organisms%and%their%environment%stops%at%death,%
application%
and%the%carbon814%of%the%atmosphere%is%known%
o potassium8argon%dating%relies%on%the%known%and%constant%
breakdown%of%radioactive%potassium%to%produce%inert%argon%
gas%which%is%trapped%in%the%fossil%
•
Limitations%of%these%particular%dating%methods%delineate%the%
fossil%materials%on%which%they%can%be%used%and%the%age%of%the%
fossil%being%dated;%there%are%other%methods%that%can%be%used%to%
also%provide%corroborating%evidence%of%the%age%of%fossils%
SIS%3:%
conduct%investigations,%including%the%use%of%techniques%for%relative%and%absolute%dating,%safely,%competently%and%methodically%for%valid%and%reliable%
collection%of%data%%%%
Act%21:%Evidence%for%Evolution%molecular%biology%
Act%19%B:%Fossil%dating%
Human Biology Yr 12 ATAR Unit 4
Depth & Breadth of Content
Hominid%evolutionary%trends
14. humans%as%primates%are%
classified%in%the%same%
taxonomic%family%as%the%
great%apes.%The%species%
within%the%family%are%
differentiated%by%DNA%
nucleotide%sequences%
which%brings%about%
differences%in:%
o
o
o
o
•
Classification%groups%of%hominids%(Family%level%Hominidae%8%of%
classification%including%great%apes%and%humans)%and%hominins%
(Tribe%level%Hominini%8%of%classification%includes%only%modern%and%
ancestral%humans)%
•
Features%of%Primates%
•
Trends%in%features%in%the%primate%groups%in%the%differences%listed%
•
Adaptations%to%bipedalism%and%quadrupedalism%8%differences%in%
the%skull,%spine,%pelvis,%legs%and%feet%
Act%32:%Evolutionary%trends:%
brains%and%hands%
Act%31:%Hominin%adaptations%S%
upright%stance%
Act%35:%Hominin%evolutionary%
trends%S%bipedalism%
relative%size%of%
cerebral%cortex%
mobility%of%the%digits%
locomotion%–%
adaptations%to%
bipedalism%and%
quadrupedalism%
prognathism%and%
dentition%
SIS%6:%
select,%use%and/or%construct%appropriate%representations,%including%phylogenetic%trees,%to%communicate%conceptual%understanding,%solve%problems%
and%make%predictions%%
Act%21:%Evidence%for%Evolution:%molecular%biology%
15. determining%relatedness%
and%possible%evolutionary%
pathways%for%hominins%
uses%evidence%from%
comparisons%of%modern%
Human Biology Yr 12 ATAR Unit 4
•
Features%(temporal%and%geographical%distribution,%cranial%
capacity,%jaw/skull%features,%post%cranial%skeleton,)%of%the%
following%species%and%compare%with%modern%humans%and%great%
apes%
•
Possible%evolutionary%pathways%showing%the%location%and%time%
Depth & Breadth of Content
Act%31:%Hominin%adaptations%S%
upright%stance%
Act%32:%Hominin%evolutionary%
trends%S%brain%and%hands%
humans%and%the%great%
apes%with%fossils%of:%
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
span%in%the%sequence%of%different%fossil%hominin%groups%
%
Australopithecus2
afarensis2
Australopithecus2
africanus2
Paranthropus2
robustus2
Homo2habilis2
Homo2erectus2
Homo2
neanderthalensis2
Homo2sapiens%
Human Biology Yr 12 ATAR Unit 4
Act%33:%Hominin%evolutionary%
trends%S%measuring%skulls%
Act%34:%Hominin%evolutionary%
trends%S%Hominin%and%Pongid%
skulls%
%
Human%family%tree%
http://humanorigins.si.edu/evide
nce/human8family8tree%
The%emergence%of%humans%
http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evo
library/article/evograms_07%
Depth & Breadth of Content
16. tool%use%is%seen%in%a%
•
number%of%hominin%
species%and%the%study%of%
•
these%tools%provides%
important%insight%into%the%
evolution%of%the%human%
cognitive%abilities%and%
•
lifestyles:%trends%are%seen%
in%the%changes%in%
manufacturing%techniques%
and%the%materials%used%in%
the%tool%cultures%of:%
o
o
o
o
Tools%culture%are%identified%by%materials%used%in%manufacture,%
the%specificity%of%tools%and%complexity%of%tool%making%techniques%
for%each%of%these%Homo%species%
Cultural%advances%included%the%use%of%fire,%art%and%spirituality,%
burial%practices,%hunter8gatherer%lifestyle,%agricultural%lifestyle%
and%domestication%of%animals%
Each%Homo%group%is%associated%with%a%culture:%
o
o
o
o
Oldowan%8%Homo2habilis2
Acheulean%8%Homo2erectus2
Mousterian%8%Homo2neanderthalensis2
Aurignacian,%Solutrean,%Magdalenian%8%Homo2sapiens2
Early%human%culture%
http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo/ho
mo_4.htm%
What%does%it%mean%to%be%human?%
http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence
/behavior/tools%%
Time%line%of%human%ancestry,%
evolution%and%cultural%events%
http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence
/behavior/tools%
Human%biological%and%cultural%
evolution%
http://www.slideshare.net/PaulVMc
Dowell/human8biological8and8
cultural8evolution%%
Homo2habilis2
Homo2erectus2
Homo2
neanderthalensis2
Homo2sapiens%
SHE%2:%
developments%in%the%fields%of%comparative%genomics,%comparative%biochemistry%and%bioinformatics%have%enabled%identification%of%further%evidence%for%
evolutionary%relationships%which%help%refine%existing%models%and%theories%
%
Human Biology Yr 12 ATAR Unit 4
Depth & Breadth of Content