611
Satellite Derivation of Ocean-Atmosphere Heat Fluxes
in a Tropical Environment
M. NUNEZ and K. MICHAEL
Department ofGeography and Environmental Studies,
University of Tasmania,
Hobart, Tasmania - Australia
ABSTRACT
Satellite estimates of ocean/atmosphere heat f1uxes were compared with surface measurements taken at
John Brewer Reef (18°38'5, 147°E) located80 km NNE of Townsville, Australia. For a 45 weekperiodall the
components of the surface heat f1uxes : net radiation, sensible and latent heat fluxes, were estimated from
surface observations and averaged on a weekly basis.Concurrent satellite observations in the vicinity of John
Brewer Reef consisted of GMS visible reflectance data, NOAA-9 soundings of temperature and humidity, and
sea surface temperatures derived from a blend of ship observations and NOAA-9 data. Wind estimates were
derived from the Darwin Tropical Analysis. All satellite data were testedfor their ability to reproduce surface
heatfluxes,
The rms differences (measured versus modeled) between the weeldy averaged values of net radiation, the
turbulent heat flux (sensible plus latent) and the total ocean/atmosphere heat flux were 16 Wm-2, 45 Wm-2
and 48 Wm-2 respectively. Averaged over the 45 week period, a mean difference of 9 Wm-2
(measured-modeled) was obtained for the totalocean-atmosphere heatexchange.
1. Introduction
Large scale studies of ocean/atmosphere heat fluxes are traditionally based upon marine
weather reports. However these data sets are scarce in many ocean areas not covered by
shipping routes. The reliability of monthly mean fluxes has been questioned in these areas,
as biases may result from the inclusion of temporally and/or spatially sparse data (Ramage,
1984; Sarachik, 1984).
It is within this framework that satellite data offer distinct advantages. Geostationary and
polar-orbiting satellites cover large areas of the globe at regular intervals, providing
information on the state of the atmosphere and ocean. In this study we assess the
applicability of satellite data to provide estimates of ocean/atmosphere heat fluxes at a
location in the tropical western Pacific ocean. The emphasis has been placed on long term
high quality surface measurements as opposed to short term ship estimates from a variety of
geographic locations.
The total ocean/atmosphere heat flux (QA) may be partitioned into its component fluxes
consisting in net radiation (Q.) and sensible (QH) and latent (QE) heat fluxes :
(1)
In turn the net radiation can be written in terms of the incoming (Ko) and reflected (Ku)
solar radiations fluxes and the incoming (Lo) and emitted plus reflected longwave radiation
fluxes (Lu) :
(2)
612
In this study all the terms in equations (l) and (2) with exception of Ku were obtained
from direct surface measurements. Similarly satellite data, or satellite related data, were
used to estimate all the component fluxes in the above equations.
2. Data acquisition
The measurement period encompassed the dates 1 June 1985 to 1 April 1986 (Figure 1).
Measurements were taken from a wooden floating pontoon, anchored to the reef bottom
(-7m depth). A tower was constructed on the pontoon and all atmospheric sensors were
located free from obstructions and 4.5 m above the platform and 5.5 m above the water. A
Campbell CR21X micrologger was used to record all data at a frequency of 0.5 seconds.
Table 1 provides details on all the meteorological variables that were measured.
-,
"\ \
\
CORAL
\
SEA
\
\
)
I
\
200 KM
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
-,
-,
-,
-....
'\
\.
.......... <,
..'"...
\
\
JOHN BREWER REEF
o
(18.83 0 S. 141.08 0 El
\
<,
...... _ /
I
FIG.I. Location of the study
region showing the area of GMS
coverage and the location of
John BrewerReef.
)
I
'--
-
-
200 IIETRE DEPTH CONTOUR
____ AREA COVERED BY SA TELL/TE DA TA
o,
50
, KM
During the course of the measurement period, there were no weeks with predominantly
westerly of southerly winds which would have indicated the presence of air masses of
613
continental origin. The reef coral was only partially exposed «10 percent) at extremely low
tides which occurred infrequently. Measurements of surface water temperature with an
infrared radiometer (1. Hacker, Flinders University of South Australia, pers. comm.) have
shown the lagoon to be occasionally 0.1 to O.3°C warmer than surrounding waters.
TABLE 1
Instruments used to measure ocean-atmosphere heat fluxes at John Brewer
Reef: 1 June 1985 - 1 April 1986
Instrument
Measured Meteorological
Variable
Kipp & Zonen pyranometer
Eppley precision pyrgeometer
copper/constantan thermocouples
copper/constantan thermocouples
Vaisala humidy sensor
Met One (3 cup) anemometer and
locally built (4 cup) anemometer
(a) incoming solar radiation
(b) incoming longwave radiation
(c) air temperature
(d) sea surface temperature
(e) relative humidity
225
107
225
173
225
(0 wind speed
225
Calculated Fluxes
Relevant Meteorological
Variable(s)
Days Available
incoming global radiation
outgoing global radiation
incoming longwave radiation
outgoing longwave radiation
latent heat
sensible heat
(a)
(a)
(b)
(d)
225
225
107
107
173
173
(c),(d),(e),(O
(c),(d),(e),(O
Days Available
Table 2 provides details on satellite and related data that were used to derive the surface
heat fluxes. A continuous data set with no missing values would imply a total of 315 days
with GMS and NOAA/fOVS and NOANA VHRR data. This was not achieved.
Data for the GMS pixel closest to John Brewer Reef was manually retrieved on a daily
basis. NOAA/fOVS data containing three levels of precipitable water vapor and 15 levels
of air temperature, was obtained from NOAA-NESDIS (Washington, DC) as a TOVS
sounding data product. These data were retrieved in a box of 4° x 4° square with John
Brewer Reef being located in the southwest corner. On each day all soundings in the square
were averaged, with larger weighting applied to those soundings closest to John Brewer
Reef.
Sea surface temperatures were extracted from a monthly averaged data set consisting of a
blend of ship reports and NOAA-9 multi-channel sea surface temperatures (Reynolds,
1988). An average monthly sea surface temperature was estimated for the study area as a
weighted average of the three closest grid points, which were spaced at two degree
intervals. These monthly values were temporarily interpolated to provide mean weekly sea
surface temperatures. No satellite-derived estimates of near-surface wind were available. In
the absence of this important parameter, data from the Darwin Tropical Wind Analysis
were substituted. Values from the grid point at 17.5°S, 147.5°E were averaged to estimate
at mean weekly wind speed for the study area.
614
TABLE 2
Satellite and ancillary data used to estimate ocean-atmosphere heat fluxes
near John Brewer Reef: 1 June 1985 - 1 April 1986
Data Type
Frequency
Spatial
Resolution
Days with at least
one observation
Related
Heat Fluxe(es)
GMS visible
3 times daily 2.5 x 3km
303
Ko,Ku,L o
NOAN
2 times daily 300 x 300 km
209
Lo,QE,QH
TOVS
NOAN
monthly
0
0
1 x1
interpolated
weekly
AVHRRplus
ship SSTs
0
Lu
0
Darwin
2 times daily 2.5 x 2.5
315
QE,QH
Tropical wind
Analysis
...•.•••.•.•.................•••••.•••..••..•.....••.....••....................•.••..•..•.••••..•....•...•••.•.•..•.
3. Analysis
The following relationships were derived to estimate surface heat fluxes from satellite
data.
a. Incoming Global Radiation
A relationship was defined between the daily transmissivity of global radiation (t) and
the satellite-determined earth-atmosphere reflectivity (aEA) . When applied to half the data
set the following relationship was obtained :
t = KIfKo=O.773-1.037 aEA ;
-y2 = 0.89 ; S.E. = 0.052
(3)
where Ko is the extra terrestrial global radiation, a function of latitude and time of year.
When tested on the remainder of the data, this relation could estimate Ko on a daily basis
with a mean difference of -2 Wm-2 (measured-predicted) and a rms difference of 28 Wm-2.
This rms difference represents an error of 11 percent in the mean measured value of 246
Wm-2.
b. ReflectedSolar radiation
The upwelling solar radiation from the water surface (Ku) can be written as :
Ku=awKo
(4)
Due to measurement problems and the relative insensitivity of this term (Nunez et al.,
1972), the albedo term aw was determined from the tables of Payne (1972) corresponding
to a latitude of 20 0S. The resulting aw daily values were 0.07 for May through August and
0.06 for all other months.
c. Incoming Longwave Radiation
The LOWTRAN 6 model for atmospheric transmittance and radiance (Kneizys et al.,
1983) was applied on the daily TOVS data for the estimation of L o.
615
Reconstruction of the temperature and humidity profiles from TOVS data was based
upon the technique of Darnell et al. (1983), modified to include a well mixed planetary
boundary layer capped by an inversion. It is physically reasonable to treat the atmospheric
structure in this fashion since the area is subjected to winds with large oceanic fetches for
most of the study period. No distinction was drawn between winds of northerly and winds
of south-easterly origin. Below the inversion the atmospheric features constant potential
temperature and specific humidity, except in the surface boundary layer where the air
temperature and specific humidity, change to take the characteristics of the ocean surface.
Further details are provided in Michael and Nunez (1989).
The LOWTRAN 6 model solves for L o for totally cloudy (Loc) and cloudless (Loo)
conditions..The actuallongwave radiation can then be given as :
L o = (1-C) Loo+CLoc
(5)
Values of C were derived using GMS visible data and tables presented by Taylor and
Stowe (1984) on low level and middle level cloud albedo. Denoting aL as the minimum
satellite reflectivity for the month, and aH as the threshold reflectance value for totally
overcast conditions, the following relations is obtained :
o
aEA<aL
C =(aEA - aJ/(aH -aJ aL<aEA<aH
1
aH<aEA
(6)
Cloud heights were derived from the TOVS cloud top pressure, and assigned fixed
pressures of 850 hPa and 750 hPa for low and middle clouds respectively. No TOVS cloud
top pressures were consistent with the presence of clouds.
Pyrgeometer measurements were available during the summer and autumn period for a
total of 125 days. Of these, there were 107 days with concurrent pyrgeometer and GMS
data, and 57 days with additional TOVS data. For this 57 days period, the mean difference
produced by the model just described is 5 Wm-2 (the model under-predicts) and the rms
difference in the daily estimates ofLo is 14 Wm- 2•
d. Outgoing Longwave Radiation
This term is mainly dependent on the satellite derived sea surface temperature. Best
agreement with surface measurements were obtained from the Reynolds blended
shipboardINOAA AVHRR data set (Reynolds, 1988). The outgoing longwave radiation can
be written as :
(7)
e
where Ts is the surface temperature, is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and e is the surface
emissivity which was taken as 0.97 (Davies et al., 1971).
e. Turbulent Fluxes
Both surface estimates and the satellite technique use the bulk aerodynamic formulae,
with stability-dependent bulk transfer coefficients as described by Large and Pond (1982) :
(8)
where p is the air density, L is the latent heat of vaporization of water, C p is the specific
heat of air at constant pressure, CE and CHare the bulk transfer coefficients for sensible and
latent heat flux respectively, q and T are the specific humidity and temperature at the water
616
surface (subscript "s") and 10 meter height (subscript "a") and U, is the wind speed at 10
meters.
Using the satellite technique Qs can be readily derived from the surface temperature, and
Ua is given by the Darwin Tropical Wind Analysis. The problems is to derive qa in terms of
the precipitable water vapor as obtained from TOVS. Various relationships were tested,
including that described in Liu (1986) for 40 stations in the mid-latitude and tropics. Also
tested was a simple linear relationship between W (precipitable water vapor) and qafor John
Brewer Breef. The best relationship was obtained by a plot of Qa versus l!i. q where l!i.q ='Is
-qa is treated as a dependent variable
l!i. q = 0.012 - 0.OOOI8Wo;
r2
=0.27;
S.E.
=0.002
(9)
This relationship is statistically significant at the 1 percent level. Equations 8 and 9 were
applied for the 26 weeks in which QE values were available from measurements at John
Brewer Reef. The rms weekly difference is 40 Wm-2, which is considerably lower than the
value using the Liu (1988) technique (104 Wm-2) and the W versus qa linear regression (69
Wm-2) .
The lack of success of the polynomial regressions technique of Liu is probably a result of
fundamental differences between W supplied by NOAA-9rrOVS and by
Nimbus-7/SMMR. To ensure compatibility with radiosonde data, Liu (1988) describes how
empirical correction formulae for SMMR W data were determined for monthly or yearly
intervals. The TOVS data underwent no similar treatment so that it is possible that they
were not representative of the field of W which would have resulted from a network of
radiosondes in the study region. However comparison of our TOVS data with radiosonde
data from Willis Island (16 08'S; 149°59'E) gave good results. Nevertheless there is need to
subject the TOVS data to the same spatial and temporal scales as that applied by Liu to the
Nimbus-7 SMMR data. It is likely that a similar relationship will be derived.
The sensible heat flux is a small term in the marine environment. The satellite technique
cannot be applied in equation 8 since near surface air temperatures are not available from
satellite data. Instead the Bowen ratio technique, which is deemed to be a function of
surface temperature (Priest! and Taylor, 1972; Hicks and Hess, 1977) was used. The Bowen
ratio can be described as :
(10)
~ =0.79 (<;/Ls) - 0.21
where S is the slope of the saturation specific humidity/temperature curve. The temperature
dependence of ~ comes mainly through S. The sensible heat QH can be given as
(11)
For each week, the blended sea surface temperature was used to determine the ratio
~s. ~ was obtained from equation 10 and applied in equation 11 to determine QH'
Few QH values exceed 10 Wm-2 in magnitude. The mean difference between surface
measurements and the predictions was -1.6 Wm-2, and the rms difference was 8.5 Wm-2, of
the same magnitude as the average weekly sensible heat flux. At this time scale QH are not
meaningful, although they are useful in providing an estimate of the correct order of
magnitude for the heat balance.
f. Time Series ofWeekly Heat Fluxes
Figure 2 shows how the weekly satellite estimates of the turbulent heat fluxes compare
with surface measurements. In deriving the net solar radiation flux, equations 3 and 4 were
applied to the entire data set. As may be noticed, both measurements and models agree
closely in the overall seasonal trend. The net longwave radiation flux is a conservative
quantity which does not show a seasonal trend.
617
~
.;;
,;
100+-_ _l.--_---l.._ _---.L..._ _....I...-_ _l.--_---L._ _---'-_ _....l..-_---T
Cl
<
-"
+-_ _l.--_---'-_ _- - - . L . . . - - . . . . I . . . - - - l . - - - - - - L . - - - - - ' - - - . . . . l . . - - - - - T -100
~
'"
?1
g
c,
::;e.
:!l
,=.
o
.$0
.:1.$0
·lOO
.]$0
+-----,r-----r----r----.------,.------,-----r----.----+:DO
-100
1t,.
·I~
o
10
:D
2S
Week
FIG.2. Weekly time series of net solar radiation flux (K*), netlongwave radiation flux (L*), total turbulent
heat flux (Qt) and the total ocean-atmosphere heat flux (Qa)' Surface measurements are represented by open
squares, and the sateUite-derived estimates are drawn as filled squares. Negative heat fluxes imply a heat loss
by the ocean. All units are Wm-2.
The form of the variations in outgoing turbulent flux <Or) indicate that wind speed is the
dominant influence. In winter (June-August) the south-easterly trade winds are strong and
the latent heat flux often exceeds 200 Wm-2 in magnitude. In summer the northerly winds
are moister and lighter; the magnitude of QE drops. In March as the winds strengthen, the
correspondence between the surface and satellite-bases fluxes is limited, a consequence of
the difficulty in reproducing the 10 meter specific humidity.
618
The total ocean/atmosphere heat flux is dominated by the energy gain by solar radiation
and loss by latent heat flux. In winter QE is large and Q* is low so that the ocean is loosing
energy. By mid-August the ocean starts gaining energy. This pattern persists until
mid-December when a maximum heat gain of 180 Wm-2 is reported.
4. Conclusion
In summary, the rms differences (measured versus modeled) between the weekly
averaged values of net radiation, the latent heat flux and sensible heat flux were 16, 40 and
21 Wm-2 respectively. Combining all these terms, and assuming independence of errors, a
rms difference of approximately 48 Wm-2 was obtained in the weekly estimate of the total
ocean-atmosphere heat flux.
This paper demonstrates that is is feasible to estimate weekly ocean-atmosphere heat
fluxes at a point in the ocean based on satellite-derived quantities. Shorter time scales were
inaccessible, due to limitations imposed by the sea surface temperature and atmospheric
sounding data.
We conclude by advising of the need to test these empirical relationships in other
environments and synoptic situations. A general satellite-based method, well calibrated in a
number of locations would be a practical and powerful analysis tool.
Acknowledgments. The authors wish to thank Gary Meyers of the CSIRO Division of
Oceanography for advice, and Doug Tarca who allowed the establishment of the
meteorological station at John Brewer Reef. Support and assistance provided by the
Geography Department, James Cook University, and the crew of the Reef-Link is gratefully
acknowledged. This work was funded by a CSIROlUniversity of Tasmania cooperative
research grant.
REFERENCES
Darnell, W.L., S. K. Gupta and W.E Staylor, 1983: Downward longwave radiation at the
surface from satellite measurements. J. CUm. Appl. Meteorol., 22, 1956-1960.
Davies, J.A., P.J. Robinson and M. Nunez, 1971: field determinations of surface emissivity
and temperature for Lake Ontario. J. Appl. Meteorol., 10, 811-819.
Hicks, B.B. and G.D., Hess, 1977: On the Bowen ratio and temperature at sea. J. Phys.
Ocean., 7, 141-145.
Kneizys, EX., J. H. Chetwynd Jnr., S.A. Clough, E.P. Shettle, L.W. Abreu, R.W. Fenn,
W.O. Gallery and J.E.A. Selby, 1983: Atmospheric TransmittanceIRadiance :
Computer Code LOWTRAN 6, Rep. No. AFGL-TR-83-0187, p. 200, Air Force
Geophysics Laboratory, Hanscom AFB, Massachusetts, USA.
Large, W.G. and S. Pond, 1982: Sensible and latent heat flux measurements over the ocean.
J. Phys. Oceanogr., 12,464-482.
Liu, W.T., 1988: Moisture and latent heat flux variabilities in the tropical Pacific derived
from satellite data. J. Geophys. Res., (Oceans) 93, 6749-6760.
Michael, K. and M. Nunez, 1989: Satellite derivation of ocean-atmosphere heat fluxes in a
tropical environment. Submitted to J. Geophys. Res., (Oceans).
Nunez, M., J.A. Davies, and P.J., Robinson, 1972: Surface albedo at a tower site in Lake
Ontario. Boundary-Layer Meteorol., 3, 77-86.
Payne, R.E., 1972: Albedo of the sea surface. J. Atmos. Sci., 29,959-970.
Priestley, C.H.B. and R.J. Taylor, 1972: On the assessment of surface heat flux and
evaporation using large scale parameters. Mon. Weather Rev., 100,81-92.
Ramage, C.S., 1984: Can shipboard measurements reveal secular changes in tropical air-sea
heat flux? J. CUm. Appl. Meteorol., 23, 187-193.
619
Reynolds, R.W., 1988: A real-time global sea surface temperature analysis. J. Climate, I,
75-86.
Sarachik, E.S., 1984: Large-scale surface heat fluxes. In : Gautier, C. and Fieux, M. (Eds.).
Large Scale Oceanographic Experiments and Satellites, Reidel, Dordrecht, pp. 288.
Taylor, V.R. and L.L. Stowe, 1984: Atlas of reflectance patterns for uniform earth and
cloud surfaces (NIMBUS-7 ERB-61 days), NOM Technical Report NESDIS, 10,
pp. 88.
WESTERN PACIFIC INTERNATIONAL MEETING
AND WORKSHOP ON TOGA COARE
Noumea, New Caledonia
May 24-30, 1989
edited by
Joel Picaut *
Roger Lukas **
Thierry Delcroix *
* ORSTOM, Noumea, New Caledonia
** JIMAR, University of Hawaii, U.S.A.
INSTITUT FRANCAIS DE RECHERCHE SCIENTIFIQUE
POUR LE DtVELOPPEMENT EN COOPtRATlON
Centre de Noumea
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
i
RESUME
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
vi
INTRODUCTION
1. Motivation
2. Structure ....................................................................................... ...
1
2
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
5
AGENDA
7
WORKSHOP REPORT
1. Introduction ......................................................................................
2. Working group discussions, recommendations, and plans
a. Air-Sea Fluxes and Boundary Layer Processes
b. Regional Scale Atmospheric Circulation and Waves
c. Regional Scale Oceanic Circulation and Waves
3. Related prograDlS ..............................................................................
a. NASA Ocean Processes and Satellite Missions
.. .
.. ..
.
b. Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission .. .
..
.
.
c. Typhoon Motion Program
.. .
..
..
.
d. World Ocean Circulation Experiment
4. Presentations on related technology
....................... ...........................
5. National reports
6. Meeting of the International Ad Hoc Committee on TOGA COARE
19
20
20
24
30
35
35
37
39
39
40
40
40
APPENDIX: WORKSHOP RELATED PAPERS
Robert A. WeUer and David S. Hosom: Improved Meteorological
Measurements from Buoys and Ships for the World Ocean
Circulation Experiment
........................................................................... 45
Peter H. Hildebrand: Flux Measurement using Aircraft
and Radars
57Waiter F. Dabberdt, Hale Cole, K. Gage, W. Ecklund and W.L. Smith:
Determination of Boundary-Layer Fluxes with an Integrated
Sounding System
81·
viii
MEETING COLLECTED PAPERS
WATER MASSES. SEA SURFACE TOPOGRAPHY. AND CIRCULATION
KJaus Wyrtki: Some Thoughts about the West Pacific Warm Pool..................
Jean Rene Donguy, Gary Meyers, and Eric Lindstrom: Comparison of
the Results of two West Pacific Oceanographic Expeditions FOC (l971)
and WEPOCS (1985-86)
Dunxin Hu, and Maochang Cui: The Western Boundary Current in the
Far Western Pacific Ocean
Peter Hacker, Eric Firing, Roger Lukas, Philipp L. Richardson. and
Curtis A. Collins: Observations of the Low-latitude Western Boundary
.. . . ..
.. ..
Circulation in the Pacific during WEPOCS ill ................
Stephen P. Murray, John Kindle, Dharma Arief, and Harley Hurlburt:
Comparison of Observations and Numerical Model Results in the Indonesian
Throughflow Region
Christian Henin: Thermohaline Structure Variability along 165 e E
in the Western Tropical Pacific Ocean (January 1984 - January 1989)
David J. Webb. and Brian A. King: Preliminary Results from
Charles Darwin Cruise 34A in the Western Equatorial Pacific
Warren B. White, Nicholas Graham. and Chang-Kou Tai: Reflection of
Annual Rossby Waves at The Maritime Western Boundary of the Tropical
Pacific ..................................................................................................
William S. Kessler: Observations of Long Rossby Waves in the Northern
Tropical Pacific .......................... ..... .... ... ... ... ............ .. .................. ..... ... ..
Eric Firing, and Jiang Songnian: Variable Currents in the Western
Pacific Measured During the US/PRC Bilateral Air-Sea Interaction Program
and WEPOCS
John S. Godfrey, and A. Weaver: Why are there Such Strong
Steric Height Gradients off Western Australia?
John M. Toole, R.C. Millard, Z. Wang, and S. Po: Observations
of the Pacific North Equatorial Current Bifurcation at the Philippine Coast
99
111
123
135
145
155
165
173
185
205
215
223
EL NINO/SOUTHERN OSCILLATION 1986-87
Gary Meyers, Rick Bailey, Eric Lindstrom, and Helen PhiUips:
Air/Sea Interaction in the Western Tropical Pacific Ocean during
1982/83 and 1986/87
Laury Miller, and Robert Cheney: GEOSAT Observations of Sea
Level in the Tropical Pacific and Indian Oceans during the 1986-87
El Nino Event
Thierry Delcroix, Gerard Elmn, and Joel Picaut: GEOSAT Sea
Level Anomalies in the Western Equatorial Pacific during
the 1986-87 El Nino. Elucidated as Equatorial Kelvin
and Rossby Waves
Gerard Eldin. and Thierry Delcroix: Vertical Thermal Structure
Variability along 165e E during the 1986-87 ENSO Event
Michael J. McPhaden: On the Relationship between Winds and
Upper Ocean Temperature Variability in the Western Equatorial
Pacific ..................................................................................................
229
247
259
269
283
i"'{
John S. Godfrey, K. Ridgway, Gary Meyers, and Rick Bailey:
Sea Level and Thennal Response to the 1986-87 ENSO Event in the
Far Western Pacific
Joel Picaut, Bruno Camusat, Thierry Delcroix, Michael
J. McPhaden, and Antonio J. Busalacchi: Surface Equatorial Flow
Anomalies in the Pacific Ocean during the 1986-87 ENSO using GEOSAT
Altimeter Data
291
301
TIlEORETICAL AND MODELING STUDIES OF ENSO
AND RELATED PROCESSES
Julian P. McCreary, Jr.: An Overview of Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere
313
Models of El Nino and the Southern Oscillation
Kensuke Takeuchi: On Wann RossbyWaves and their Relations
to ENSO Events
329
Yves du Penhoat, and Mark A. Cane: Effect of Low Latitude Western
335
Boundary Gaps on the Reflection of Equatorial Motions
Harley Hurlburt, John Kindle, E. Joseph Metzger, and Alan Wallcraft:
Results from a Global Ocean Model in the Western Tropical Pacific
343
John C. Kindle, Harley E. Hurlburt, and E. Joseph Metzger: On the
Seasonal and Interannual Variability of the Pacific to Indian Ocean
Throughflow
355
Antonio J. Busalacchi, Michael J. McPhaden, Joel Picaut, and Scott
Springer: Uncertainties in Tropical Pacific Ocean Simulations: The
Seasonal and Interannual Sea Level Response to Three Analyses of the
Surface Wind Field
367
Stephen E. Zebiak: Intraseasonal Variability - A Critical Component
of ENSO?
379
Akimasa Sumi: Behavior of Convective Activity over the "Jovian-type"
Aqua-Planet Experiments
389
397
Ka-Ming Lau: Dynamics of Multi-Scale Interactions Relevant to ENSO
Pecheng C. Chu and Roland W. Garwood, Jr.: Hydrological Effects
on the Air-Ocean Coupled System
407
Sam F. Iacobellis, and Richard CJ. Somerville: A one Dimensional
Coupled Air-Sea Model for Diagnostic Studies during TOGA-COARE
419
AlIan J. Clarke: On the Reflection and Transmission of Low Frequency
Energy at the Irregular Western Pacific Ocean Boundary - a Preliminary
Report
423
Roland W. Garwood, Jr., Pecheng C. Chu, Peter Muller, and Niklas
435
Schneider: Equatorial Entrainment Zone: the Diurnal Cycle
Peter R. Gent: A New Ocean GCM for Tropical Ocean and ENSO Studies
445
Wasito Hadi, and Nuraini: The Steady State Response of Indonesian
Sea to a Steady Wind Field ...................................................................... 451
Pedro Ripa: Instability Conditions and Energetics in the Equatorial Pacific
457
Lewis M. Rothstein: Mixed Layer Modelling in the Western Equatorial
Pacific Ocean
465
Neville R. Smith: An Oceanic Subsurface Thermal Analysis Scheme with
Objective Quality Control
475
Duane E. Stevens, Qi Hu, Graeme Stephens, and David Randall: The
hydrological Cycle of the Intraseasonal Oscillation
, 485
Peter J. Webster, Hai-Ru Chang, and Chidong Zhang: Transmission
Characteristics of the Dynamic Response to Episodic Forcing in the Wann
Pool Regions of the Tropical Oceans .. _
493
x
MOMENWM, REAT, AND MOISlURE FLUXES BETWEEN
ATMOSPHERE AND OCEAN
W. Timothy Liu: An Overview of Bulk Parametrization and Remote
Sensing of Latent Heat Flux in the Tropical Ocean ......................................
E. Frank Bradley, Peter A. Coppin, and John S. Godfrey: Measurements
of Heat and Moisture Fluxes from the Western Tropical Pacific Ocean
Richard W. Reynolds, and Ants Leetmaa: Evaluation of NMC's
Operational Surface Fluxes in the Tropical Pacific
Stanley P. Hayes, Michael J. McPhaden, John M. Wallace, and Jail
Picaut: The Influence of Sea-Surface Temperature on Surface Wind in the
Equatorial Pacific Ocean
T.D. Keenan, and Richard E. Carbone: A Preliminary Morphology of
Precipitation Systems In Tropical Northern Australia
Phillip A. Arkin: Estimation of Large-Scale Oceanic Rainfall for TOOA
Catherine Gautier, and Robert Frouin: Surface Radiation Processes in
the Tropical Pacific
Thierry Delcroix, and Christian Henin: Mechanisms of Subsurface
Thermal Structure and Sea Surface Thermo-Haline Variabilities in the South
Western Tropical Pacific during 1979-85 - A Preliminary Report
Greg. J. Holland, T.D. Keenan, and MJ. Manton: Observations from the
Maritime Continent: Darwin, Australia
Roger Lukas: Observations of Air-Sea Interactions in the Western Pacific
Warm Pool during WEPOCS
M. Nunez, and K. Michael: Satellite Derivation of Ocean-Atmosphere Heat
Fluxes in a Tropical Environment .............................................................
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EMPIRICAL SlUDIES OF ENSO AND SHORT-TERM CLIMATE VARIABILITY
Klaus M. Weickmann: Convection and Circulation Anomalies over the
Oceanic Warm Pool during 1981-1982
Claire Perigaud: Instability Waves in the Tropical Pacific Observed with
GEOSAT
Ryuichi Kawamura: Intraseasonal and Interannual Modes of Atmosphere;.
Ocean System Over the Tropical Western Pacific
David Gutzler, and Tamara M. Wood: Observed Structure of Convective
Anomalies
Siri Jodha Khalsa: Remote Sensing of Atmospheric Thermodynamics in
the Tropics
Bingrong Xu: Some Features of the Western Tropical Pacific: Surface Wind
Field and its Influence on the Upper Ocean Thermal Structure
Bret A. Mullan: Influence of Southern Oscillation on New Zealand
Weather
Kenneth S. Gage, Ben Basley, Warner Ecklund, D.A. Carter, andJohn R.
McAfee: Wind Profiler Related Research in the Tropical Pacific
John Joseph Bates: Signature of a West Wind Convective Event in
SSM/I Data
David S. Gutzler: Seasonal and Interannual Variability of the MaddenIulian Oscillation
Marie-H~lene Radenac: Fine Structure Variability in the Equatorial Western
Pacific Ocean
George C. Reid, Kenneth S. Gage, and John R. McAfee: The Oimatology
of the Western Tropical Pacific: Analysis of the Radiosonde Data Base
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Chung-Hsiung Sui, and Ka-Ming Lau: Multi-Scale Processes in the
Equatorial Western Pacific
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Stephen E. Zebiak: Diagnostic Studies of Pacific Surface Winds
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MISCELLANEOUS
Rick J. Bailey, Helene E. Phillips, and Gary Meyers: Relevance to TOGA
of Systematic XBT Errors
Jean Blanchot, Robert Le Borgne, Aubert Le Bouteiller, and Martine
Rodier: ENSO Events and Consequences on Nutrient, Planktonic Biomass,
and Production in the Western Tropical Pacific Ocean
Yves Dandonneau: Abnonnal Bloom of Phytoplankton around weN in the
Western Pacific during the 1982-83 ENSO
Ceclle Dupouy: Sea Surface Chlorophyll Concentration in the South Western
Tropical Pacific, as seen from NIMBUS Coastal Zone Color Scanner from
1979 to 1984 (New Caledonia and Vanuatu)
Michael Szabados, and Darren Wright: Field Evaluation
of Real-Time XBT Systems
Pierre Rual: For a Better XBT Bathy-Message: Onboard Quality Control,
plus a New Data Reduction Method
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