Writing Manuscripts
for Publication
First, General Advice
Getting Started Exercise
Finally, Specific Advice
Is Writing Easy?
Don’t make it harder than necessary!
Make it Easier
 Know
your audience. Choose your
journal before you write.
 Know your message. Don’t report
irrelevant information.
 Make an outline. Write only what
you need.
Make it Easier
Before you begin to write:
Find the best question to go with
your answers.
It may not be the question you had
in mind when you started!
Choosing the Question
Original Question:
What factors explain high N mineralization rates after
forest harvest?
Objectives: We measured soil moisture and temperature,
gross and net N mineralization, …
Results:
Stream and soil N concentrations were high after harvest.
Mineralization rates were not higher than in the control!
High nitrification results from the lack of uptake by trees,
not from higher gross mineralization rates.
Choosing the Question
Better Question:
What factors explain high N rates of N export after forest
harvest? Is it true that N mineralization rates are
increased, or is increased N availability explained by the
absence of tree uptake?
Results:
Stream and soil N concentrations were high after harvest.
Mineralization rates were not higher than in the control.
High nitrification results from the lack of uptake by trees,
not from higher gross mineralization rates.
Another Example
Original Objective:
Our goal was to describe volume and nutrient content of
coarse woody debris (CWD) as a function of silvicultural
treatment in the Catskill Mountains of New York.
Results:
Volume of CWD was not closely related to cutting intensity.
It was lower when fuel costs were high, because firewood
was removed.
It was high after the particle-board factory closed.
It was high after a wind storm.
Another Example
Better Question:
What factors are important to predicting volume and
nutrient content of CWD? Is harvest intensity sufficient?
Results:
Volume of CWD was not related to cutting intensity.
It was lower when fuel costs were high, because firewood
was removed!
It was high after the particle-board factory closed.
It was high after a wind storm.
Getting Started Exercise
1. Briefly explain why this research is important. To
whom does it matter?
2. Write a statement that identifies the problem you were
trying to solve in your research.
You know now how to check that
the question goes with the results
3. Describe the results of your work, in a small number of
bulleted phrases.
4. Write the conclusions to your paper.
Getting Started Exercise
1. Briefly explain why this research is important. To
whom does it matter?
Now, how do we choose the context for the
study and the conclusions?
4. Write the conclusions to your paper.
N Mineralization Example
Who cares? Why do we need to know?
1. We had an opportunity to measure gross and net N
mineralization and nitrification in a clearcut in northern
hardwoods.
2. What factors explain high N rates of N export after
forest harvest?
3. Stream and soil N concentrations were high after harvest.
Mineralization rates were not higher than in the control.
N Mineralization Example
1. The belief that decomposition and nutrient
mineralization increase following disturbance pervades
calculations of local and global C and nutrient budgets,
but this belief is not based on direct observation.
2. What factors explain high N rates of N export after
forest harvest?
3. Stream and soil N concentrations were high after harvest.
Mineralization rates were not higher than in the control.
4. It is true that nitrate losses increase after harvesting,
but this is not due to increased N mineralization.
This is a result! What should we tell
the audience we addressed in #1?
N Mineralization Example
1. The belief that decomposition and nutrient
mineralization increase following disturbance pervades
calculations of local and global C and nutrient budgets,
but this belief is not based on direct observation.
2. What factors explain high N rates of N export after
forest harvest?
3. High nitrification results from the lack of uptake by
trees, not from higher gross mineralization rates.
4. Ecosystem N budgets should not assume that
mineralization increases after disturbance. Carbon
budgets, too, may be in error if decomposition is assumed
to increase after forest harvest.
CWD Example
This sounds like Objectives (#2).
Who cares? Why do we need to know?
1. Pools and nutrient concentrations of CWD have not
been described in the Catskill Mountains...
2. Is harvest intensity sufficient to predict volume and
nutrient content of CWD?
3. Volumes of CWD depend on cutting intensity but also on
markets for wood products and recent storms.
CWD Example
1. Predicting carbon and nutrient content of CWD over
time after forest harvesting is important to managing
forests for non-timber values. Therefore, we need to know
what factors are important to making those predictions.
2. Is harvest intensity sufficient to predict volume and
nutrient content of CWD?
3. Volumes of CWD depend on cutting intensity but also on
markets for wood products and recent storms.
4. CWD volume is not readily predicted from harvest
intensity.
This is a result! What should we tell
the audience we addressed in #1?
CWD Example
1. Predicting carbon and nutrient content of CWD over
time after forest harvesting is important to managing
forests for non-timber values. Therefore, we need to know
what factors are important to making those predictions.
2. Is harvest intensity sufficient to predict volume and
nutrient content of CWD?
3. Volumes of CWD depend on cutting intensity but also on
markets for wood products and recent storms.
4. CWD volume should be measured for accurate
assessment. Nutrient contents, on the other hand, can be
estimated from measured volumes and published
concentrations.
In Small Groups




Is #1 general enough?
Does #4 relate back to #1?
Do results (#3) answer the question in #2?
If you find results in #4, move them to #3.
You can also help by asking questions if the
author’s meaning wasn’t clear.
Getting Started Exercise
1. Briefly explain why this research is important. To
whom does it matter?
2. Write a statement that identifies the problem you were
trying to solve in your research.
3. Describe the results of your work, in a small number of
bulleted phrases.
4. Write the conclusions to your paper.
Sequence of Section Preparation
5. Title and Abstract
4. Introduction
2. Methods
1. Results
3. Discussion
Results
Table or Figure or Text?
Results
Figure
2000
vs.
January
Table
Maximum
Mean
1500
Typical
1000
500
PPFD (umol m-2 s -1 )
0
2000
April
1500
1000
500
0
2000
July
1500
1000
500
0
0:00
6:00
12:00
18:00
0:00
Time of Day
0:00
1:00
2:00
3:00
4:00
5:00
6:00
7:00
8:00
9:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
Max
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
400
700
800
850
900
950
900
850
800
600
350
100
0
0
0
January
Mean Typical
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
300
100
400
200
450
250
500
300
550
350
500
300
450
250
400
200
200
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
April
July
Max Mean Typical Max Mean Typical
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
900 100
0
500
0
0
1500 700
0
1200 400
0
1700 900
0
1550 750
50
2000 1200 600
1700 900
200 2100 1300 300
1850 1050
350 2150 1350 350
2000 1200
500 2200 1400 500
2000 1200
500 2200 1400 500
1950 1150
450 2150 1350 750
1800 1000
300 2000 1200 400
1650 850
150 1800 1000
0
1400 600
0
1700 900
0
900
100
1
1200 400
0
200
0
0
500
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Time of Day (h)
Modified from Lewis et al. 1999
Results
Biomass (kg/ha)
Figure
2000
Low
Mid
Table
High
1500
1000
500
0
P Content (kg P/ ha)
vs.
2000
1500
1000
500
Pin cherry leaves
Pin cherry wood
Sapling leaves
Sapling wood
Seedling leaves
Seedling wood
Shrub leaves
Shrub wood
Rubus
Wood fern
Other herbs
Total
Biomass (kg/ha)
Elevation
Low
Mid
260
50
290
50
230 210
320 480
110
50
80
50
150 110
150
40
320
70
50
50
150 170
2110 1330
High
7
2
50
120
20
10
70
270
30
11
80
670
P Content (kg P/ ha)
Elevation
Low
Mid
0.44
0.11
0.17
0.03
0.28
0.26
0.15
0.21
0.15
0.07
0.06
0.04
0.21
0.23
0.11
0.05
0.37
0.09
0.10
0.11
0.05
0.07
2.09
1.27
High
0.02
0.00
0.10
0.08
0.04
0.01
0.01
0.25
0.06
0.42
0.12
1.12
Pi
n
ch
Pi err
n
y
c h le
er av
Sa ry es
pl w
in oo
Sa g le d
a
Se plin v e
ed g w s
l
Se ing ood
ed lea
lin v e
Sh g w s
ru o
b o
Sh lea d
ru v e
s
b
w
oo
R d
W ubu
oo s
O df
th
er ern
he
rb
s
To
ta
l
0
Modified from Yanai 1998
Results
Figure
Table
vs.
Harvest removal ratio
6
5
Harvest
removal ratio
4
3
2
1
0
N
P
N
2.7
P
K
5.4
3.9
vs.
Text
The harvest removal
ratio was highest for P
(5.4 ), lowest for N (2.7)
and intermediate for K
(3.9).
K
Modified from Yanai 1999
Results
Describe results with reference to
hypotheses.
 Tell your readers what they should see in
your tables or figures.
 Don’t repeat information available in
tables or figures.

Methods
 Support
data presented in Results
 Tell enough to allow another
scientist to replicate your study
 Don’t give information not needed
to understand your results or
replicate your study
Examples:
What’s Needed?
Samples were digested in nitric acid.
Plots were marked with orange
flagging at the northeast corner.
Procedures followed Bickelhaupt
(1986).
Introduction
Describe the general problem to be
solved.
 Review the relevant literature, just
enough to orient the reader to the
problem.
 Pose the specific questions to be
answered in the Results and
Discussion

Discussion
Interpret your results.
 Place them in the context of other work.
 Address limitations to your approach.
 Suggest future work.
 Draw conclusions. Point out
applications. Address your opening
questions.

Abstract
 Problem
to be solved
 Objectives or Hypotheses
 Methods or Approach
 Results
 Conclusions
Title

Should Represent Paper’s Content

Keywords Facilitate Retrieval in Indices

Make it Brief but Meaningful (Don’t waste
words)
Picking the Best Title
1.
The effect of mycorrhizal association on
seedling uptake of nitrate versus ammonium
2.
The effect of mycorrhizal association on
nitrogenuptake by Eucalyptus canadulensis
3.
Mycorrhizal association improves nitrate but
not ammonium uptake by Eucalyptus
canadulensis
Literature Cited
 Follow
journal format
 Errors
cast doubt on the author’s
attention to detail in research
 Bibliographic
software helps
prevent errors and saves time
If at first you get rejected,
Try, try again!
http://www.esf.edu/for/faculty/yanai.htm
Reasons Not to
Change your Question



You worked so hard on it.
You pasted it in from your original research
proposal and haven’t read it since.
It’s not historically true.
Save the original question for your
autobiography. Your journal audience
doesn’t care about your history. They want
to know the importance of your findings.