Proceedings of the ASME 2017 International Design Engineering Technical Conferences &
Computers and Information in Engineering Conference
IDETC/CIE 2016
August 6-9, 2017, Cleveland, OH, USA
DETC2017-67341
A Literature Review of Idea Generation and Dissemination Methods in Engineering
Design
Zixuan Zhao
Mechanical Engineering
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, PA 16802
Email: [email protected]
Conrad S. Tucker
Engineering Design, Industrial Engineering
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, PA 16802
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Based on the Information Theory proposed by Claude
E. Shannon, information is transferred through a process
consisting of an information source, a transmitter, a channel,
a receiver and its destination. This paper focuses on the idea
generation and dissemination process in engineering design.
This is one example of information theory utilized within design
teams, with the channel in this case being the design tools (e.g.,
CAD, sketches, etc.). The objective of the idea generation and
dissemination phase of design is to minimize information loss
from Designer A who has an idea, to Designer B who wants to
understand the idea. Unfortunately, due to the large number of
ways to deliver and receive messages, the combination of
generating and disseminating messages with the lowest
information loss is unknown. This paper provides a review of
the loss and quality of the information communication for each
combination. The paper includes i) an introduction of idea
generation and dissemination in engineering design; ii) a
review of prior work and iii) discussions pertaining to
proposed solutions to mitigate information loss.
describes the details of information being transferred between
the information source, transmitter ,channel, receiver,
destination [4] and the feedback [3]. 1) An information source
produces a message to be communicated to the receiving
terminal; 2) The transmitter is used to manipulate on the
message in order to produce a signal suitable for transmission
over the channel; 3) The channel is the medium used to
transmit the signal from the transmitter to receiver; 4) The
receiver constructs the message from the signal; and 5) The
destination is the individual receiving the message [4] and 6)
The feedback refers to the message sent from the destination to
the information source regarding the interpretation of the
original message[5]. The same concept applies to engineering
design process (Figure 1). Each element can be represented as
an idea, a design, a design tool, sharing method, the idea
received by another designer who wants to understand, and
idea augmentation, respectively (Figure 1). As indicated by
Shannon and Weaver, entropy H (equation 1) is “associated
with the amount of freedom of choice we have in constructing
messages”[3]. Additionally, this definition implies that the
message contains little error when the channel capacity is equal
to or larger than the entropy [3]. Therefore, a wise selection of
channels (design tools) can help users minimize the
information loss. By analyzing the Information Theory in a
design process, the idea generation and dissemination method
can be optimized.
1. INTRODUCTION
Idea generation is the mental process by which ideas
are generated [1] and is crucial step in engineering design [2].
Shannon and Weaver’s mathematical theory of communication
[3] represents how information flows. More specifically, it
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Figure 1 A parallel comparison of Information Theory in the case of a design process
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Claude E. Shannon introduced the Information Theory [4] in
the late 1940s, stating a communication system consists of an
information source, a transmitter, a channel, a receiver, and its
destination. As shown in figure 1, this theory applies to design
as well. Each component can be represented through a design
process, designer A with an idea, a design, a design tool, how
the message gets shared and designer B who wants to
understand the message, and idea augmentation, respectively.
An idea is first envisioned by designer A and then visualized
through the aid of a design tool. This process is categorized as
idea generation. Following idea generation, the idea will be
transferred from the design tool to designer B through a sharing
method. This step is considered as idea dissemination. In order
to ensure the accuracy of the idea, an idea augmentation
process is introduced by providing feedback from designer B
to designer A. In this section, relevant studies will be analyzed
and discussed corresponding to each step in the design process.
categorized into Germinal, Transformational, Progressive,
Organizational and Hybrid[6]. For the interest of an iterative
design process, only Germinal and Progressive methods will be
analyzed. Germinal is defined as a designer starting with no
existing solutions. This includes one of the most commonly
used techniques, brainstorming [7]. A progressive method is
characterized by ideas being generated through repetitive runs
in a progressive manner [6]. Some examples are the Gallery
Method[8], Method 6-3-5 [9] and C- sketch [10]. The
usefulness of these methods is also verified by Linsey et al. [11].
Similar to brainstorming, brainsketching/brainwriting [12] is
used to communicate silently[13]. In addition to 2D idea
generation method, there has been an increased use of CAD
tools throughout early conceptual design process since
2000[14]. Utilizing physical models during engineering
ideation process is also populated to teach engineering to be
innovative [15]. Current work involving idea generation can be
categorized into four groups that are useful to engineering
design: verbal expression, hand-written expression, CAD
(Computer Aided Design) and physical model. This section
provides literature reviews on these four categories, including
strengths and weaknesses of each method collected from
different authors (Table 1.)
2.1 Idea Generation
Idea generation is the mental process by which ideas are
generated [1] and is a crucial step in engineering design [2].
Kulkarni et al. classified idea generation techniques into two
categories: intuitive and logical [6]. Intuitive methods are sub-
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Idea Generation
Verba/Textual
Expressions
Hand-written
3D
Physical Model
Figure 2 Four Categories of Idea Generation Methods in Engineering Process
2.1.1 Verbal/Textual Expressions
One of the roles of verbal expression is to frame a
design problem [16]–[19]. Brainstorming is one common idea
generation technique [20]. Osborn first introduced
brainstorming [21] as a tool for idea generation within an
organization [22] in 1957. Brainstorming is then employed to
express verbal generation of ideas by a group [13]. Verbal
brainstorming is suggested for groups less than eight
individuals [23]. One of the biggest advantages of
brainstorming is that it enhances social interaction [24].
However, brainstorming may encourage interpersonal
conflicts and uneven discussions [13] due to the fact that only
one individual can speak at a time [20]. Additionally, Sutton et
al. claimed that brainstorming leads to lower productivity than
working alone [25] [22], because there is a correlation between
product success and the coherency of the documents [26].
Another disadvantage of verbal expression was discussed in
Brandinnote et al.’s book: verbal messages tend to hinder the
effectiveness of visual based representations [27].
In addition to individually sketching, there is another
hand-written communication [13] technique: brainwriting or
brainsketching. It is defined as individuals silently sketching their
ideas on large sheets of paper including necessary annotations.
Individuals switch drawings, and silent sketching continues for
another period [8]. This method relates different designs to earlier
designs [20]. One advantage of this method is that it allows
designers to constantly think without the need to wait for others to
finish speaking [13]. It also ensures anonymity throughout the idea
generation process [13]. When group members lack training in
brainstorming, and there is no facilitator available, employing
brainwriting can avoid individuals from dominating discussions
[12]. The author also proposed electronic individual pool writing,
as mentioned by Vogel et al, electronic individual poolwriting has
the disadvantage of missing the capability to review in real-time
[47]. This issues has been solved with the wide use of Google Docs
in a collaborative environment [48].
Some scholars state that the current computational
tools provide many features for visualizing, testing and
implementing design ideas for later stages, but do not support
freehand sketch process in the early design stages [44].
However the development of interactive sketching [49] and
translucent patches [50] has been identified to be the solution.
Designers tend to use sketches to construct styling lines [51]
due to the fact that the complexity level of sketches is low
(complexity level 1 or 2) [52].
2.1.2 Hand-written expressions
Many researches [28]–[32] believe that free-hand
sketches is important for conceptual design [33]. McKoy et al.
summarized the benefits of sketching, including speeding up
reasoning[34]–[38], extending memory[34], [36], [39], helping
understanding/feedback[36]–[38], representing ideas consistently
[40], [41], etc. Graphical idea representation has been shown to be
better-suited than text information in a design context, according
to McKoy et al’s evaluation of textual versus graphical idea
representation data[42]. Additionally, it has been found that
impromptu sketches allow designer to obtain a clearer idea
during conceptual design phase [42]. According to Goodman
[43], during early design stages, freehand sketches are suitable
for exploring new design ideas due to its ambiguity [44].This
statement also resonates with what Van der Lugt suggests:
during unstructured design meetings, designers have been
shown to use sketching extensively when generating design
ideas[7]. Based on Schon’s work, designers have reflective
conversation with his or her idea when inspecting and refining
their drawings[45] [46]. This cyclic behavior allows a design
to grow from a draft to a finished product [33].
2.1.3 CAD (Computer Aided Design)
In our society, a wide range of industries utilize CAD,
including engineering, entertainment, business etc. [53]. There
are a wide range of CAD software available that enable
designers to interact with and augment a design artifact. This
includes SolidWorks, Blender, OpenSCAD, Meshlab, etc. [54]
In the past, engineering students gained knowledge about CAD
from schools [55]. Now, the wide-use of internet has offered
people many learning methods to master different software,
such as watching tutorials online, taking self-paced, web-based
classes, and reading documentations on the Internet [56].
Based on Dubberly’s statement, the learning curves of a
designer acquiring knowledge and skills with the progression
of time can be represented through an S-curves [57]. The trend
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example, a prototype is defined by Lindwell et al. [44] as “a
simple and incomplete model of design to provide designers
with ideas into real world design requirement, allowing them
to visualize, evaluate learn and improve he design
specifications prior to delivery”. Additionally, a survey on
product representations conducted by Romer, et al. has
indicated that physical models lead to memory relief [64].
Studies have shown that these physical models can be
implemented into a design process in a variety of ways[64].
According to Tom Kelly[65], the CEO of IDEO design
company physical models are encouraged to be used during
different stages of a design process. Similarly, an observational
study conducted by Ward el al. at Toyota showed how physical
models have helped to improve efficiency[66]. As mentioned
by, foam prototyping creates faster than sketching or CAD
[67].
However, it is also noteworthy that developing physical
prototypes is not only time and cost consuming[68], but also
might lead to design fixation[69] [70] [71]. This implies “a
blind sometimes counterproductive , adherence to a limited set
of ideas in the design process”[72]. Researchers like Vidal et
al, discovered the use of physical models does not affect the
idea generation process [73]. Viswanathan et al. believed that
the decision to use physical models is determined by the
designer’s intuition and experience [15]. This statement can be
further explained by what Houde and Hill’s claimed: deciding
the type of prototyping based on the need of audience requires
a thoughtful process [74].
for each individual curve starts near zero quality and slowly
increases. Later, the speed of learning increases drastically
over time until the curves reach a plateau. This finding shows
the time needed for product design is shorter than interactive
design, which is defined as the design of the interaction
between users and products, such as apps or websites [58]. For
example, designing an aircraft engine takes longer than
designing a block because it requires the application of CAD
software (interactive design) due to the complexity of different
components. The complexity can later be used to analyze the
difficulty of production, use or maintenance [59]. Therefore, a
longer learning curve is needed, compared to 2D sketches. This
has also been verified by Cory, who stated that 3D modeling
software have extremely high learning curves. The more
complex the task is, the harder the production process will be
[60].
Contrastingly, Robertson et al. mentioned, 2D
sketches and verbal discussions are suitable for immature
designs, which tend to utilize CAD tools less [32]. Therefore,
the effectiveness of idea generation involves the complexity of
the task, which is associated with the phase of the design. Some
scholars have provided evidence for the helpfulness of
computer supported design tools during the early concept
development phase [37], [51], [61], [62]. As indicated by
Tovey el al., designers use CAD for various presentation
versions during later design phases as adding color, varying
shade, and etc. can easily be accomplish [51]. Researcher have
proposed that the application of CAD support in the early
design phases tend to eliminate creative visual thinking[52].
Table 1 summarizes related work on idea generation, including
the strengths and weakness of each method.
2.1.4 Physical Model
A physical model is built through the application of different
materials to represent a product approximation [63]. For
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Table 1 Literature Review on Idea Generation
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Idea Dissemination
Verbal Discussion
Written/Drawing
Communication
Collabrative CAD
Virtual/Augmented
Reality
Figure 3 Four Categories of Idea Destination Methods in Engineering Process
− ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑝𝑖 ∗ log(𝑝𝑖 ) [4], where 𝑝𝑖 is the probability of a system
being in cell i of its phase [4], the base of the logarithm is 2,
as it will generate a unit of “bit” [82]. In this paper, the entropy
of the information source is considered constant, allowing us
to examine the effect of different idea dissemination methods.
2.2 Idea Dissemination
Knowledge exchange plays an important role within
groups [78] and allows group interactions through a wide range
of contexts [79] [80]. Different media channels show various
levels of ability to facility understanding [76]. To further
explain media channels, richness can be utilized to characterize
the capacity to facilitate shared message [75] [81]. Daft et al.
proposed four media channels with increasing media richness:
face-to-face, telephone, addressed documents and unaddressed
documents [76]. This section generalizes the four channels into
verbal discussion and written communication with the addition
of collaborative CAD and virtual/augmented reality. Literature
reviews on these four categories, including strengths and
weaknesses of each method collected from different authors,
entropy ( table 2) Mathematically, entropy is defined as 𝐻 =
execution phase of group work [83]. Media Richness Theory
[84] [76] points out that direct face-to-face channels offer a
richer communication due to various cues, such as voice
inflection and body language with rapid mutual feedback [85].
It has been found that complexity can be used to analyze the
difficulty of production and use [86]. According to Melnik and
Maurer, the higher the level of complexity, the greater the need
for verbal communication to share knowledge interactively[85].
2.2.1Verbal Discussion
Different from generating ideas through words
images or etc, delivering the idea requires group interaction
[78]. In order to maximize the effectiveness of idea
dissemination, a combination of face-to-face and asynchronous
communication conducted at different phases of group work
should be used [83]. Face-to-face communication is useful in
the initial and final stage of group work; However, it is more
effective to use asynchronous communication during the
representations [90]. 3D assisted visualizing details and
reducing rework [60], but lacks physical interactions [91].
2.2.3 Collaborate CAD
Different from generating ideas in CAD individually,
Collaborative CAD is important for dealing with complex
projects including designers from different disciplines [92].
One of the biggest advantages of collaborative CAD (figure 4)
system as suggested by Chen et al., is that it allows itself to
resolve conflict in the early stages of team design [93], [94].
Currently, CAD conference systems like Cspray [95],
Webscope [96] and Autodesk Collaboration for Revit[97] offer
collaborative viewing and measuring [98]. Li et al. proposed a
developed collaborative CAD systems that enable designers to
effectively transmit visualizations and information across
networks [99]. More researchers have established a
synchronized collaborative design platform for CAD systems,
allowing designers to conduct real time exchange of
representation and modification/deletion [100]. In addition,
Ramani et al. have presented a web-based collaborative
environment called CADDAC (Computer Aided Distributed
Design and Collaboration). This system enables individual
with limited hardware and software resources to install and
utilize this collaborative system [101].However, CAD
conference systems can only provide visualizations, and do not
allow real-time multi-user interaction[98]. Additionally,
security must be considered carefully for future development
[99]. Fortunately, this security concern can be resolved through
a hierarchical role based viewing method that has been
2.2.2 Written/ Drawing Communication
Documentation is used to store and transfer
information in engineering practices [85]. However according
to Lethbridge et al., individuals in the industry indicated that
documentation does not update along with current state of
software system[87]. Besides written documentation, 2D
Multiview drawings, being the most commonly used in the
industry, are easy to construct and are the most accurate and
descriptive type of engineering graphics [60]. According to
Ferguson, talking sketches are associated with designers
utilizing a shared drawing surface in support of the group
discussion, making it easier to communicate within a group
[88]. Additionally, Rockwell et al. introduced engineers a webbased platform to improve communication through
documentation and knowledge base sharing [89]. However, to
be able to communicate through 2D illustrations, individuals
need to be equipped with many years of professional training
[60]. Studies have shown that idea expression through a
combination of text and sketch has gained popularity compared
to only words or sketch [20]. 2D engineering drawings were
the major means of design until the introduction of 3D
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developed to reduce cost and risks during design collaboration
[102]
with an animated anmial [123]and a wireless mouse [124]
(Figure 5) with a probablity of 50% of clarity. From Shannon’s
entropy equation, 𝐻 = − ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑝𝑖 ∗ log 2 𝑝𝑖 [4] , we can
calucalte the entropy for each senario . (Table 3) Contrastingly,
when we do the same experiment, but use the word “jet engine”
instead, the calculated entropies are able to reduce to zero due
to the specificity of the idea. Therefore, we can draw the
conclusion that the more specific the idea is, the lower the
entropy it generates. Later design tend to have more detailed
information, which requires designer to incorporate more 3D
sketch or CAD drawings.
Figure 4 Multi-Touch Table Kiosk, introduced by Zoom
Digital Signage allows designers to collaborate on CAD
designs [131].
2.2.4 Virtual/Augmented Reality
Adding a hand held device [103] or a head-mount
three dimensional display [104], Augmented Reality are
developed to improve users’ perception and interaction with
the real world [105] (Figure 2). People can purchase Virtual
Reality googles like Oculus Rift [106] and Vive[107] from
stores [108]. Perkunder et al. took advantage of sketch, CAD
and Virtual Reality platform in the early phases of product
design[109]. Similarly, Stark et al.[110], Wiese et al.[111] and
Israel et al.[112] developed hybrid modeling environment
using CAD and VR. This technique provides an intuitive
interaction in rapid prototyping process [113]. Similarly,
Stelzer took the advantage of Product Lifecycle Management
(PLM) platform, providing a system where designers can view,
modify and simulate geometries virtually[114].Unfortunately,
it is found that using VR/AR sets might cause motion sickness
[115]. In automotive industry, AR has been a tool for
evaluation interior design in the initial design development
phase on real car body [116].
Unfortunately, most of the applications are still under
development due to the requirement of accuracy, ergonomics
and human factors[113].
Figure 5 The working senario of the co-located users [117]
Fiugre 6 Top images from searching “mouse” from Goolge
Image [120], [121], [125]
In this section, a quantitative approach will be used to
demonstrate the information loss (entropy) for different idea
dissemination techniques. For example, if one designer wants
to design a mouse, he or she decided to use different methods
of delivering this message. Using verbal/textual
communication, hse or she will found that the word mouse has
four intepretations [119], generating a possibility of 25% for
this case. Similarly, for sketching or drawing, if we search
“mouse” in Google image, we see both an elctronic device [120]
and a small anmial[121] (Figure 4). This result shows that the
possibility of 50% of getting the message the designer wants to
deliver. The last method is utilizing CAD models. Bying
searching “mouse” from GrabCAD [122], we were provided
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Table 2 Possibility and Entropy
Dissemination Methods
of Diffenert Idea
𝑛
𝐻 = − ∑ 𝑝𝑖 ∗ log 2 𝑝𝑖
𝑖=1
Fiugre 7 Top images from searching “mouse” from
Grabcad [122]
Word Searched
Verbal
3D
CAD
25%
100%
2D
Sketch
/Image
50%
100%
Probablity
“Mouse”
“Jet engine”
Entropy
“Mouse”
“Jet engine”
0.5
0
0.25
0
0.25
0
50%
100%
Table 3 Literature Review on Idea Dissemination
introduced into the channel [127]. This is where the idea
augmentation comes into play. Critique can be used to
minimize errors and improve designers’ understanding [128].
Asynchronous communication results in deeper analysis and is
extremely important of late stage of decision making [129].
However the absence of interactivity may affect the
2.3 Idea Augmentation
As indicated in Shannon’s’ Information Theory, there
is a feedback element in each cycle of communication [4].
Feedback provides information to the transmitter, which can
benefit the system greatly when some disturbances are
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effectiveness of communication [129]. On the other side,
immediate feedback can be used to enhance speed and
accuracy of communication by quickly correcting misleading
information [130]. Additionally, it has been proved by Shirani
et al. that synchronous communication (instant feedback) is
more appropriate for early state of problem solving [129].
However, communicating synchronously and the necessity of
complex deliberation might become challenging[130].
received message from the information source has relatively
complicated feedback or critique, using asynchronous methods,
such as email, is more suitable to in provide depth information
than instant feedback [129].If the confusion from the receiver
is quick to resolve, then instant feedback, along with multiple
cues, language variety and personal focus[76] will be help to
lower the entropy of the information transmitted from the
information source in this case as well.
3. PROPOSED APPROACHES TO MINIMIZE INFORMATION
LOSS DURING THE DESIGN PROCESS
As indicated in Figure 5 during idea generation phase,
if the design is conceptual (early design phase), it is suggested
to use verbal, 2D sketch or physical model. When the idea is
specific, then a designer can proceed with either verbal
expression because as suggested in table 1, this methods is
commonly used to brainstorm quick ideas during early design
phase. However, if the concept is vague and the designer does
not have enough time to fully explain the concept with words,
2D sketch can help designer to speed up the reasoning process,
providing low entropy information. However, if the designer
has plenty of time to visualize the idea, then physical model is
more suitable.
If it is during the later phase where details are needed,
it is more effective to utilize 3D presentation, CAD model or
written documentation to illustrate well-developed thoughts. If
a designer is working individually to show the idea to the other
individual, 3D drawings can provide detailed design with
specifications. However, if there are a group of individuals
trying to interact with the design product, then it is easier for
them to take advantage of collaborative 3D platform. Using
collaborative CAD (Figure 4) will minimize the entropy due to
the instant resolvability of the platform [94]. However, if
during the later design phase, there are not enough details for
others to comprehend, the using written documentations can
communicate details accurately as summarized in table 3. In
the end, during the idea augmentation phase, based on the type
of feedback, designers can choose to communicate either
immediately or asynchronously. If the individual who has
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Figure 8 Flow chart of finding the the most effective way of generating and disseminting ideas in a design process
augmentation methods. Based on the work reviewed, when the
channel capacity is equal to or larger than the entropy, the error
is minimized[3]. In addition, as indicated by Daft et al.,
capacity can be characterized as the level of richness. Face-toface delivery shows the highest media richness when the
equivocality (ambiguity) is high [75]; Underdressed
documents, such as standard quantitative reports, are preferred
when the contents are easy to understand [76]. CAD tools are
more useful for detailed designs [51] than for conceptual
designs due to the high equivocality of early concept [76].
However, using CAD systems for idea generation may restrict
creative thinking and collaboration [32], [52]. Physical models
could be considered to use at all stage but this method is a time
and cost consuming process.
4. CONCLUSION
During previous discussion, the work reviewed has provided
their benefits and drawbacks for using certain methods of
communication in engineering design processes. This has led
us to identify the most useful and effective way of generating
and disseminating information under a given circumstance
(Figure 8). A combination of the highlights of each product
will bring us to a new effective channel of idea generation and
dissemination method in engineering design. Shannon and
Weaver introduced the Information Theory to matmatilly solve
general problems related to communcation systems. Extending
this theory to engineering design, this paper presents an
overview on idea communication in engineering design and
provides an approach to minimize information loss with the
applciation of diffenert idea generation, dissemniation and
in engineering design. In addition, this aper only provides
two examples when discussing the impact of entropy with
respect to probolibity. Systematic studies of a collection of
exampls will be generate a more robust design process.
5. FUTURE WORK
More research need to be conducted on communication
method through sensation and audio input. For example, what
is the richness of the information when an invidual touches an
object. A more quantifiable way need to be devloped to meet
the overall expectation of idea generation and dissemniation
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(COIL). Any opinions, findings, or conclusions found in this
paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect
the views of the sponsors
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research is funded in part by NSF NRI #1527148 and
Penn State’s Center for Online Innovation in Learning
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