Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Haemagglutination as a rapid tool to differentiate Saraca asoca bark from the adulterant
Polyalthia longifolia
C BEENA* AND V V RADHAKRISHNAN
All India Coordinated Project on Medicinal , Aromatic Plants and Betalvine, College of Horticulture, Kerala Agricultural
University, P.O. Vellanikkara, Thrissur -680656, Kerala, India.
E mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Saraca asoca(Roxb.) Wilde, the asoka tree is one of the red listed plants of the Western Ghats. . The bark of asoka tree is
the source of the ayurvedic medicine “asokarishtam” used in the treatment of gynecological disorders. The rising
demand has led to its widespread adulteration. It is widely adulterated with the bark of Polyalthia longifolia an
ornamental tree. This paper presents a quick and easy method to determine the adulteration in asoka bark.
Haemagglutination method using the phosphate buffered saline ( PBS) extract of the stem barks and o positive
human erythrocytes was proved to serve as an effective ,quick, easy and cheap tool in differentiating the raw bark of
asoka from its major adulterant Polyalthia longifolia .This can be recommended as a tool for the floor level checking of
the market samples for ensuring the quality .
Key words: Adulteration, haemagglutination, Saraca asoca, Polyalthia longifolia, PBS ( phosphate buffered saline) .
Saraca asoca (Roxb.) de Wilde commonly known
as Asoka (Figure 1) is a sacred tree of India, famous for its
use in the treatment of gynaecological disorders. Asoka
belongs to the family Caesalpiniaceae. It is one of the red
listed plants of the Western Ghats. Asoka is especially relied
upon as an astringent to treat excessive uterine bleeding from
various causes including hormone disorders, fibroids and for
regulating the menstrual cycle. It was estimated that the
domestic demand of the bark of Saraca asoca was more than
15,000 tonnes for the year 2007-08. This high annual demand
of the bark needs to be obtained from this medicinal tree
which is now in an endangered stage. As there is a wide gap
between demand and availability, it is clear that some other
plant material is collected and utilized instead of Saraca
asoca. There are reports that the bark of asoka is widely
adulterated with the bark of Polyalthia longifolia (Sonn.)
(Figure2) which is known as Bangali ashok. belonging to the
family Annonaceae. Polyalthia is having different medicinal
properties and uses and it cannot be used as a substitute to
asoka. Active ingredients that contribute to the medicinal
property of asoka are phenols and tannins where as that of
polyalthia are alkaloids. Substituting asoka with polyalthia
may not be effective in treating gynaecological disorders or it
may lead to some serious health hazards whose symptoms
will develop only later.
of common major adulterant of the important ayurvedic
herbal drug asoka bark and the results of the study are
presented here.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Stem barks of Saraca asoca and Polyalthia
longifolia were collected from College of Horticulture,
Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, Kerala, India.and
authenticated by the botanists. The samples were shade dried.
1 g sample of each was put in 10 ml Phospahte buffered
saline ( PBS, pH 7.4) overnight ( 10%). This extract was used
for the HA ( haemagglutination) assay using standard
methodology10. Double fold serial dilutions of 50 ul extract
in 50 ul Phosphate buffered saline( PBS) was prepared in
micro titer plates (ELISA plates)and mixed with 50ul of 2%
PBS washed human erythrocytes of O positive blood group
taken from human volunteer. Microtiter(ELISA) plates were
incubated at room temperature for about 2 hours and the HA
titer for each sample was recorded. Haemagglutination titer
(HA titer) is the maximum dilution of the sample giving a
visible agglutination. Agglutination is the clumping together
of blood cells due to the network like linkage between the
Red Blood Cells (RBCs) and the specifically reacting
molecules present in the samples. As the RBCs are coloured
there is no need of any other colouring agents. It was noted
that all the S.asoca samples (4 different tree samples taken)
gave positive haemagglutination with an HA titer ranging
from 8 to 36 where as no agglutination was given by any of
the four different Polyalthia longifolia bark samples ( HA
=0) tried .(Figure-3). This revealed that the genuine S.asoca
bark can be easily differentiated from the adulterant
Polyalthia. using this technique.
Adulteration of herbal products has clinically
relevant effects. Health problems related to herbal drugs are
observed too often due to the contaminants rather than the
declared ingredients. As these adulteration cause serious
health hazards later ,it is important to have a floor level
checking for the market samples for avoiding the adulterants.
Under this circumstances we have taken up this study to find
out an easy ,quick and reliable method for the identification
1
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Figure.2.Polyalthia longifolia
Figure.1. Saraca asoca
Haemagglutination assay (Figure 3)
2
4
8
16
32
6
6
A1 to A 4
P1 to P4
- asoka samples with 8, 8, 32, 8 as HA titer respectively.
- polyalthia samples showing no Haemagglutination.
2
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
reliable and effective tool for the authentication and quality
assessment of S. asoca and this method can be recommended
for the floor level checking of market adulterant of the
important herbal raw drug Saraca asoca. The work was
carried out during 2009- 2010.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In most of the cases of drug adulteration, the
adulterant will have similar morphology as that of the
genuine samples. It is very difficult to distinguish them
physically. If the drug in question is spurious or adulterated,
or is from an entirely different biological source it may still
contain similar confusing compounds. Hence chemical
fingerprints also will be confusing. Fingerprinting
experiments by TLC conducted showed that there were a lot
of similarities between asoka and polyalthia rather than
differences. Remashree et al has reported that the
comparative anatomical study can be taken up for the
differentiation between the original and spurious bark
samples of asoka. Very recently S.Khatoon et al has reported
that HPTLC profile studies using the methanol extract of
bark samples can be depended. All these techniques require
costly equipments , chemicals and cumbersome procedures.
But the present study revealed that HA assay using O +
human RBCs is a good technique,practically very simple,
cheap and less cumbersome. It can be used as a quick
Haemagglutination technique has never before tried
adulterant identification in herbal drugs. Usually
chromatographic techniques are reported for standardization
and to control the quality of both the raw material and the
finished products. We tried a different biological technique
that can be used for differentiating asoka from polyalthia.
The presence of an entity- a haemagglutinin- was found in
the stem barks of saraca asoca which causes agglutination
of RBCs whereas it was found to be absent in polyalthia .
Detailed studies are required to find out the specific
molecule causing haemagglutination in asoka samples.
Acknowledgement
Authors thank the financial support from ICAR.
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of herbal remedies. In Adverse effects of Herbal drugs. Vol 1, (ed.
De Smet, P.A.G.M., Keller, K., Hansel, R., Chandler, R. F.,)
Heidelberg, Springer- Verlag . pp. 1-72.
Pueppke SG, 1979.Purification and characterisation of a lectin from the
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tetragonolobus.Bioche.Biophys.Acts,581,63-70.
Rajani M, Shrivastava N, Ravishankara MN. 2000. A rapid method
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204-209.
Drug Interactions. 2nd edn. 1998. Adulteration of herbal products
Eclectic Medical Publications, Sandy.
Houghton PJ, Pharmacognosy. 1999. The basis for quality herbal
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Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia, 1998,Vols I and II, RRL.Jammu- Tawi
and IDMA, Mumbai, India.
Remashree A.B, Sudhakar R., Jayanthy A , Unnikrishnan KP
and Indira B, 2005.Comparative anatomical and phytochemical
markers to identify asoka from its common adulterant.Aryavaidyan
.Vol.XIX.1,13-24.
Khatoon S, Neha Singh, Kumar S, Srivastava N, Rathi, A and
Mehrotra S., 2009. Authentication and quality evaluation of the
important ayurvedic drug asoka bark.J. of Scientific and Industrial
Research..Vol.68393-400.
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W, 1995. Reversible hepatic veno- occlusive disease in an infant
after consumtion of pyrrolizidine containing herbal tea. Eur J
Pediatrics ,154, 112-116.
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The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India, .2001-02. Part I, Vol.I,
Demand study for selected medicinal plants, Centre for research,
planning and action, Ministry of Health and family welfare, Govt.of
India. pg 14.
Nayar, MP and Sastry ARK. 1990. Red Data Book of Indian Plants,
Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata, vol 3.
Nelson L, Shih R., Hoffman R., 1995. Aplastic anemia induced by an
adulterated herbal medication.Clin Toxicol, 33,467-470.
The Wealth of India – Raw materials, 1998. Vol IX, Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi, pp 232-234.
Parvati Menon 2002. Conservation & consumption: A study on the
crude drug trade in threatened plants in Thiruvananthapuram
district, Kerala, Kerala Research Programme on local level
development studies, Thiruvananthapuram , p 39.
The Wealth of India – Raw materials, Vol VIII, 1999. Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi, pp 187-188.
3
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Assessment of seasonal soil moisture under traditional agroforestry systems in
Garhwal Himalaya, India
ARVIND BIJALWAN
Faculty of Technical Forestry, Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM), Bhopal, M.P., India.
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The seasonal soil moisture content was assessed under three agroforestry systems viz. Agrisilviculture (AS), Agrihortisilviculture (AHS) and Agri-horticulture (AH) systems in northern and southern aspects of Garhwal Himalaya,
India. The soil moisture under these agroforestry systems was higher compared to sole agriculture (treeless or control)
system. The soil moisture ranged from 8.66 per cent (AS) in summer to 35.96 per cent (AH) in monsoon season (0-15 cm
depth) and 11.39 per cent (AS) in summer to 31.71 per cent (AS) in monsoon (16-30 cm depth). The soil moisture status
in sole agriculture system reported significantly different in all agroforestry systems under 0-15 and 16-30 cm depths.
The influence of northern aspect obtains more moisture than the southern.
Key words: Moisture content, Agroforestry, Sole cropping, Agrisilviculture, Agrihortisilviculture, Agrihorticulture
Agroforestry systems are considered more
sustainable and favourable to improve the soil properties.
Presence of trees in combination with annual crops is
believed to offer systematic plant cover to protect the soil
from erosion as well as enhancement of moisture status of
soil. In traditional agroforestry systems, trees are used to
improve the soil fertility, maintain the hydrological balance
and conserve the soil, moreover the tree-crop combination
used the soil water more efficiently than the sole cropping.
The presence of multipurpose trees as an essential
component of traditional settled agriculture on terraced
slopes, and indicated the importance of trees in
rehabilitation, improvement of degraded wastelands and
mitigating drought (Dhadwal et al 1986). In situ retention of
rainfall on the land itself by agronomic measures in the
rhizosphere for better plant growth is one of the essential
factors which can be achieved through agroforestry practices
and by suitable agronomic measures.
during 2004 to 2006. The selection of these villages (sites)
varied in elevation, aspects and biodiversity. The selected
sites stretched between sub-tropical to temperate zones. The
study area receives 1240 mm annual rainfall with the mean
monthly maximum temperature varies from 11.6 0C in
January to 26.0 0C in June, whereas the mean monthly
minimum temperature ranges from 2.3 0C in January to 16.8
0
C in July (Fig. 1).
The soil analysis was performed in the soil samples
taken from agroforestry systems and sole agriculture system
(controll) to compare the insitu moisture status of the soil.
The soil samples were randomly collected from 0-15 and 1630 cm depths during winter, summer and monsoon seasons,
using soil auger. The soil samples were collected thrice in a
season with one month interval. The soil samples were
collected from different agroforestry systems and sole
agricultural fields and immediately weighed using mobile
digital weighing balance to obtain the fresh weight of the
soil. Later the soil samples were brought to the soil science
laboratory of G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and
Technology, Hill Campus, Ranichauri, Tehri Garhwal,
Uttarakhand, India and kept in the oven at 105 0C for 24
hours till constant weight was achieved and weighed. Further
the soil moisture was calculated using gravimetric method.
The productivity in agroforestry systems is higher
as compared to sole cropping systems, because higher yield
of crop has been observed in forest influenced soil than in
ordinary soil (Chaturvedi, 1981; Sanghal, 1983; Verinumbe,
1987). Agroforestry systems based on traditional kn
owledge with water management as an integral component
are more effective for rehabilitation of degraded community
lands than afforestation with plantation crops (Maikhuri et
al. 1997). Keeping in view the appraisal and assessment of
soil moisture status under agroforestry systems, the present
study was carried out in the traditional agroforestry systems
of Garhwal Himalayan region of India.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The soil moisture percentage under agroforestry
systems was observed to be higher as compared to sole
agriculture system, which is thought to be beneficial for the
growth and development of agriculture crops. The soil
moisture ranged in different existing agroforestry systems
varied from 8.66 per cent (AS) in summer to 35.96 per cent
(AH) in monsoon season at 0-15 cm of depth and 11.39 per
cent (AS) in summer to 31.71 per cent (AS) in monsoon (1630 cm depth) on different study sites (Table 1).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was carried out in six different villages of
Tehri Garhwal district of Garhwal Himalayan region of
India, ranging between the elevation of 1000m to 2000m asl
4
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
It was observed that the soil moisture % in winter varied
from 22.38 to 29.87 %, 19.30 to 27.95 %, 14.69 to 20.97 %
in 0-15and 20.38 to 28.15 %, 18.95 to 30.12 %, 19.15 to
25.00 % in 16-30 cm depth for AS, AHS, AH systems
respectively. In summer season, the soil moisture % ranged
from 8.66 % (AS) to 17.87 % (AH) under 0-15 cm depth and
11.39 % (AS) to 20.33 % (AH) under 16-30 cm depth in
different study sites. It was recorded that the soil moisture %
varied from 8.66 to14.19 %, 10.88 to 16.53 %, 11.47 to
17.87 % in 0-15 cm depth and 11.39 to 17.80 %, 14.58 to
19.83 %, 14.70 to 20.33 % in 16-30 cm depth for AS, AHS,
AH systems respectively in summer season (Table 1). In
monsoon season the soil moisture % ranged from 25.01 to
35.96 % both in AH system (0-15 cm depth) and 22.71 %
(AH) to 31.71 % (AS) under 16-30 cm of depth on different
study sites. It was found that the soil moisture % varied from
28.89 to 35.62 %, 28.78 to 31.28 %, 25.01 to 35.96 % in 015 cm depth and 28.48 to 31.71 %, 27.57 to 30.30 %, 22.71
to 31.03 in 16-30 cm depth for AS, AHS, AH systems
respectively in monsoon season (Table 1).
Table 1: Seasonal soil moisture content (%) under traditional Agroforestry systems
AF system/ Site
Winter Season
AHS
AS
N1
S1
N2
S2
N3
S3
Mean (N+S)
Mean (N)
Mean (S)
Control
0-15
29.34
25.13
22.46
22.38
29.87
27.43
26.1
27.22
24.98
18.23
0-15
27.95
19.30
25.41
21.43
25.93
21.15
23.53
26.43
20.63
15.12
16-30
30.12
18.95
28.29
23.05
28.27
20.40
24.85
28.89
20.80
18.37
0-15
19.94
15.81
15.04
14.69
20.97
17.83
17.38
18.65
16.11
14.63
16-30
16.25
12.26
16.51
16.00
11.39
17.80
15.04
14.72
15.35
13.73
Summer Season
AHS
0-15
16-30
11.21
15.92
10.88
14.58
12.04
19.83
16.53
17.80
14.61
14.73
14.61
14.73
13.31
16.27
12.62
16.83
14.01
15.70
8.42
9.12
0-15
10.52
11.47
15.84
16.86
17.87
16.87
14.91
14.74
15.07
9.06
AF system/ Site
AS
N1
S1
N2
S2
N3
S3
Mean (N+S)
Mean (N)
Mean (S)
Control
0-15
12.10
10.02
14.19
13.95
8.66
13.85
12.13
11.65
12.61
9.55
AH
16-30
24.28
21.99
20.38
21.38
28.15
23.36
23.26
24.27
22.24
22.42
Monsoon Season
AHS
0-15
16-30
0-15
16-30
31.39
29.02
33.54
29.59
N1
28.89
28.48
30.53
29.09
S1
34.44
30.46
30.33
30.30
N2
35.62
31.71
30.88
29.27
S2
31.04
29.43
31.28
28.39
N3
33.91
30.75
28.78
27.57
S3
Mean (N+S)
32.55
29.98
30.89
29.04
Mean (N)
32.29
29.64
31.72
29.43
Mean (S)
32.81
30.31
30.06
28.64
35.58
24.19
33.54
29.73
Control
AS = Agrisilviculture system, AHS = Agrihortisilviculture system, AH= Agrihorticulture system
N (Northern aspect) = N1, N2, N3
S (Southern aspect) = S1, S2, S
16-30
24.88
23.35
19.40
19.15
25.00
23.31
22.52
23.09
21.94
18.6
AH
16-30
16.43
14.70
19.85
18.49
20.33
18.30
18.02
18.87
17.16
10.35
AF system/ Site
AS
5
AH
0-15
32.34
35.96
33.58
30.41
25.63
25.01
30.49
30.52
30.46
30.83
16-30
22.71
27.23
29.42
31.03
23.07
25.11
26.43
25.07
27.79
29.36
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
The soil moisture status in sole agriculture system
(control or without trees) is significantly different in all
agroforestry systems on different sites under 0-15 and 16-30
cm depths. The statistical analysis (Table 2) shows that there
is a significant difference (p<0.01) in the moisture content,
when compared with different aspects and seasons. Depth
had also significant difference (p<0.05) in the availability of
soil moisture content. The interaction between season and
depth (p<0.01), depth and system (p<0.05) were also
recorded significantly different (p<0.05). The soil moisture
content is higher in agroforestry system when compared in
sole cropping pattern in winter and summer season while
this trend was not as such followed in the rainy season. In
general the soil moisture content was higher in 16-20 cm of
depth under trees and treeless conditions but the situation
was adverse in the monsoon season where higher moisture
content was observed in 0-15 cm of depth. As far as
influence of aspect on soil moisture content is concerned,
the northern aspect acquired more moisture than the
southern.
2003 reported that among four depths viz. 0-15, 15-30, 3060 and 60-90 cm, the maximum moisture content was
observed in 0-15 cm deep soil layer during monsoon.
Similarly, the higher moisture content in 0-15 cm depth
under agroforestry systems in the present study was also
attributed to the exposure of upper soil to the rain during
monsoon season, while in summer season the impact of tree
shade reduced the water loss from the soil surface (Kumar
and Yadav, 2003; Singh et al 2003). In sole agriculture crop
system the soil moisture % was slightly lower as compared
to agroforestry systems, this may be due to the high rate of
evaporation of water from the surface of open fields during
summer season while reverse trend in the monsoon season
was noticed due to prevalence of excessive moisture. The
noticeable difference in the soil moisture content on
different aspects (north and south) and seasons showed that
the northern aspect always possessed higher moisture
content due to lower insulation which in turn gives birth to
rich vegetation. During May, insolation period also
increased the atmospheric and soil temperatures, which
influenced soil temperature adversely and equilibrium is
attained only after the monsoon showers are received in the
months of June to August. Donohue et al. (1987) observed
that land with a slope at right angle to the sun would receive
more heat and will warm faster than flat surface. The
statistical analysis showed that there was significant
difference in the soil moisture content on different aspects,
seasons and soil depths.
The comparative variation of tree-crop system to
sole cropping and impact of aspect and soil depth for soil
moisture conservation under different seasons and
agroforestry systems are depicted in Fig.2 & 3.One of the
most widely acclaimed advantages of agroforestry is its
potential for conserving the soil and maintaining its fertility
and productivity (Nair, 1993). In a similar study Sing et al.,
Fig. 1: Meteorological details of the study sites (2004 to 2006)
Fig. 2: Comparative soil moisture (%) in open and Agroforestry
systems in winter seasons
Max. Temp.
Min. Temp.
Relative Humidity
Rainfall
30
500
25
20
15
10
5
0
0-15
350
20
300
15
250
200
10
150
100
5
16-30
0-15
AHS
16-30
AH
Fig. 2: Comparative soil moisture (%) in open and Agroforestry
systems in summer seasons
Summer season
Tree crop system
50
0
Jan,04
Feb,04
March,04
April,04
May,04
June,04
July,04
Aug.,04
Sept.,04
Oct.,04
Nov.,04
Dec.,04
Jan,05
Feb,05
March,05
April,05
May,05
June,05
July,05
Aug.,05
Sept.,05
Oct.,05
Nov.,05
Dec.,05
Jan,06
Feb,06
March,06
April,06
May,06
June,06
July,06
Aug.,06
Sept.,06
Oct.,06
Nov.,06
Dec.,06
0
0-15
Agroforestry systems
Moisture content (%)
400
16-30
AS
Rainfall (mm), RH (%)
25
Sole cropping
30
450
.0
Max. Temp. & Min. Temp C
Moisture content (%)
Winter season
Tree crop system
15
10
5
0
0-15
Month
Sole cropping
20
16-30
AS
0-15
16-30
AHS
Agroforestry system s
6
0-15
16-30
AH
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Fig. 2: Comparative soil moisture (%) in open and Agroforestry
systems in winter, summer and monsoon seasons
Summer season
Monsoon season
Sole cropping
25
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Moisture %
20
15
0-15
10
16-30
5
Control
AH/S3
AH/N3
AH/S2
AH/N2
AH/S1
AH/N1
Control
ASH/S3
ASH/N3
ASH/S2
ASH/N2
ASH/S1
AH
Agroforestry systems
ASH/N1
AHS
AS/S3
16-30
Control
AS
0-15
AS/N3
16-30
AS/S2
0-15
AS/N2
16-30
AS/S1
0
0-15
AS/N1
Moisture content (5)
Tree crop system
Agroforestry systems/sites
Fig. 3: Seasonal soil moisture content (%) in different site (aspects)
under existing Agroforestry systems
Monsoon season
40
35
Winter season
Moisture %
35
25
0-15
16-30
Control
AH/S3
AH/N3
AH/S2
AH/N2
AH/S1
AH/N1
Control
ASH/S3
ASH/N3
ASH/S2
ASH/N2
ASH/S1
ASH/N1
Control
AS/N1
AH/S3
Control
AH/N3
AH/S2
AH/N2
AH/S1
AH/N1
Control
ASH/S3
ASH/N3
ASH/S2
ASH/N2
ASH/S1
ASH/N1
AS/S3
Control
AS/N3
AS/S2
AS/N2
AS/S1
0
AS/S3
5
AS/N3
10
AS/N1
16-30
10
5
0
AS/S2
15
0-15
AS/N2
20
30
25
20
15
AS/S1
Moisture %
30
Agroforestry systems/sites
Agroforestry sysems/sites
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efficiency in silvipastoral system. Indian J. of Agroforestry 5(172):
55-59.
Verinumbe, I. 1987. Crop production of soil under some forest plantations
in the Sahel. Agroforestry System 5(20): 185-188.
Maikhuri, R.K., Semwal, R.L., Rao, K.S. and Saxena, K.G. 1997.
Rehabilitation of degraded community lands for sustainable
development in Himalaya: a case study in Garhwal Himalaya.
7
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Effect of integrated nutrient management on growth, yield and economics of Sweet corn (Zea mays L)
N M CHAUHAN
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, RRRS, NAU, Vyara, Tapi, Gujarat, India.
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Field experiment was conducted at Agronomy farm B.A.College of Agriculture, Anand during Kharif season of the year
2004-05.The main objective of the study was to find out the effect of organic & inorganic fertilizer on seed yield of sweet
corn (Zea mays L.). The experiment was studied with split plot design having two levels of Biofertilizer, FYM and
phosphorus as main plot treatments along with five levels of nitrogen as sub plot treatment. Application of organic
matter had significantly increased height and all crop growth parameters and 5.75 per cent more grain yield with
application of FYM@10 ha-1. Seed inoculation with Pseudomonas gave significant increase in growth and yield
parameters and grain yield increased to the tune of 8.24 percent. Application of phosphorus significantly increased
plant height at all crop growth stages and higher grain yield recorded by 6.74 per cent than central. Seed yield of sweet
corn as well as growth and yield attributes were significantly increased due to varying lends of nitrogen. The higher
grain yield (1633 kg ha-1) and strawer yield (5783 kg ha-1) was recorded with 120 and 160 kg N ha -1 respectively. The net
realization of Rs. 30525 and 29255 ha-1 was recorded with 10 Tn FYM ha-1. Seed inoculation gave 31485 Rs. ha-1 and
application of P2O5 at 0 and 50 kg. P2O5 ha-1 gave 6.70 per cent and 4.43 per cent higher grain and straw yield,
respectively. The significant higher strawer yield were recorded with varying levels of Nitrogen, but highest net return
was obtained with 120 kg nitrogen per hectare, The strawer yield were increased significantly with increasing levels of
nitrogen from 0 to 160 kg per hectare.
Key words: Maize, Nitrozen, Growth, Phosphorus, Potash
Maize (Zea mays L.) popularily known as corn is
one of the most important cereal of the world, ranking third
amongst the food crops, next to rice and wheat both in
respect of area and production.India occupied and area of
10.58 lakh hectares with the production of 14.32 lakh tones
during the year 1993 correspondingly the Gujarat state had
an area of 3.68 lakh ha with the production of 5.29 lakh
tones.In Gujarat Maize is one of the important traditionally
grown crop of tribal areas. Comprising the districts of
Panchmahals, Sabarkantha, Banaskantha and Part of Baroda
& Kheda districts, now recently this crop may be introduce
in South Gujarat districts like Surat, Tapi. Among these
districts Panchmahals is a leading district which accounts for
area of 2.62 lakh hectares and production of 2.15 lakh tones.
Maize is one of the crop that responses well to
phosphoric fertilizer in almost all the soil types. It plays vital
role in plant nutrition. The deficiency of phosphorus is soil
severely limits root and shoot growth and thereby affecting
the yield. The availability of phosphorous are also low as
compared to that of N & K. under such situation, the
phosphate solubilizing micro organism plays significant role
in making the phosphorous available to plants by secretion
of organic acids and enzyme phosphatase which solubilizes
the insoluble phosphate and thereby it helps in increasing the
crop production.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The field experiment was conducted during the
kharif season of years 2004-05 at agronomy farm of
B.A.College of Agriculture, AAU, Anand. The experiment
was laid out on sandy loam soil, locally known as Goradu
soil with very deep, well drained & fairly moisture retentive
but low as compared to black soil. The experiment was laid
out in forty treatments comprising all possible combinations
of two levels of O.M. (FYM), two levels of Pseudomonas,
two levels of phosphoric along with five lends of nitrogen
.The study was carried out with split plot design (SPD).
Combination of FYM×inoculations x phosphorous were
taken as main plot treatment while levels of nitrogen were
taken as subplot treatments with three replication having 5.4
m x 3.6 m gross plot size, 60 cm x 20 cm spacing and
dibbling method of sowing. Application of well decomposed
FYM as basal at 10 + ha-1 as per treatment 20 a. of total
nitrogen
of
respective
Remaining 80% of nitrogen was applied in two installments
UBC 50% of the total quantity at knew height stage and
Among various types of maize, sweet corn is very
popular for the use of its green cabs in the United States of
America. It differs from the field corn due to its higher
sweetness, as it has high amount of sugar & alcoholic
material. Besides, its consumption as vegetable purpose, it is
also utilized for extracting sucrose as an industrial
purpose.The role of O.M. for increasing crop production has
been universally established, as it plays significant role in
improving physical and chemical properties of the soil
application of 12-15 tonner of FYM helps in increasing the
yield of maize crop to the tune of 1.5 to 5.6 a / ha. Sweet
corn is one of the heavy consumers of plant nutrients. It
remains about 72 kg N2, 25 kg P2O5 and 220 kg K2O / ha.
Nitrogen is the key element in crop growth and is the most
limiting nutrient in Indian soils. The importance of nitrogen
for increasing the yield has been widely accepted.
levels of N compiled with full dose of phosphorous in form
of SSP in a previously open furrow at the depth of 8-10 cm.
8
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
remaining 30 N of total amount at milking stage, The
observations were recorded from five randomly selected
plants from net plot (Pl. height, no.of barren plants) on
growth & yield attributing character and also economics of
(length of cob, number of cobs per plant, kernels row per
cob, no. of kernels per cob, grain & stover yield) of sweet
corn.
values of plant height at each period of crop growth stage and
higher grain yield 1325 kg ha-1,
Table-1: Effect of Integrated Nutrient Management of growth of sweet
corn as influenced by levels of inoculation, FYM, phosphorus &
Nitrogen.
Treatment
Plant height (cm)
21
42
63 DAS
84 DAS
DAS
DAS
Inoculation
C0 uninoculated
15.36
40.88
129.35
142.13
C1 Inoculated
16.44
46.72
137.33
143.63
CD (P= 0.05)
0.21
0.80
1.02
1.24
FYM t ha-1
F0 0
15.81
42.57
133.18
142.45
F1 10
15.99
45.03
133.50
143.32
CD (P= 0.05)
NS
0.80
NS
NS
Phosphorus kg ha-1
P0 0
15.55
43.02
131.00
141.02
P1 50
16.25
44.58
135.68
144.75
CD (P= 0.05)
0.21
0.80
1.02
1.29
C.V. %
3.38
4.63
1.95
2.22
Nitrogen kg ha-1
N0 0
14.89
37.88
122.75
135.92
N1 40
15.30
40.04
129.96
139.17
N2 80
16.12
44.50
135.63
142.80
N3 120
16.24
47.00
188.33
146.63
N4 160
16.93
49.58
140.04
149.92
CD (P= 0.05)
0.28
1.36
1.84
1.51
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Growth and Yield
With a view to study the effects of organic matter,
inoculation of phosphate solubilizing microorganism along
with levels of phosphorous and nitrogen on the growth and
grain yield of sweet corn (Zea mays L.).The findings on the
yields of growth and yield attributed characters and
economics as influenced by different treatments are showed
in table-1 and 2.
Effect of seed inoculation with
pseudomonas was found significant in respect to plant height
at all growth stages. Seed treated with pseudomonas gave
significant taller plants as compared to un inoculated seed
.measured at21 days interval, i.e 21,42.63 and 84 DAS at all
growth (16.44, 46.72, 137.33, 143.09) and grain (1340 kg ha1
) stages this might be due to the ability of phosphobacteria
to bring soluble / insoluble inorganic and organic phosphates
into soluble forms by secretion of organic acids. Similar
results were also noted by Kataraki et al. (2004). Application
of FYM on sweet corn found non significant effect of FYM
on plant height measured periodically at 21, 63 & 84 DAS.
However, the application of FYM gave numerically higher
but Straw yield had non significant effect.This could be
attributed to the lower mineralization of organic nitrogen.
Such observation was also made by Sahoo and Mahapatra
(2004).
Table-2: Grain, Strover yield & economics of Sweet corn as influenced by inoculation, FYM, phosphorus and nitrogen levels.
Treatment
Grain yield (kg
ha-1)
Strover yield
ha-1)
(kg
Gross realization
(Rs./ha)
Total cost of
cultivation (Rs./ha)
Net Realization
(Rs./ha)
BCR
Inoculation
C0
C1
CD (P= 0.05)
FYM (t ha-1)
F0
F1
CD (P= 0.05)
Phosphorus
P0
P1
CD (P= 0.05)
1238
1340
61.08
4481
4838
189.61
32745
35435
3900
3950
28845
31485
7.39
7.97
1253
1325
61.08
4575
4752
NS
33155
35025
3900
4500
29255
30525
7.50
6.78
1247
1331
61.08
4550
4777
189.61
32995
35185
3900
4540
29095
30645
7.46
6.75
C.V. %
12.10
10.38
Nitrogen
N0
N1
1013
1128
3447
3935
26703
29774
3900
4272
22803
25502
5.84
5.96
1341
1633
1331
67.38
4671
5481
5783
222.25
35371
43017
35588
4543
4815
5087
30828
38202
30501
6.78
7.93
5.99
9.05
8.27
N2
N3
N4
CD (P= 0.05)
Interaction
CXP
C.V.%
9
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Application of phosphorus @ 50 kg P 2O5 ha-1 was
found significant on the plant height measured at all growth
stages, grain yield (1331), strawer yield 4777 kg ha-1 (i.e.
21,42.03, 63 and 84 DAS) significant increase pl. height
(16.25,44.58,135.68,144.75) due to the phosphorus as a key
element influences different physiological process such as
cell division & elongation , Pandey et al. (2000)
the interaction effect were significantly gave higher growth
of and grain & strover yield of sweet corn.
The data on gross and net realization for different
treatments of FYM, inoculation, Phosphorus and nitrogen
presented in table-2 revealed that the higher net returns of
Rs. 30525 / ha were received with treatment F 1 (FYM
50kg/ha) of the seed treatment with Pseudomonas sp. gave a
higher net returns & Rs. 31485 / ha as compared to
uninoculated control. Application as 50 kg P 2O5 / ha gave a
higher net return of Rs. 30645 / ha as compare with no
application of phosphorus.
Significant linear increase in plant height, grown &
strover yield was observed with each successive increase in
nitrozen levels from 0 to 160 Kg .ha-1. Significantly
increased the grain yield (1331 kg ha-1) & strover yield
(5783 kg ha-1) with 160 kg ha-1 and also showed the
maximum plant height (16.93, 49.58, 140.04, and 149.92) at
all the crop growth stages. The higher availability of nitrogen
might have increased its uptake as a results of which
increased cell size and enhanced cell division, seems to have
played an important role in increasing the plant height and
yield, this findings Confirms to those reported by Sharma
and Gupta (1998). Interaction effect between inoculation and
phosphorus, FYM with phosphorus and nitrogen levels all
Among the nitrogen levels, the maximum net
returns of Rs. 38202/ha were realized with the application of
120 kg ha-1. The results confirm the findings of Adhikari et
al.(2005). On the basis of study the results obtained from the
investigation the conclusion can be draw for getting
maximum seed and thereby net monetary realization the
sweet corn should be fertilized with 10 t FYM + 120 kg N
ha-1 + 50 kg P2O5 besides, seed inoculation with
pseudomonas sp. raised on sandy seats of middle Gujarat.
REFERENCES
Adhikari, S., Chakraborty, T. Bagchi, D.K. 2005. Bio-economic
evaluation of maize (Zea mays L.) and groundnut (Arachis hypogaea)
itercropping in drought prone areas of chotonagpur pleateau region of
Jharkhand. Indian J. of Agronomy 50(2):113-115.
Sahoo, S.C. and Mahapatra, P.K. 2004. Response of sweet corn (Zea
mays L.) to nitrogen levels and plant population. Indian J. of
Agricultural Sciences 74(6):337-338.
Kataraki, N.G., Desai,B.K., and Pujari, B.T. 2004. Integrated nutrient
management in irrigated maize. Karnataka J. of Agricultural Science
17(1):1-4.
Sharma,M.P. and Gupta, G.P.1998. Effect of organic materials on grain
yield and soil properties in maize – wheat cropping system. Indian J.
of
Agricultural
Sciences
68(11):715-717
Pandey, A.K., Ved, Prakash, Mani, V.P. and Singh, V.P., 2000. Effect of
rate of nitrogen and time of application on yield and economics of
baby corn (Zea mays L) Indian J. of Agronomy 45(2): 338-343.
10
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Study the gender involvement of buffalo husbandry and their perception in tribal belt of Rajasthan
C M Yadav, B S Bhimawat and P M Khan
KVK, Bhilwar, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology,Udaipur, Rajasthan, India.
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
A sponsored training program conducted on improved buffalo husbandry practices at KVK Dungarpur. In this training
program 50 tribal women participated. All the desired information colleted from tribal women through personal
interview. All the respondents were categories on the basis of age, land size, herd size and milk produced for sale,
respectively most of the respondents time spent about 28 per cent in cleaning of animal sheds and dung disposal , same
time spent in fodder harvesting , 26 per cent milking 10 per cent calf rearing and 8 per cent health management.
Majoring of females performed operation like, milking, bathing, watering, feeding and health care, respectively.
However, 100 percent female involvement like Dung disposed and cleaning sheds. Mostly 64 per cent respondent
problem like anoestrus, 32 per cent repeat breeding 20 per cent prolapse, 10 per cent mastitis, 8 per cent calf mortality
and 4 per cent bloat, respectively. These finding are that operations such as cleaning of sheds, collection dung; in which
women are actively involved need to become skill oriented. Further more the animal scientists are required to develop
modern and cost effective technologies to be disseminated to the end users through extension agents.
Key words: Gender, Involvement, Buffalo, Tribal, Rajasthan, perception
Livestock being an integral part of agriculture in
India are instruments of future growth and development of
the agriculture sector. Rural women play a very important
role in animal production and participate actively in areas
like animal feeding, milking, breeding cleaning and
providing health care to the animals. As an adjunct to
agriculture, livestock production contributes substantially to
poverty alleviation and created employment opportunities,
particularly in rural areas. India is endowed with most
fabulous livestock wealth in the world with 16.49 percent
cattle population and 56.77 percent buffalo population with
both the species, but together countries to 28 percent of
world's large ruminant population. The size land holding had
highly significantly correlation with feeding practices. The
quality and quantity of ration was directly related to the
economic status of the farmers ( Yadav and Bhimawat
2007). Nearly one-third of the households in the state
maintained buffalo alone, cattle along and both (cattle and
buffalo ) production systems ( Gupta et al. 2007) .
available feed and fodder material ( input) into milk and
other by product (output) reported by Gupta et al (2008).
Women constitute about half of the world's population,
account for 60 percent of working hours and contributing up
to 30 percent of the official labour force. Sangwan et al
(1990) reported that the Male and female in farm and diary
sectors in which men are involved in planning and women in
implantation of the activity. Thus, present study was
conducted to study the gender involvement of buffalo
husbandry and their perception about different problems
associated with buffalo rearing.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Under the tribal womens training program on
improved buffalo husbandry practices, a program was
conducted for women in village Faloz, district Dungarpur of
Rajasthan by Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Dungarpur in
Collaboration with Livestock Development Board, Jaipur for
three day. Fifty women participated in this training program.
The response was elicited with a well structured
questionnaire on different issues pertaining to gender
involved and perception their various problems of buffalo
rearing. The data was first tabulated and appropriately
analyzed to draw meaning inference. The data was analyzed
in the form of frequency percentage and as per method of
Snedecor and Cochran (1980).
Buffalo production is instrumental in improving the
nutrition security because of the fact that most of the milk
and meat in the country is produced by the buffaloes. It is on
important source of manure, domestic fuel and draught
power in rural areas. Buffalos are backbone of commercial
dairying due to their fat rich production potential. Livestock
sector is an important source of livelihood in Rajasthan for
rural farmers. Bovine farming is a process to convert
11
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
women's knowledge and experience while planning the
research and livestock development programmers suitable to
women. Gender involvement in buffalo husbandry practices
are presented in Table 3. It is Evident from the table that the
majority of the females i.e. about 80 percent of them
performed operations like feeding, 92 percent watering, 96
percent bathing, and milking, 80 percent fodder harvesting,
60 percent heat detection, 80 percent animals care and
calving and 40 percent health management and artificial
insemination. However, operations like cleaning of sheds
and dung disposal were solely performed by the women.
Profile of respondents in villages background
features were collected (Table 1). The structure of
responding sub population of the village involved 45.7
percent respondents from young age groups while 34 percent
were of middle age group. The rest of the 20.3 percent were
old. It show that most of them were young and in productive
age group. As far as their land holdings size is concerned,
Majority of them 65 percent were either landless or having
land holding up to < 2.5 acres. 25.3 percent of the
respondents possessed land size between 2.5 to 5 acres and
about 9.7 percent respondents were having more than 5
acres, which is in close agreement with the finding of Bhagat
et al. (2008).
Identification of buffalo problem as perceived by
women farmers are given in Table 4. The women
respondents were well apprised with the physiological
problems of buffaloes. Anoestrus condition in buffaloes was
emerged as a serious problem in buffaloes as affirmed by 64
percent respondent. 32 percent repeat breeding, 20 percent
prolapse, 10 percent, mastitic 8 percent calf mortify and
retained placenta and 4 percent bloat, respondents
respectively (Table 4).
Regarding the herd size, study revealed that 54
percent of the respondents owed 3 to 5 buffalo and 10.2
percent respondents possessed more than 5 buffalo of animal
strength . 35.8 percent of the respondents were having less
than 2 or 2 buffalos per family in the village. Information
was also elicited with respect to the amount of milk
produced for household. It is obvious from the Table 1 that
the 86 percent respondents produced up to 10 Kg milk for
sale while only 14 percent produced more than 10 Kg. for
disposed.
It could be concluded in this study that respondents
of tribal district of Rajasthan were following a good number
of buffalo husbandry practices. It was encouraging to find
that majority of these practices were rated as rational and
useful by the scientist. Tribal women were highly
involvement in buffalo husbandry practices. So it is need to
develop suitable strategy and arranging adequate and timely
training to women about modern technologies to make them
more skilled care-takers of buffalo husbandry. It is
imperative and urgent to reorient and modify the traditional
practices. So that the scientifically proven practices are
easily be diffused and adopted by buffalo owners.
Time spent in buffalo husbandry practices by
women:
Women have big contribution in buffalo husbandly
practices. Table 2 shows that 28% time spent in cleaning of
animal sheds and fodder harvesting, 26% time spent in
milking, 10% calf rearing and 8% health management,
respectively. There is need to take due cognizance of
Table 1 : Profile of respondents in village :
Age Profile
Land Size
Herd Size
Milk produced
Percent
respondents
Acres
Percent
responding
Herd size
(respondents)
Percent
responding
Milk
produced ( Kg.)
Percent
responding
< 10 to 30 (Young )
45.7
Land less to < 2.5
65
<2 to 2
35.8
1 to 5
40
30 -50 ( Middle)
34.0
2.5 to 5.0
25.3
3 to 5
54.0
6 to 10
46
750 (Old)
20.3
> 5.0
9.7
>5
10.2
>10
14
Category
(Years)
Table 2 : Time occupation as per various activities :
Activities
Percent time spent
28
26
28
10
8
Cleaning of animal sheds and dung disposal
Milking & Preparation of milk products
Fodder harvesting and procurement
Calf rearing
Buffalo health management
12
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Table 3 : Gender Involvement in buffalo husbandry practices
Feeding
Male (n)
( Frequency percent)
5 (10)
Female (n)
( Frequency percent)
40 (80)
Both genders
(n) (Frequency percent)
5 (10)
Watering
2 (4)
46 (92)
2 (4)
Bathing
NIL
48 (96)
2 (4)
Milking
2 (4)
48 (96)
NIL
Fodder harvesting
4 (8)
40 (80)
6 (12)
Heat detection
10 (20)
30 (60)
10 (20)
Health Management and AI
Activities
20 (40)
20 (40)
10 (20)
Dung disposal
NIL
50 (100)
NIL
Cleaning fodder
NIL
50 (100)
NIL
Chaffing fodder
NIL
NIL
NIL
Animal care at Calving
4 ( 8)
40 (80)
6 (12)
Table 4 : Identification of buffalo problem as perceived by women farmers.
Problems expressed by respondents
Respondents
Percent
Anoestrus
32
64
Repeat Breeding
16
32
Mastitis
5
10
Prolapse
10
20
Calf mortality
4
4
Bloat
2
4
Retained Placenta
4
8
REFERENCES
Bhagat, R. L., Gokhale, S.B., Pande, A.B. and Phadka, N.L. 2008. Socio,
eonomic factors influence conception rat in cattle under field
conditions.
Sangwan, V. Munjal, S. and Punia, R.K. 1990. Participation of women in
form activities. Indian J. of Extension Education 26:112.
Snedecore, G. W. and Cochran W.G. 1980. Statistical methods, 8th end.
Iowa state university press, Ames Iowa.
Gupta, D.C., Suresh, A and Singh, V.K. 2007. Livestock growth and
major production systems in different agro- climatic zones of
Rajasthan. Indian J.of Animal science 77: 494-99.
Yadav , C.M. and Bhimawat, B.S. 2007. Adoption of buffalo feeding
practices In the tribal of Dungarpur district of Rajasthan Nutrition
Conference, Oct. 4-7 at NDRI, Karnal, P.P. 70
Gupta, D.C., Suresh. A. and Mann, J.S. 2008. Management practices and
productivity status of cattle and buffalo in Rajasthan. Indian J. of
Animal Science 78(7) : 769-774
13
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Impact of front line demonstration on adoption of improved castor production technology
S R KUMAWAT*, M L REGAR* AND D S BHATI**
*Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Jalore and **KVK, Sriganganagar (SKRAU), Rajasthan, India.
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The present study have undertaken in four adopted villages of Krishi Vigyan Kendra in Jalore district of Rajasthan. A
sample of 180 farmers was taken by proportionate random sampling techniques comprising 90 farmers of
demonstration and 90 farmers as non-demonstration. The result of the study found that maximum numbers of
respondents were having medium level of knowledge in both categories while there was a significant difference was
noticed in high level and low level of knowledge about castor production technologies of demonstrated and nondemonstratee farmers. Selected respondents of under the study were having sufficient adoption level in castor
production technology while low level of adoption were recorded in crop techniques viz: Plant Protection, Seed
Treatment, Balance use of manure and fertilizers and Irrigation management. The study identified constraints faced by
castor farmers which induces more number of male farmers, long duration and non-availability of root-rot tolerant
varieties. The study suggest for conducting intensive trainings on plant protection measures, seed treatment, irrigation
management and balance fertilization for castor farmers to enhance the castor productivity in the area.
The ICAR introduced the concept of “first Line
demonstration” under the ‘ Oil seed Technology Mission”
during 1990-91. Later on these demonstrations were termed
as “ Front Line Demonstrations” Front Line Demonstrations
are the field demonstrations conducted under the close
supervision of National agricultural Research System
comprising of
ICASR institutions, National research
Centers, Project Directorate , Krishi Vigyan Kendras and
state Agricultural Universities and their Regional Research
Stations. Along with transfer of technology, the basic
purpose of these demonstrations is to test research findings
on farmers field and to get direct feed back from the farmers
so that the scientists can reorient their research and training
programmes. These demonstrations are conducted mainly on
various oil seed and pulses crops to boost their production
and productivity by using latest technologies.
to study the responses of farmers towards the use of
improved practices of castor for its sustainability and
enhancement in its production and productivity. Realizing
the importance of Front Line Demonstrations in transfer of
technology, it was thought appropriate to study the effect of
these demonstrations with following objectives :-
Castor is an important oilseed cash crop. It may be
grown in tropical, sub-tropical and temperate climate. India,
with 1076.7 thousand hectares is the largest castor growing
country in the world with 866.6 thousand tones of
production, the highest in the world. The average yield of
castor in India is only 805 kg/ha. as against the world
average of 1056 kg/ha. India accounts for 35 percent and 37
percent of global area and production, respectively. Castor
oil obtained from castor seed is non-edible, but it is used as
raw material in manufacture of a number of specially soaps,
cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, perfumes, paints and lubricants
etc. The total castor production in Rajasthan state is 46000
tones. The state is third highest in India after Gujarat and
Andhra Pradesh. The total area and average yield is
estimated to be 121200 hectare and 380 kg/ha. Respectively.
In Rajasthan, the major castor producing district are Jalore,
Sirohi, Barmer, Pali and Jodhpur. So far very few efforts
have been made by the behavioral scientists
MATERIALS AND METHODS
To find out the extent of knowledge of demonstrator and
non-demonstrator farmers about castor production
technology.
To measure the extent of adoption of improved castor
production technology by the demonstrator and nondemonstrator farmers.
To identify the constraints being perceived by the farmers in
castor production technology.
The present study was conducted in purposelyselected FLD villages of KVK Keshwana Jalore i.e. Harmu
,Bedana, Methari and Badanwari under three Panchyat
Samiti namely Sayla, Ahore and Jalore of Jalore district of
Rajasthan in the year 2003-04, 2004-05 and 2005-06
respectively. For this study 90 demonstrator farmers and 90
non-demonstrator farmers were selected. The data were
collected through personal interview with the help of pretested schedule. The responses of demonstrator and nondemonstrator farmers (90+90) were recorded in two-point
continuum (known / unknown) in case of knowledge
measurement and (yes/no) in case of constraints in castor
production. In case of measurement of adoption of castor
production technology responses of farmers were recorder
according the weights was given by Agronomist
14
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Distribution of respondents according to their level of
knowledge about CPTThe knowledge of respondents about castor
production technology (CPT) was measured. Respondents
were divided in to three knowledge groups based on
knowledge score obtained by them. The data related to
knowledge of two categories of respondents (Demonstrator
and Non-demonstrator farmers of FLD) indicate that the
farmers knowledge of CPT has wide gap. In order to place
the respondents into appropriate categories knowledge scores
were distributed as reported in table-1.
possessed medium level of knowledge about CPT. This is
interesting to note that none of the respondents in the sample
was reported to be with low level of knowledge and only 27
respondents(30.00 percent) had high level of knowledge
about CPT. Among the Non-demonstrator farmers 69
respondents (76.67 percent) respondents had medium level
of knowledge about CPT. This was followed by 13
respondents (14.44 percent) who possessed low level of
knowledge . It was interesting to note that few farmers 8
(8.89 percent) was reported with high level of knowledge
about CPT.
The frequency as well as percentage of the
respondents falling in each category was workout. The
critical evaluation of table-1 clearly shows that majority of
castor grower 132 (73.33 percent) had medium level of
knowledge regarding CPT. Where as 35 respondents (19.44
percent)have high level of knowledge but only 7.23 percent
respondents have low level of knowledge regarding CPT. In
case of demonstrator farmers 63respondents (70.00 per cent)
Benefited farmers have more knowledge about all
the production technology than the no-benefited farmers.
Among no-benefited farmers about 20 to 40 % have least
knowledge about seed treatment, spacing, manure and
fertilizer management and plant protection measures.
Table-1. Distribution of respondents according to their level of knowledge about CPT
Demonstrator (N-90)
Non-demonstrator (N-90)
Total (N-180)
Knowledge categories
Frequency
Per cent
Frequency
Per cent
Frequency
Per cent
Low (Up to 18 score)
00
00.00
13
14.44
13
7.23
Medium (19-36 score)
63
70.00
69
76.67
132
73.33
27
30.0
8
8.89
35
19.44
High (Above 36 score)
Table-2. Extent of knowledge of farmers about castor production technology
Practices
High yielding verities
Soil and field preparation
Sowing time
Seed rate
Seed treatment
Spacing and sowing depth
Manure and fertilizer management
Irrigation management
Weed management
Plant protection measure
Harvesting of castor
Number
73
65
85
87
68
71
58
74
87
66
78
Demonstrator (N=90)
Per cent
81
72
94
96
75
79
64
82
96
73
86
15
Rank
V
IX
II
I
VII
VI
X
IV
I
VIII
III
Non-Demonstrator (N=90)
Number
Per cent
51
56
43
48
69
76
61
67
28
31
35
39
25
27
46
51
53
59
20
22
35
39
Rank
IV
VI
I
II
VIII
VII
IX
V
III
X
VII
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Table-3. Adoption of farmers about Castor production technology
Practice
Use of Hybrid seeds
Field preparation
Sowing time
Seed treatment
Seed rate and spacing and Sowing depth
Use of balance manure and fertilizer
Irrigation management
Weed management
Plant protection management
Harvesting and storage
Demonstrator (n-90)
MPS
78.88
68.88
62.22
46.66
76.66
45.44
57.77
72.22
38.88
71.11
Rank
I
V
VI
VIII
II
IX
VII
III
X
IV
The responses of the farmers were recorded and
score was given to each farmer for each practices. Percent
adoption was measured with obtained score is divided by
total score of each practices and multiplied by 100.
Non-Demonstrator(n_90)
MPS
31.11
45.55
40.00
24.44
61.11
24.44
35.55
52.22
20.00
57.77
Rank
VI
IV
V
VIII
I
VIII
VI
III
IX
II
hindering farmers to an extent of 93 Percent and was placed
at second position in the rank hierarchy. This was followed
by non availability of wilt resistance variety of castor with
MPS 79 Percent and was assigned third rank by respondents,
respectively. Non- availability chemicals at local markets
(MPS 30) was expressed at least severe barrier in the
constraints in castor production and awarded last (Ninth)
rank.
The over all ranking of Demonstrator farmers
regarding their adoption about CPT shows that they
possessed highest adoption about “Use of hybrid seeds”
ranked as first with MPS 78.88 followed by seed rate and
spacing and sowing depth which was ranked at second place
with MPS 76.66 and weed management which had been
ranked third with MPS 62.50. Based on table 3, it can be
highlighted that out of the total ten aspects of CPT, three
important practices in ascending order of importance were
not followed by farmers satisfactorily which are ranked X,
IX, VIII with their 38.88, 45.44 and 46.66, respectively. The
practices were Plant Protection Management, Use of balance
fertilizer and manure and Seed treatment. The highest
adoption might have been appeared regarding use of hybrid
seeds because half production of a crop is depend upon the
quality of seed and in case of second highest adoption of
seed rate and spacing because of the reason that the practices
are not much complicated. Least adoption was reported in
plant protection management, Use of balance fertilizer and
manure and Seed treatment due to least knowledge about
these practices. The findings are in line of Kumar, Dileep
and Dangi, K.L.(2003).
A critical analysis of the data presented in table-4
indicate that the demonstrator farmers expressed that inflorescence of male flower (MPS 100) , long duration of
crop(MPS 96) and non availability of wilt resistance
variety( MPS 73), constraints as first three important
constraints, because maleness in castor is a serious problem,
it reduce production directly, this problem mainly due to four
reasons that is firstly by low quality seed, secondly by
suddenly change in temperature, thirdly by long dry spell to
the crop and fourthly by imbalance fertilization. Hence
knowledge of farmers should be increased and proper
solution should be communicated to farmers. Second
important constraints was long duration of crops, it takes
both Kharif and Rabi season, hence only one crop is take in
year.
Where as in case of Non-demonstrator farmers long
duration of crop (MPS 90) in-florescence of male flower
(MPS 88) and non availability of wilt resistant variety (MPS
85) are major three constraints in CPT. In case of least
constraints were market price is very low, Non- availability
chemicals at local markets and non availability of hybrid
seeds and ranked IX, VIII, and VII respectively.
Where as in case of non-demonstrator farmers the
highest adoption was reported in seed rate and spacing and
sowing depth with MPS 61.11 and ranked first. The second
highest adoption was expressed by non-demonstrator farmers
on harvesting and storage with MPS 57.77 because nondemonstrator farmers have average knowledge about this
practices. The third rank of adoption by the farmers was
weed management (MPS 52.22). The practices were Plant
Protection Management, Use of balance fertilizer and
manure and Seed treatment as least adoption and ranked IX
and VIII, respectively.
Based on the study it could be concluded that clearcut difference was reported in case of low level of
knowledge i.e. non of demonstrator farmers were under this
category where as 14.44 percent non-demonstrator fall under
this category. Where as in case of high level of knowledge
about CPT was clearly shows that 30 percent demonstrator
farmers were fall under this category where as only 8.89
percent non-demonstrator farmers have a high level of
knowledge about CPT.
An attempted has been made to identify the
constraints related to castor production. The constraints with
their degree of effect have been presented here under. Data
in table 4 indicate that majority of the respondents were
confronted with in-fluorescence of male flower with MPS 94
and assigned first ranks in problem hierarchy by them.
Further long duration crop was a serious constraints
Out of the total ten major aspects of caster
production technology selected for assessing extent of
adoption, maximum adoption was reported in Use of hybrid
seed (78.88 percent) in case of demonstrator farmers and in
16
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
case of non-demonstrator farmers seed rate and spacing
(61.11percent)was major adoption aspects of CPT.
that extent of knowledge and adoption of CPT was higher
among demonstrator farmers than the non-demonstrator
farmers. The finding of this study clearly shows that FLD
programme played an important role in increasing the
farmers for adopting innovations and increasing their yied
and profits.
Inflorescence of male flower was major problem in
caster production where as non-availability of chemicals at
local markets was least problem in CPT. It can be conclude
Table-4. Constraints in Castor production
Constraints
Non availability of Hybrid Seed
Non availability of Wilt resistance variety
In florescence of male flower
Market price is very low
Long duration crop
Lack of knowledge about incidence of diseases and pest
Non availability of chemical at local market.
Lack of financial facility
Any other- electricity for irrigation
Demonstrator (N=90)
MPS
Rank
24
73
100
28
96
34
21
39
53
VIII
III
I
VII
II
VI
IX
V
IV
Non-Demonstrator (N=90)
MPS
Rank
42
85
88
36
90
76
39
50
52
VII
III
II
IX
I
IV
VIII
VI
V
Total
MPS
Rank
33
79
94
32
93
55
30
44.5
52.5
VII
III
I
VIII
II
IV
IX
VI
V
REFERENCES
Desai, C.P., Pandey, D. N, Patel, M.R. and Patel AA 1996. Farmer’s
satisfaction with adoption of cumin cultivation, Gujarat Agriculture
University Research J., 21(2), 72-75.
Kumar, Dileep and Dangi KL 2003. Adoption of improved castor
production technology among tribal and non tribal farmers. Raj. J.
Extn, Edu Vol. XI, 36-40
Lakhera J.P. and Sharma B M 2002. Impact of front line demonstration
an adoption of improved mustard production technology. Raj. J.
Extn. Edu. Vol. X, 43-47.
17
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Attitude of women SHG members towards SHPIs and problems faced by them in running the SHGs
VEENITA KUMARI
Department of Extension Education,& Communicatio Management, College of Home Science, CAU, Tura, Meghalaya, India.
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The study was conducted in West Garo Hills district of Meghalaya under ‘Intra Mural Research Project’ funded by
Central Agricultural University. One of the objectives of the study was to assess the attitude of women entrepreneurs
towards Self Help Promoting Institutions and also to find out the problems faced by them in running the Self Help
Group. The result has revealed that most of the respondents (80.67 per cent) had favourable attitude towards the SHPIs
while 12.66 per cent of them had most favourable attitude followed by 6.67 per cent of respondents with least favourable
attitude towards them. The study found that major problems faced by them were group conflict, lack of motivation of
members of the group, members are less hardworking and does not owe due responsibility of their duties, in- fighting
among group members, competition with other Self Help Groups, etc. The result also showed that the respondents
didn’t have any problem or resistance from parents, in-laws or husband/spouse.
Keywords: Attitude, Women Entrepreneurs, Problems, SHPIs, SHGs
Women entrepreneurs have been making significant
impact in all segments of the economy. The emerging changes
in the values and attitudes of the members of the SHGs are a
clear manifestation of socio- economic empowerment
interventions yielding relatively quicker results. A true
entrepreneurial attitude requires refusing to quit when things get
tough. According to Secord and Backman 5 (1964) the term
attitude refers to certain regularities of an individual’s feelings,
thoughts and predispositions to act towards some aspects of his
environment. Attitude as been defined “as the degree of positive
and negative effect associated with some psychological objects”
(Edwards19691). The complexity of the problem of women
empowerment process itself requires both macro and micro
considerations, and it is difficult to pass a judgment on its
success by using a single or just a few selected criteria. Life for
a women entrepreneur having a small scale industry is not a bed
of roses. The individual women entrepreneur single handedly
faces a plethora of seemingly endless problems. But despite
these numerous barriers and tangible obstacles women are,
today, entering the field of business in increasing numbers.
SHGs have the power to create a socio- economic revolution in
the rural areas of our country. SHGs have not only produced
tangible assets and improved living conditions of the members
but also helped in changing much of their social outlook and
attitudes. The nature of attitude held by women entrepreneurs
towards their support agencies reflects the degree of credibility
in their support agencies. In the running of SHGs, its members
are surrounded by a wide variety of problems which affects
their performance. Therefore, it is necessary to implore these
problems. Hence the study was carried out with the following
objectives
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted in 29 villages and one urban
area of West Garo Hills district of Meghalaya. Five SHPIs –
District Rural Development Agency, International Fund for
Agricultural Development, District Sericulture Department,
BAKDIL (NGO) and Bethany Society (NGO) were randomly
selected as SHPIs. 30 respondents from six villages supported
by these SHPIs were randomly selected keeping into
consideration that they were active SHG members.
To assess attitude of women entrepreneurs towards
SHPIs, 19 statements were framed. These statements were
marked on a five point continuum scale as ‘Strongly agree’ (5),
‘Agree’ (4), ‘Undecided’ (3), ‘Disagree’ (2) and ‘Strongly
Disagree’ (1). Based on the total score obtained by the
respondents they were categorized into three categories of low,
medium and high. To find out the problems faced by them,
respondents were asked questions related to the problems faced
by them within the family, with members of SHG or with other
people outside the SHG. The response given by the respondents
were scored and then suitably categorized as low, medium and
high.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Attitude of respondents towards SHPIs
Respondents were asked to indicate their opinion
on a five point continuum scale, the attitude they had about
the selected SHPIs. The statements were related to behavior,
financial support, gender biasness, efficiency in discharging
different roles by SHPIs etc.
To assess attitude of women entrepreneurs towards SHPIs.
Ascertain problems faced by them in availing benefits provided
by the SHPIs.
18
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
However, they faced problems with the members of
the SHG, marketing of goods etc. The major problems stated
in general by most of the respondents are listed below –
Group Conflict.
Lack of motivation of member of the group.
Table- 1: Attitude of women entrepreneurs towards SHPIs.
N = 150
Category
Frequency
Percentage
Low (<26)
10
6.67
Medium (26 – 29)
121
80.67
19
12.66
150
100.0
High (>29)
Total:
Members are less hard working and does not owe due
responsibility of their duties.
Infighting with group members.
Competitiveness with other Self Help Groups.
From the result of table- 1 it is observed that most
of the respondents (80.67 percent) had medium level of
attitude towards SHPIs. A small percentage (12.66 percent)
had high level of attitude towards them.
Entrepreneurial capabilities of the respondents:
Respondents were asked to indicate entrepreneurial
capabilities in management of finance, labour, staff,
procuring raw materials, marketing, loans, marketing of
products etc. to ascertain the degree and nature of problem in
entrepreneurial capabilities. They, were asked to answer on
five point continuum of ‘Excellent’, ‘Very Good’, ‘Good’,
‘Reasonably OK’ and ‘Poor’ with scores of 5,4,3,2 and 1
respectively. Based on the total scores they were categorized
as low, medium and high as presented in table No. 3
The nature of result depicts that women
entrepreneurs had favourable attitude towards them. This
attitude is because the SHPIs play significant role in
uplifting the status of women entrepreneurs and thus making
them empowered economically, socially and politically.
Because the women entrepreneurs notice significant change
in their life after becoming member of SHG, they had
favourable attitude towards SHPIs because they owe some
credit to them.
The findings of the table shows that majority of the
respondents (92.67 percent) had medium level of
entrepreneurial capabilities followed by 39 percent of them
with high level and 27.33 percent with low level
entrepreneurial capabilities. The data reflects that women
possessed some degree of entrepreneurial capabilities by
virtue of which they are running the SHG efficiently. One
remarkable feature is that one-fourth of the respondents had
low entrepreneurial capabilities. This may be due to low
level of education.
Problems faced by women entrepreneurs in availing
benefits provided by the SHPIs
Family and SHG Problems:
The problems faced by women entrepreneurs have
been presented in table - 2.
Table 2: Problems faced by women entrepreneurs.
N = 150
Items
Response Frequency Percentage
Problems/resistance from husband.
Problems/resistance from parents/
parents-in-law.
No
150
100
No
150
100
149
1
149
1
13
137
99.33
0.67
99.33
0.67
8.67
91.33
Yes
No
Attitudinal change in parents/parents- Yes
in-law.
No
Yes
Stress felt in discharging dual duties.
No
Attitudinal change in husband.
Table 3: Entrepreneurial capabilities of the respondents.
N = 150
Category
Frequency
Percentage
Low (<22)
41
27.33
Medium (22 – 30)
64
42.67
45
30.0
150
100.0
High (>30)
Total:
O
From the above result, it is found that cent percent
respondents did not face any problem or resistance either
from their husbands or parents-in-law. Infact, there was
significant positive attitudinal change in husband/parents/inlaws after becoming SHG member. It is also found that the
respondents did not feel stressed in discharging dual duties
of home maker and earning member. These findings suggest
that the husband/parents/in-laws were cooperative and
encouraged them in every endeavour.
Overall score of respondents on the problems faced by w
omen entrepreneurs:
The result of table- 4 showed that majority of the
respondents (70.67 percent) had medium level of problems
followed by 26 percent of the respondents with high level of
problems. Only 3.33 percent of them had low level of
problems.
19
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Table 4: Level of problems faced by women entrepreneurs.
Category
Low (<32)
Medium (32 – 42)
High (>42)
Total:
Frequency
05
106
39
150
positive attitude towards these SHPIs and since the SHPIs
have a dynamic role to play in shaping the functioning of
SHGs and thereby experiencing them in all spheres,
therefore the SHPIs should strive to put more efforts so that
the attitude level of respondents shift from favourable to
most favourable. It is also concluded that the problems faced
by the respondents chiefly centered on within the Self Help
Groups and with members of other SHGs. Therefore, they
should be given training by the SHPIs on Group dynamics,
Leadership, cooperation, competition, etc. so that they will
understand the importance of these dimensions and which
will enable them to sort out their problems and help in better
and smooth functioning of the SHGs.
Percentage
3.33
70.67
26.0
100.0
The result suggests that majority of the respondents
were facing medium level of problems in running of the
SHG. Most of the problems are internal in nature. So, if the
group members work as a team, with a sense of
belongingness and cooperation, the performance and
efficiency of the SHG could be improved.
It is concluded that majority of the respondents had
favourable attitude towards SHPIs. It suggests that they have
REFERENCES
Edwards A L 1969. Techniques of attitude scale construction. Vikas and
Simon Pvt. Ltd., Bombay: 26-28.
Pathak P A1992. Self Help Group ad Their Linkages with Banks, National
Bank News Review: 9-10.
Hersey P and Blanchard K H 1995. Management of Organizational
Behavior (6thEdn.). Prentice Hall, New Delhi: 345-362 .
Secord R F and Backman C W 1964. Social Psychology- attitudes of
educated women towards social issues, National Publishing House,
New Delhi: 5-12.
KHDP1997. Fourth Year’s Work Plan of Kerala Horticulture Development
Programme.
20
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Productive performance of Sirohi goat under field condition in Southern Rajasthan
O P PATHODIYA*, B S KHADDA**, PANKAJ LAVANIA*** AND S K SHARMA****
*Department of Animal Production, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, MPUA&T, Udaipur, Rajasthan, **KVK, Panchmahals,
Gujarat, ***KVK, Badmer, Rajasthan, ****LRS,Vallabhnagar, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India.
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
In the present study, data on milk production in part lactation of 140 days Milk Yield (MY 140 D), Total Lactation Milk
Yield (TLMY), Total Lactation Length (TLL), Peak Milk Yield (PMY) and Average Daily Milk Yield (ADMY) of 304
sirohi goats maintained at AICRP on sirohi field unit at Livestock Research Station, Vallbhnagar, Udiapur (Raj.) were
use for the study. The least square means of milk yield at 140 days, total lactation milk yield, total lactation length, peak
milk yield and average daily milk yield were 56.34 ± 2.93 lit., 59.42 ± 2.18 lit., 163.28 ± 3.53 days, 562 ± 0.28 ml and
362.40 ± 15.91 ml, respectively . The effects due to year of kidding were found to be significant on TLMY and TLL,
while the except lactation length all the traits under study have not effected by season of kidding.
Key wards: Goat, lactation length, lactation milk yield, peak milk yield
Sirohi goat is one of the important goat breeds of
North western region of the country. Animal of this breed is
medium to large in size and mainly reared for milk and meat
by rural poor people. Kids of Sirohi goats do not get required
quantity of milk from their dam's, which ultimately reflect
growth of kids because milk production traits have direct
effect on growth and survival of the their kids particularly
during initial period. Milk production is very useful tool at
the time of selection of Sirohi goats. Scientific Informations
on milk production traits of Sirohi goat under field
conditions are very scanty. The present study was planned to
estimate the effect of genetic and non-genetic factors on milk
production traits of Sirohi goats maintained under field
condition at the door of farmers in the villages of Southern
Rajasthan.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The overall least squares means for of 140 days
Milk Yield (MY 140 D), Total Lactation Milk Yield
(TLMY), Total Lactation Length (TLL), Peak Milk Yield
(PMY) and Average Daily Milk Yield (ADMY) were
56.34±2.93lit., 59.42±2.18lit, 163.28±3.53days, 562±0.28ml
and 362.40±15.91ml respectively, which were found within
the reported range of variation (Acharya 1982 and Kumar
1991). Effect due to year of kidding were found to be
significant on total lactational milk yield and lactation
length, Mehta and Khan (1993) and Shinde and Khan (2002)
and Roy and Mondal(2010) also reported significant effects
of year of kidding on these traits. Some changes in climate
condition, human and managemental factors from year to
year may cause such variation. Least squares analysis of
variance indicated that except lactation length of all the traits
under study have not affected by season of kidding. These
results are in accordance with the findings as reported by
Singh and Mukherjee (1998). Tomar and Arun (2000)
reported that lactation length was significantly affected by
season of kidding in Sirohi goats, while Mehta and Khan
(1993) reported non-significant effect of season of kidding
on lactation length. The dose kidded during July-October,
month have higher lactational milk yield with higher
lactation length than doe's kidded during November.-Febary.
The milk yield and average daily milk yield observed higher
for doe's kidded during November.-Febary. Month, milk
yield at 140 days MY, TLMY peak yield and average daily
milk yield increased gradually up to the 3rd parity, is could
be due to attainment of physiological maturity after first
parity and availability of good feeds. The effect of sex of
kids and type of birth was non-significant on traits under
study. owever doe's which have multiple births produced
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Data on 304 Sirohi goats sired by 21 bucks were
collected from the adopted flocks of AICRP on Sirohi goat
field units at Livestock Research Station, Vallabhnagar,
MPUAT, Udaipur (Raj.) over a period of two years. Further,
years were divided in to two seasons viz.; season Ist (July to
Oct.) and season IInd (Nov. to Feb.). The animals were
maintained on Kachha floor with Kachha roof under
extensive system of management. Production traits
considered for the present study were 140 days lactation
milk yield (140 MY), total lactation milk yield (TLMY),
lactation length (LL), peak yield (PY) and average daily milk
yield (ADMY). The data were analyzed by the mixed model
least squares and maximum likelihood computer programme
of Harvey (1990). Heritability, genetic and phenotypic
correlation for milk production traits were estimate through
paternal half-sib correlation method while standard error
were computed after Swiger et al (1964) and Robertson
(1959) respectively.
21
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
more milk in comparison to doe having single kids.
This finding is in consonance with the report of Pathodiya
(2003), Tomar et al (2000).
traits under study obtained was high except total lactational
milk yield (0.214±0.15), indicating that sire used in the field
were different in genetic potential as well as number of
progeny per sire was less. Therefore, these traits can be
improved through approaching mass selection for further
improvement. The genetic correlation's obtained was
positive and high except high and negative correlation
between lactation length with TLMY, 140 MY, PY and
average daily milk yield. The phenotypic correlation's except
lactation length with average daily milk yield (low and
negative) was positive and high among production traits
under study. The positive genetic correlation of total
lactational milk yield and 140 MY with peak yield indicated
selection for higher peak yield would increase milk yield and
simultaneously provides a selection criterion in the early
lactation.
Except lactation length, all traits were significantly
affected by parity. Similarly, Shinde and Khan (2002) and
Roy and Mondal (2010) observed significant effect of parity
on total lactational milk yield, 150 days milk yield and peak
yield while, Tomar et al (2000) observed significant effect of
parity on weekly peak yield. The variance due to location
was highly significant on all the traits understudy. These
results are in agreement with that of Joshi (1991). Difference
between locations may be due to variance in management
and feeding practices followed for goat rearing by the
farmers, these finding are in consonance with the reports of
Pathodiya et al (2004). The effect of sire was also significant
(P<0.001) on all the traits. The heritability estimate for all
Table 1 Least Squares & Standard Error For Production Traits of Sirohi Goat In Field
SOURCES
Overall
Year
2001-02
2002-03
Season
July - Oct.
Nov. Feb.
Sex
Male
Female
Type of Birth
Single
Multiple
Parity
1
2
3
4
5
Location
1
2
3
4
304
140 MY
(Lit.)
56.34±2.93
218
86
56.67±3.23
56.01±3.35
TLMY
(Lit.)
59.42±2.18
*
62.55±2.64b
56.29±2.18a
139
163
56.29±3.11
56.39±2.98
59.95±2.64
58.89±2.26
LL
(days)
163.28±3.53
**
175.23±3.85b
151.34±3.98a
**
165.73±3.72a
160.83±3.60b
147
157
56.67±2.99
55.93±3.04
59.63±2.27
59.21±2.35
163.46±3.65
163.46±3.65
556±0.28
568±0.29
362.68±16.31
362.11±16.66
272
32
55.23±2.82
57.45±3.53
*
51.18±3.64 a
55.02±3.28ab
58.60±3.03 b
58.28±3.34 b
59.63±3.67 b
**
42.77±4.14a
64.48±4.85c
62.92±4.61c
55.20±5.78b
58.84±1.99
63.29±3.28
*
53.65±3.22a
57.70±2.71ab
61.49±2.34bc
59.81±2.81bc
64.44±3.26c
**
42.32±3.88a
62.42±4.76b
70.85±4.47c
60.09±5.89b
165.20±3.41
161.36±4.20
548±0.27
576±0.35
**
498±0.36a
546±0.32ab
584±0.29bc
567±0.32bc
616±0.36c
**
330±0.41a
715±0.49c
619±0.46b
584±0.59b
352.20±15.18
372.59±19.91
*
326.02±20.60a
355.55±18.22b
379.46±16.60c
367.65±18.67c
383.20±20.77c
**
276.75±23.80a
420.07±18.23c
402.14±26.76c
350.62±34.09b
Obs.
38
72
112
52
30
111
47
114
32
165.16±4.30
162.29±3.91
160.50±3.64
162.99±3.98
165.39±4.33
**
150.22±4.86a
150.48±5.64a
180.47±5.37c
171.95±6.69b
PY
(ml)
562±0.28
ADMY
(ml)
362.40±15.91
585±0.31
504±0.32
358.07±17.93
366.73±18.69
562±0.38
563±0.28
358.80±17.11
365.99±16.28
Mean superscripted by different letters differed significantly
Table 2 Estimate of Heritability, Genetic & Phenotypic Correlation Among Production Traits
Traits
140 MY
TLMY
LL
PY
ADMY
MY 140
0.663±0.237
0.955
0.056
0.787
0.944
TLMY
0.955±0.69
0.214±0.154
0.235
0.776
0.916
TLL
-0.154
0.775±0.204
-0.561±0.341
0.751±0.250
0.060
PMY
0.898±0.79
0.822±0.165
-0.707±0.235
0.535±0.216
0.773
ADMY
0.999±0.015
0.900±0.93
-0.863±0.238
0.909±0.82
0.518±0.213
Diagonal values are heritability, above diagonal and below diagonal values are phenotypic and genetic correlation's respectively.
22
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Table 3 Least Squares Analysis Of Variance For Various Factor Affecting Milk Production Traits.
M.S.S.
Source of variance
Sire
Year of Birth
Season of Birth
Location
Type of birth
Parity
Sex
Regression dam's body weight linear
Remainder (Error)
D.F.
140 Days
TLMY
LL
PY
ADMY
21
1
1
3
1
4
1
1
268
447.26**
6.42
0.403
1056.82**
102.76
316.95
46.43
216.38
138.12
272.008
599.22
53.47
1554.68**
78.76
430.42
12.10
295.25
166.17
644.56**
8728.91*
1168.82
3415.59**
307.81
192.96
9.11
1.16
178.74
4.18*
3.07
0.00
40.56**
1.54
5.04*
1.03
5.51
1.52
13480.85*
1148.57
2517.23
43624.01**
8679.75
15467.05*
21.72
9631.70
5036.03
** P<0.01, * P<0.05
REFERENCES
Acharya, R.M. 1982. Sheep and goat breeds of India. FAO
Production and Health Paper 30, FAO of UN, Rome, Italy.
Animal
Robertson, A. 1959. The sampling variance of the genetic correlation
co-efficient. Biometrics. 15:460-485.
Harvey, W. R. 1990. User’s guide for LSMLMW PC-2 Version.
Mixed model Least squares and Maximum Likelihood computer
program. Ohio Univ. Colmbus,
R Roy and Ajoy Mandal, 2010. Genetic analysis of lactation traits in
Jamunapari goats. Indian J. of Animal Science 80 (3): 246-248,
Joshi, S.N. 1991. Studies on weight and body measurement of Deogarhi
and Parbatsari goats M.Sc. Thesis Rajasthan Agricultural University,
Bikaner.
Singh, D.K. and Mukherjee, D.K. 1998. Studies on milk production and
reproduction traits of goats under field condition. Indian J. of Dairy
Science 338-341.
Kumar, Devendra 1991. Studies on reproduction and production traits in
Parbatsari and Deogarhi goats. M.Sc. Thesis, RCA, Raj. Agril. Univ.
Bikaner.
Swiger, L.A., Harvey, W. R., Everson, D. O. and Gegory, K. E.
1964. The variance of interclass correlation involving groups with
one observation. Biometrics.
Mehta, B.S. and Khan, B.U. 1993. Genetic analysis of Sirohi flock. A
book let published from Western region research station, CSWRI,
Avikanagar (Raj.)
Shinde, A.K. and Khan, B.U. 2002. Annual report (2001-02). All India
Coordinated Research Project Sirohi Unit, CSWRI, Avikanagar
(Raj.).
Pathodiya, O.P., Khadda, B.S., Gurjar, M.L. and Tailor, S.P. 2004.
Some economic traits of Sirohi goats in field conditions. Indian J. of
Animal Sciences 74 (1): 102-103
Tomar, A.K.S. and Kumar, Arun and Arora, A.L. 2000. Annual report
(1999-2000). All India Coordinated Research Project on goat
improvement (Sirohi Unit), CSWRI, Avikanagar (Raj.).
Pathodiya, O.P. 2003. Annual report (2002-03) AICRP on Sirohi goat.
Livestock Research Station, Vallabhnagar (MPUAT, Udaipur) Raj.
Tomar, A.K.S. and Arun Kumar 2000. Lactational performance and
factors affecting it in Sirohi goats under semi-arid conditions of
northwestern India. Small Ruminant Research (Under Publication).
23
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Effect of integrated nitrogen management on available N, P and CO2 evolution at different intervals
under wheat (Triticum aestivum) cultivation
J P YADAV*, A K MATHUR* AND K K YADAV**
*Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, MPUA&T, Udaipur and ** Dept. of
Soil and Water Engineering, College of Technology & Engineering, MPUA&T, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India.
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted at Agronomy Farm, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Udaipur (Rajasthan) during
rabi season of 2005-06 to evaluate the effect of integrated nitrogen management on available N, P and CO 2 evolution at
different intervals under wheat cultivation. The results indicated that application of nitrogen through organic manure
or in integration with chemical fertilizer significantly improved the available N, P and CO 2 evolution at 7, 15, 30 and 45
days after sowing and organic carbon at harvest.
Keywords: Integrated nitrogen management, wheat.
In Rajasthan state, wheat occupies an area of 2.1 m
ha with the production of 5.8 m tonnes with an average yield
of 2.54 m tonnes which is at par with the nation’s acreage
but compared with realizable yield limit, it is far below. This
suggests a great scope to further elevate the productivity in
the state. It is generally recognized that the gap between
actual and potential yield is primarily due to lack of
sufficient and effective nutrient management. It is an
established fact since long that amongst the nutrients,
nitrogen plays an important role in the growth and
development of crop plants. Nitrogen is indispensable for
increasing crop production and productivity. Maintenance of
crop production requires judicious use of nitrogen through
fertilizer and manure in an integrated manner. Increase in
productivity of soil, without deteriorating soil and
environment has drawn attention of scientists working on
natural resources. These resources need to be managed in a
way that enhance biological activity, maintain biodiversity
and productivity of soil for long term in a sustainable way.
There is need to explore the additional untapped organic
sources. Mushroom cultivation is based on compost or crop
residues and harvest of a crop results in disposable organic
waste. Mushroom waste is partly or fully decomposed
organic matter with narrow C: N ratio and may serve as a
source of nutrients as well as a source of inoculum for
decomposition of soil organic residues. Therefore, this study
is an attempt to study the comparative efficiency of FYM,
button, and oyster spent mushroom compost in integration
with inorganic source of nitrogen taking wheat as a test crop
to study the effect of spent mushroom compost, farm yard
manure and fertilizer on CO2 evolution and available nutrient
status of rhizosphere soil.
loam texture, slightly alkaline in reaction (pH 8.2, EC 0.86
dSm-1) and calcareous in nature. The soil was medium in
available nitrogen (292.15 kg ha-1), available phosphorus
(22.5 kg ha-1) and available potassium (360.15 kg ha-1) and
well supplied with micronutrients copper (1.94 mg kg-1), iron
(6.84 mg kg-1), manganese (9.30 mg kg-1) and zinc (3.14 mg
kg-1). The experiment consisted of 14 treatments replicated 3
times in a randomized block design. The soil samples were
collected at 7, 15, 30 and 45 days after sowing and at the
harvest of the crop and analyzed for available nitrogen,
phosphorus, CO2 evolution and organic carbon content
following standard procedures. The experimental data were
statistically analyzed for analysis of variance and test of
significance through the procedure appropriate to the
randomized block design. The critical differences were
calculated whereas ‘F’ test was found significant at 5 per
cent level of significance. The treatment details were as:
________________________________________________
Treatment
Treatment Combinations
No.
____________________________________________________________
To
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
T10
T11
T12
T13
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Control
100% N through inorganic source
75% N through inorganic source + 25% through FYM
75% N through inorganic source + 25% N through oyster SMC
75% N through inorganic source + 25% N through button SMC
50% N through inorganic source + 50% N through FYM
50% N through inorganic source + 50% N through oyster SMC
50% N through inorganic source + 50% N through button SMC
25% N through inorganic source + 75% N through FYM
25% N through inorganic source + 75% N through oyster SMC
25% N through inorganic source + 75% N through button SMC
100% N through FYM
100% N through oyster SMC
100% N through button SMC
_____________________________________________
SMC = Spent Mushroom Compost
A field experiment was conducted at Rajasthan
College of Agriculture, MPUAT, Udaipur (Raj.) during rabi
season 2005-06. The soil of experimental field was clay
24
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
than the plot receiving organic manures. It may be due to the
fact that larger the level of soil organic carbon source larger
will be survival of diversified microbial population and
higher will be microbial activity. CO2 evolutions in
incubation of soil at different days were also influenced by
decomposition of organic material, which is directly
correlated to microbial activity. Table 1 clearly showed that
increase in dose of organic matter content, the CO2 evolution
rate also increased till 30 days and at later stage it declined
because mineralization and decomposition rate slower down
than earlier stages. The results are in agreement to findings
of earlier workers i.e., Sharma et al. (1983), Gregorich and
Druury (1996), Maheswarappa et al. (1999), Chen et al.
(2002) and Urmila (2005).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Nutrient availability
The data in Table 1 revealed that the application of
nitrogen through different sources significantly increased the
available nitrogen, phosphorus and CO2 evolution in soil at
different days interval 7, 15, 30 and 45 days after sowing
(DAS). The available nitrogen was highest at initial stage (7
DAS) in treatment T1 (100% N through inorganic source),
but on later stages (at 15 DAS, 30 DAS and 45 DAS) N
availability was maximum under treatment T 4 (75% nitrogen
through urea + 25% nitrogen through button SMC followed
by T2 (75% nitrogen through urea + 25% nitrogen through
FYM). Among organic manures the button SMC was
superior over the FYM and oyster SMC because button SMC
have lower C: N ratio than the oyster SMC and FYM. Dose
of nutrient, mineralization rate and uptake of nutrients
directly govern availability of nutrients in rhizosphere. The
organic manures along with fertilizer influence the
availability of nutrients in soil by mineralization process
(Surendra Rao and Sitaramayya, 1997). The similar results
were also reported by Ramanathan and Krishanmurthy
(1973).
Organic carbon at harvest
Results pertaining to the organic carbon status of
post-harvest soil presented in Table 1. A critical examination
of data revealed that soil organic carbon status ranged
between 0.61 to 0.85 % under various treatments. The
highest organic carbon content was observed in treatment T 13
(100% nitrogen through button SMC) followed by treatment
T11 (100% nitrogen through FYM) and minimum value
(0.61%) of organic carbon was observed in control. The soil
organic carbon also increased with the use of different
source of nitrogen irrespective whether in sole application or
along with fertilizers indicating recycling of organic matter
in the form of organic manures on continuous basis results in
cumulative buildup depending upon the weather,
temperature and other agronomic practices i.e. 100% N
through organic sources (button SMC, FYM and oyster
SMC) with a build up to extent of 0.85, 0.83 and 0.80 g kg-1
organic carbon (Table 1). Use of inorganic nutrients also
resulted in comparatively better level of soil organic carbon,
which could be attributed to enhanced root growth that
remained in soil at harvest. The results are in agreement to
earlier findings of Mathur (1997), Sharma and Gupta (1998),
Yadav et al. (2000), Parmar and Sharma (2002),
Ranganathan and Selvaseelan (1997).
The available phosphorus content in rhizosphere
soil at all stages (7, 15, 30 and 45 DAS) was significantly
increased with application of nitrogen through different
sources. The maximum available phosphorus was recorded
under treatment receiving 25% nitrogen through urea + 75%
nitrogen through button SMC followed by treatment
receiving 25% nitrogen through urea + 75% nitrogen
through FYM. The availability of phosphorus increased with
increasing organic acids, which were released during
decomposition of organic matter. These organic acids helped
in the solubility of native phosphates. Further, the organic
matter reduces fixation capacity of soil and increases the
availability. Results of the present study are in close
agreement with those of Bhardwaj and Omanwar (1994).
CO2 evolution
Thus, organic manure alone though improve
chemical and biological properties of soil considerably but
could not sustain high crop yield due to slow release of plant
nutrients. The study revealed that integrated use of chemical
fertilizer and organic manure is an imperative in intensive
cropping system, which maintained soil fertility status and
soil health.
CO2 evolution is directly related to microbial
activity. CO2 evolution was also increased with increasing
organic matter content. The maximum CO2 evolution was
obtained in treatment receiving 100% nitrogen through
button SMC followed by FYM and oyster SMC. Application
of fertilizer also increased CO2 evolution but rate was slower
25
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Table 1 Effect of Integrated nitrogen management on available N, P (kg ha -1) & CO2 evolution (mg 100 g-1 soil) at different intervals and organic
carbon per cent.
7 days after sowing
15 days after sowing
30 days after sowing
45 days after sowing
At
harvest
Treatment
s
Available
N
Available
P2O5
CO2
evolution
Available
N
Available
P2O5
CO2
evolution
Available
N
Available
P2O5
CO2
evolution
Available
N
Available
P2O5
CO2
evolution
Organic
carbon
T0
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
285.32
342.13
338.21
335.12
340.16
335.27
20.16
23.42
26.32
25.70
27.34
27.43
9.42
12.56
14.72
13.48
15.32
15.46
280.42
344.11
342.23
340.56
344.85
338.12
19.41
24.18
27.27
26.16
28.43
28.56
11.42
13.62
15.27
14.32
16.38
17.52
275.00
345.14
346.78
344.26
347.38
340.31
18.32
25.12
28.18
27.12
29.16
29.37
14.98
15.26
17.78
16.92
18.71
19.43
274.33
346.26
347.14
345.21
349.36
341.33
17.21
25.48
28.72
27.78
29.72
29.94
13.64
14.78
16.23
15.43
17.39
18.31
0.61
0.66
0.74
0.73
0.75
0.76
T6
330.42
26.34
14.26
334.23
27.54
15.39
336.16
28.43
17.58
338.11
28.84
16.72
0.74
T7
338.52
28.26
16.73
340.26
29.74
18.56
341.19
30.58
20.32
343.39
31.03
19.13
0.78
T8
331.38
29.72
17.23
336.37
30.47
19.71
338.21
31.67
22.46
340.52
32.16
21.27
0.80
T9
327.17
28.62
16.37
332.62
29.54
18.31
334.28
30.47
21.57
336.68
30.84
19.78
0.79
T10
334.19
30.12
18.29
338.51
31.17
21.58
339.14
32.17
23.73
341.74
32.94
22.37
0.82
T11
326.26
25.13
18.56
330.62
26.56
21.63
335.52
27.34
24.53
338.51
28.31
23.12
0.83
T12
322.24
24.72
17.62
328.26
25.38
20.12
331.47
26.56
22.43
334.36
27.13
21.53
0.80
T13
SEm±
CD (P =
0.05)
328.28
8.16
26.16
0.57
19.23
0.30
334.39
8.54
27.14
0.581
23.14
0.34
337.38
7.78
28.39
0.632
26.19
0.41
340.18
8.36
29.12
0.68
24.62
0.38
0.85
0.015
23.73
1.67
0.88
24.82
1.69
1.00
22.64
1.839
1.19
24.30
1.98
1.10
0.046
REFERENCES
Bhardwaj, V. and Omanwar, P.K. 1994. Long term effect of continuous
rotational cropping and fertilization on crop yields and soil properties
II. Effects on EC, pH, organic matter and available nutrients of soil.
J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 42: 387-392.
Rangnathan, D. Selvi. and Selvaseelan, D. Augustine. 1997. Mushroom
spent rice straw compost coir pith as organic manure for rice. J.
Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 45: 510-514.
Chen, C.R., Xu-Z.H. and Hughes, J.M. 2002. Effects of nitrogen
fertilization on soil nitrogen pools and microbial properties in a hoop
pine plantation in south east Queensland, Australia. Biol. Fert. Soils,
36: 276-283.
Sharma, M.P. and Gupta, J.P. 1998. Effect of organic materials on grain
yield and soil properties in maize (Zea mays)-wheat (Triticum
aestivum) cropping system. Indian J. Agric. Sci., 68: 715-717.
Gregorich, E.G. and Druury, C.F. 1996. Fertilizer increased corn yields
and soil organic matter. Better Crops with Plant Food, 8: 3-5.
Sharma, N., Shrivastava, L.L. and Mishra, B. 1983. Studies on microbial
changes in soils as a result of continuous application of fertilizers,
farm yard manure and lime. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 31: 202-206.
Maheshwarappa, H.P., Nanjappa, H.V. and Hedge, M.R. 1999.
Influence of organic manures on yield of arrow root. Soil
physicochemical and biological properties when grown as intercrop
in coconut garden. Ann. Agric. Res., 20: 378-383.
Surendra Rao, S. and Sitaramayya, M. 1997. Changes in total and
available soil nitrogen status under integrated nutrient management
of rice. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 45: 445-449.
Mathur, G.M. 1997. Effect of long term application of fertilizers and
manures on soil properties and yield under cotton-wheat rotation in
north-west Rajasthan. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 95: 288-292.
Urmila, 2005. Studies on chemical and biological indices of soil under long
term nutrient management in maize-wheat rotation. M.Sc. (Ag.)
Thesis, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, MPUAT, Udaipur.
Parmar, D.K. and Sharma, V. 2002. Studies on long term application of
fertilizers and manures on yield of maize-wheat rotation and soil
properties under rainfed condition in western Himalayas. J. Indian
Soc. Soil Sci., 50: 311-312.
Yadav, B.L., Dwivedi, B.S., Kamta Prasad, Tomaw, O.K., Shurpali,
N.J. and Pandy, P.S. 2000. Yield trends and changes in soil organic
carbon and available NPK in long term rice-wheat system under
integrated use of manures and fertilizers. Field Crop Res., 68: 219246.
Ramanathan, K.M. and Krishnamurthy, K.K. 1973. Study on the
relationship between organic carbon and available nitrogen in rice
soils at successive growth stages of rice. Madras Agric. J., 60: 720.
26
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Effect of phosphorus and zinc fertilization on biochemical composition and bread making
qualities of Wheat.
L K MISHRA* AND A B ABIDI
Department of Biochemistry, NDUAT, Kumarganj,Faizabad-224229, *Present Address- Lecturer, Department of Biochemistry,
VBS Purvanchal University, Jaunpur, U P, India.
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Field trials were conducted to assess the response of conjunctive use of phosphorus and zinc fertilizer on the 1000-seed
weight and certain biochemical components of three varieties of wheat (Triticum aestivum) viz: PBW-343, HW-2425
and NW-1014. Results indicated that the phosphorus and zinc application had an synergistic impact on the 1000-seed
weight and protein content of the wheat varieties. The increase in the doses of phosphorus and zinc had a positive
impact on all the physical and biochemical characters of the wheat varieties. Application of phosphorus @ 60kg/ha and
zinc @ 10kg/ha was found suitable to enhance the nutrient composition and certain bread making qualities of the wheat
varieties.
Key Words: Wheat, Bread making qualities, Biochemical composition, Phosphorus and Zinc fertilization.
The role of macro and micronutrients is crucial in
crop nutrition and thus important for achieving higher yields.
Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K), being
primary essential nutrient, have prime importance in crop
nutrition. Phosphorus (P) is involved in almost all
biochemical pathways as a component part of energy carrier
compounds, ATP and ADP. Phosphorus is one of the 17
essential elements required for plant growth and
reproduction (Marschner, 1986). Phosphorus (P) is used in
the plant for energy storage and transfer, maintenance and
transfer of genetic code, and is structural component of cells
and many biochemicals. Phosphorus deficiencies results in
poor root growth, stunted top growth, reduced yield and crop
quality alongwith delayed maturity. Six micronutrients i.e.,
Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, B and Mo are known to be required for all
higher plants (Welch, 1995). These have been well
documented to be involved in photosynthesis, N-fixation,
respiration and other biochemical pathways (Marchner,
1986). Approximately 60% of the world arable land is
considered to be difficult for the plant production due to
mineral stress caused by the deficiency, unavailability, or
toxicity of some essential nutritive elements (Foy 1983). Of
the microelements, Zn is thought to be the most widespread
(Graham et al. 1992, Yilmaz et al. 1995, Cakmak et al.
1999). Zinc is an important essential element present in plant
enzymatic systems. Genc et al. (2006) reported that zinc has
vast numbers of functions in plant metabolism and
consequently zinc deficiency has a multitude of effects on
plant growth. Zinc deficiency is a worldwide nutritional
constraint for crop production in many types of soil in the
world (Sillanpää 1982; Rengel and Graham 1995).
According to Graham and Welch (1996) about 50% of the
soil used for cereal production in the world contains a low
level of plant available zinc which reduces not only grain
yield but also nutritional quality (low in micronutrients
essential for good human health). In general zinc application
appears to improve the overall field performance of wheat
plants.
Among the interactions involving macro and
micronutrients the interaction between phosphorus and zinc
is of greatest potential significance. This interaction is often
negative (antagonistic) especially when a soil is deficient in
both the nutrients but only one of them is applied through
fertilizers. But it is quite possible to increase productivity in
wheat through balanced use of phosphorus and zinc in such a
way that they act synergistically. The impact of phosphorus
and zinc together on the quality aspects and yield of wheat
varieties has been studied in the present investigation.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Experimental Design and Sowing conditions:
The field trial was conducted to study the effect of
zinc and phosphorus fertilization on the nutritional qualities
and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum). Three varieties
commonly used in India i.e. PBW-343, HW-2425 and NW1014 were used for the experiment purpose. The trial was
laid out in a split plot design with three phosphorus (control,
60 and 90Kg/hec) and three zinc (Control, 5 and 10Kg/hec)
doses in the form of Single super phosphate and zinc
sulphate respectively. Before fertilization pooled soil
samples were analyzed for the available phosphorus and zinc
(DTPA extractable) and it was 16.8mg/kg and 0.5mg/kg.
The crop was sown on 12th December 2003 at a seed rate of
120Kg/hectare as per the recommended agronomic practices
so as to rare a healthy and vibrant crop.
Biochemical and Statistical Analyses:
The yield of the crop was obtained after
harvest. The crop sample was obtained after the harvest and
subjected to various biochemical analyses to ascertain the
wheat quality. Bold healthy seeds were used to obtain the
thousand seed weight. The sedimentation value and water
absorption capacity were measured according to the method
of The American Association of Cereal Chemistry (AACC,
2000). The protein content in the samples was determined by
the method of Folin Lowry (1951). The amino acid
composition such as Tryptophan content, lysine and
27
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Table-.2: 1000-Seed weight of wheat as influenced by interaction
between phosphorus and zinc levels
methionine content was determined by the method of Spies
and Chamber (1949), Felker et al (1978) and Horn et al
(1940) respectively. The data obtained for different
parameters was subjected to statistical analyses as per the
method suggested by Gomez and Gomez (1984) for split plot
design.
Zinc
levels
2002-03
P1
(control) (60
kg/ha)
P0
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Z0
(Control)
Z1
(5
kg/ha)
Z2
(10
kg/ha)
CD (P =
0.05)
1000 kernel weight showed significant variation
among different wheat varieties (Table 1). Thousand kernel
weight ranged from 34.58 to 38.55 g among different wheat
varieties. Significantly the highest 1000-kernel weight was
observed in PBW-343 and the lowest in HW-2425.
Test weight (In grams)
2002-03
2003-04
Variety
V1 (NW-1014)
37.38
37.18
V2 (HW-2425)
34.78
34.58
V3 (PBW-343)
38.55
38.35
CD (P = 0.05)
(1.53)
(1.52)
P0 (0 kg/ha)
33.72
33.52
P1 (60 kg/ha)
36.52
36.32
P2 (90 kg/ha)
40.48
40.28
CD (P = 0.05)
(1.54)
(1.54)
Z0 (0 kg/ha)
34.15
33.95
Z1 (5 kg/ha)
37.67
37.47
Z2 (10 kg/ha)
38.84
38.69
CD (P = 0.05)
(1.54)
(1.54)
2003-04
P1
P2
P0
(90
kg/ha
)
(control)
(60
kg/ha)
P2
(90
kg/ha)
31.45
33.50
37.49
31.25
33.30
37.29
34.14
37.16
41.72
33.94
36.96
41.52
35.56
38.89
42.23
35.36
38.69
42.03
2.677
2.677
The significant differences observed in 1000-kernel
weight among wheat varieties may be due to the differences
in the genetic make up of the varieties. However, these
differences may be partly attributed due to different growing
and environmental conditions prevailed during growing
periods. The results are comparable with early findings of
Finney et al. (1973), Slaughter et al. (1992), and Butt et al.
(2001). The increase in 1000-seed weight due to increase in
the doses of phosphorus may be due increase in the amount
of available phosphorus during initial stage of growth when
it is most needed. Thus, increasing doses of phosphorus
ensure that it is available in adequate amount and palys the
significant role in the carbohydrate synthesis more
efficiently. The findings are in agreement with the results
obtained by Sharma and Bhardwaj (1998).
Table-1:
1000-Seed weight of wheat as influenced by various
treatments
Treatments
Phosphorus levels
Phosphorus levels
The increasing trend in test weight due to increase
in zinc doses during both the years of experiment may be
due to the fact that application of zinc led to increase
availability of zinc for plant growth in the zinc deficient
local soil. Zinc is an important substrate involved in photo
system-II of photosynthesis and plays vital role in energy
metabolism process in plant. Thus, the increased availability
and efficient absorption of zinc resulted in vibrant
metabolism in wheat plant, which is an important reason for
increase in test weight of the seeds. Similar results were
obtained by Verma and Minhas (1987). The significant
response observed due to interaction between the phosphorus
and zinc doses may be due to the synergistic action of
phosphorus and zinc doses. The synergistic action was
mainly promoted due to the fact that the local soil was
deficient in zinc and thus its application at the rate of 10
kg/ha could not trigger any antagonistic reaction as is
normally witnessed when both these nutrients are applied in
combination. The results are in conformity with the findings
of Gattani et al. (1976) and Nayak and Gupta (1995).
Zinc levels
The application of phosphorus and zinc in
increasing doses led to significant increase in the 1000-seed
weight during both the years of the field experiment.
Maximum 1000- seed weight was recorded with the
application of 90kgP/ha and 10kgZn/ha and it was
statistically significant over all the other treatments.
Statistically significant differences were recorded due to
interaction between the phosphorus and zinc doses and
phosphorus application @ 90 kg/ha in combination with zinc
@ 10 kg/ha recorded significantly higher 1000-seed weight
in both the years over all the treatments except phosphorus
application @ 60 kg/ha along with zinc @ 10 kg/ha (Table2).
The chemical composition of whole wheat flour
such as protein content were significantly affected by the
wheat varieties, phosphorus doses, zinc doses and interaction
between phosphorus and zinc doses. (Table-3).
28
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Table-4: Protein content in wheat as influenced by interaction between
phosphorus and zinc levels
Table-3: Protein content in wheat as influenced by various treatments
Treatments
Phosphorus levels
Zinc
levels
Protein content (In per cent)
2002-03
2003-04
Variety
V1 (NW-1014)
11.19
11.30
V2 (HW-2425)
11.53
11.65
V3 (PBW-343)
10.08
10.79
CD (P = 0.05)
(0.54)
(0.17)
Z0
(Control)
Z1
(5
kg/ha)
Z2
(10
kg/ha)
CD (P =
0.05)
Phosphorus levels
P0 (0 kg/ha)
10.81
10.92
P1 (60 kg/ha)
11.16
11.27
P2 (90 kg/ha)
11.44
11.55
CD (P = 0.05)
(0.44)
(0.44)
Z0 (0 kg/ha)
10.39
10.49
Z1 (5 kg/ha)
11.41
11.52
Z2 (10 kg/ha)
11.61
11.73
CD (P = 0.05)
(0.44)
(0.44)
9.83
10.33
11.00
9.93
2003-04
P1
(60
kg/ha)
10.44
11.11
11.51
11.60
11.22
11.63
11.72
11.49
11.63
11.72
11.60
11.75
11.84
P0
(control)
2002-03
P1
(60
kg/ha)
P2
(90
kg/ha)
0.775
P0
(control)
P2
(90
kg/ha)
11.11
0.767
The amino acid composition of the whole wheat
flour such as lysine, tryptophan and methionine content were
significantly affected by phosphrus and zinc application
during both the years of investigation (Table-5).
Zinc levels
Table-5: Amino acid composition in wheat as influenced by various
treatments (in per cent)
Treatments
Tryptophan
(in per cent)
Methionine
(in per cent)
Lysine
(in per cent)
2002-03
2003-04
2002-03
2003-04
2002-03
2.24
2.22
1.44
1.43
2.20
2.22
2.30
2.27
1.99
1.97
2.08
2.02
2.26
2.24
1.82
1.80
2.40
2.42
(NS)
(NS)
(NS)
(NS)
(NS)
(NS)
1.79
2.44
2.56
(0.09)
1.78
2.42
2.53
(0.09)
1.66
1.77
1.82
(0.07)
1.64
1.75
1.80
(0.06)
2.14
2.23
2.31
(0.08)
2.16
2.25
2.33
(0.04)
1.96
2.33
2.50
(NS)
1.94
2.31
2.48
(NS)
1.50
1.84
1.90
(NS)
1.49
1.82
1.88
(NS)
2.16
2.24
2.27
(0.08)
2.18
2.26
2.29
(0.09)
2003-04
Variety
V1
(NW1014)
V2
(HW2425)
V3
(PBW343)
CD (P =
0.05)
The variation among the varieties with respect to
the protein content may be attributed to the different genetic
makeup of the varieties. The varieties having vigorous
growth rates and efficient root systems could easily adapt to
the prevailing agro-climatic conditions. Thus, they could
absorb the micro and macronutrients at much efficient rate
and thereby initiate vibrant metabolism, which ultimately led
to increase in protein content and other nutritional characters
of wheat plant. The results of this investigation are
comparable with early findings of Davis et al. (1981), Tanija
et al. (1983). The concomitant increase in the protein content
of wheat with increase in dosage of phosphorus during both
the years of cultivation might be due to the affect of increase
in phosphorus concentration in soil and it is well known that
phosphorus nutrition directly and indirectly influences wheat
grain protein in many ways. The nutrient is required for
absorption and assimilation of ‘N’ by wheat plants (Haper
and Paulsen, 1969), for translocation of ‘N’ from vegetation
to grain which might indirectly affect protein concentration.
The results are in agreement with the findings of Mosolov
and Volleidt (1962). The increase in the availability of zinc
in zinc deficient soil led to increase in protein content of
wheat. It is well known that zinc is actively involved in
protein synthesis of plants. It is an important structural
component of the protein synthesis machinery and is
involved in the form of zinc mottifs in protein synthesis of
plant. Similar, results have been reported by Jhaw (1991).
The synergistic action between phosphorus and zinc may be
the reason behind the increasing trend of protein content
(Table-4). The deficiency of zinc in soil also might have
played indirect role in increasing the protein content in
wheat. Application of zinc led to synergistic action with
phosphorus in the zinc deficient soil. The results are in
conformity with the findings of Webb and Loneragan
(1990).
Phosphorus levels
P0 (0 kg/ha)
P1 (60 kg/ha)
P2 (90 kg/ha)
CD (P =
0.05)
Zinc levels
Z0 (0 kg/ha)
Z1 (5 kg/ha)
Z2 (10 kg/ha)
CD (P =
0.05)
The impact of varieties and interaction between the
phosphorus and zinc doses was non significant. The increase
in the amount of amino acids due tho increase in the doses of
phosphorus and zinc may be ascribed to the fact that both
these minerals play a vital role in protein synthesis during
the grain filling stages in the wheat crop and indirectly
enhance the availability of nitrogen to the plants. Thus,
increased effieciency of the protein synthesis is manifested
in the increase in its structural components which include
the amino acids such as lysine, tryptophan and methionine.
Similar findings were reported by Lindsay (1972),
Alessendroni et al. (1976) and Epperdorfer (1978). The
sedimentation value and water absorption capacity were also
significantly affected by varieties, doses of phosphorus and
zinc (Table-6). The sedimentation value ranged from 31.53
to 36.21 while water absorption capacity was in the range of
65.62 to 72.48.
29
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Table-6: Sedimentation value and Water absorption capacity of wheat
as influenced by various treatments
The varietal differences with respect to
sedimentation value and water absorption capacity of wheat
may be attributed to the fact that these varieties show
significant variation among themselves in the context of
gluten content. The sedimentation value and water
absorption capacity of wheat is directly proportional to
gluten content of wheat varieties. Therefore, it is natural that
they have variation in their sedimentation values and water
absorption capacity also. Similar results have also been
reported by Islam et al. (1998). The positive impact on
sedimentation value and water absorption capacity due to
increase in the doses of phosphorus and zinc may be due to
the vital role played by these nutrients in increasing the
gluten as well as the total protein content of the wheat. The
findings of the present investigation are in conformity with
the findings of Pratt (1971) and Jyurg et al. (1974). The
results of the present investigation clearly indicate that in
zinc deficient soil the interaction between phosphorus and
zinc is positive which is in contrary to established negative
interaction between these two nutrients. It may also be
concluded that these two nutrients play a very important role
in improving the bread making qualities and the biochemical
composition of the wheat varieties.
Treatments
2002-03
2003-04
Water absorption
capacity (in ml)
2003-04
2003-04
31.53
35.85
34.11
(1.67)
31.84
36.21
34.45
(1.06)
65.62
71.76
66.93
(2.67)
66.27
72.48
67.60
(1.21)
P0 (0 kg/ha)
P1 (60 kg/ha)
P2 (90 kg/ha)
CD (P = 0.05)
Zinc levels
32.86
33.77
34.86
(1.33)
33.19
34.10
35.21
(1.34)
66.28
67.90
70.13
(0.92)
66.95
68.57
70.83
(2.66)
Z0 (0 kg/ha)
Z1 (5 kg/ha)
Z2 (10 kg/ha)
CD (P = 0.05)
33.62
33.86
34.01
(1.33)
33.95
34.20
34.35
(1.34)
67.72
68.08
68.51
(0.92)
68.39
68.76
69.20
(2.66)
Variety
V1 (NW-1014)
V2 (HW-2425)
V3 (PBW-343)
CD (P = 0.05)
Phosphorus levels
Sedimentation (in ml)
Acknowledgement: The University scholarship received by
the first author during the course of the present investigation
is gratefully acknowledged.
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Effect of inter-cropping and weed management on yield and quality of chickpea (Cicer arietinum)
C S SHARMA AND B L KUSHWAHA*
KVK, Sangaria, Hanumangarh-335063, Rajasthan and * Head Deptt. of Agronomy, RMP (PG) Collage, Gurukul-Narasan,
Haridwar, Uttranchal, India.
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted during the Rabi (winter) season of 1998-99 and 1999-2000 at Gurukul-Narasan,
Hardwar (Uttranchal) for “Studies on weed management in chickpea-mustard intercropping system”. Highest yield in
terms of chickpea equivalent yield and maximum gross return in terms of Rs./ha were obtained by the chickpea +
mustard (4:1) intercropping system. Weed free condition increases the yield and gave maximum gross return both in
pure crop of chickpea/mustard and intercropping of chickpea and mustard.
Key words: Intercropping, Weed- management, Climate.
The production of crops may be increased either by
putting additional area under crops or by increasing
productivity per unit area by the use of new agro-technology.
The possibilities for increasing area under pulses and
oilseeds are limited because these crops face a serious
competition from high yielding cereals and millets during
rabi and kharif respectively. So the most possible way for
increasing production in the countries like India is to
increase per unit area yield of these crops, which may be
enhanced tremendously by growing mustard as additional
crop with gram in intercropping systems. In the present day
agriculture a scientific approach of inter cropping is being
adopted under irrigated area with a view to enhance
productivity. Keeping these points in view, a field
experiment was conducted during the Rabi (winter) season
of 1998-99 and 1999-2000 at the farm of R.M.P. (P.G)
College, Gurukul-Narasan, Hardwar (Uttranchal).
pedimethalin @ 1kg a.i. per hectare] and were replicated
four times in split plot design. The crop was sown in furrows
45 cm apart at a depth of 8-10 cm in chickpea and 2.5-3.0
cm in mustard & covered by light planking. The crop was
sown on 30th October in both the years (1998-99 & 19992000). In intercropping system the recommended dose of
fertilizers for both the crops viz. chickpea (20 kg/h N & 46
Kg/h P2O5) and mustard (60 kg/h N & 40 Kg/h P 2O5) were
applied on row basis. The experimental crops were sown on
30th October during both the seasons. Chickpea equivalent
yield was worked out with the help of existing prices of
chickpea and mustard (Rs. 1000 and 1100/q respectively).
Seed of chickpea sampled form each plot, were ground to 20
meshes and mixed thoroughly. The total nitrogen content in
seed of chickpea was estimated by Kjeldahl method (AOAC,
1960). Protein content in seed of chickpea was calculated by
multiplying the nitrogen content in seed with a factor 6.25
(AOAC, 1960). Gross profit per hectare of different
treatments was workedoutastotalmonetaryvalue of economic
produce and by products (Seed and straw yield) on the basis
of local market prices.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The location has a semi arid, sub-tropical climate
having hot and dry summers with maximum temperature as
high as 43ºC in May-June and Severe cold winters with
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
temperature falling about freezing point in DecemberJanuary. The annual rainfall is about 680 mm major of which
is received during July, August & September. The available
Nitrogen, Phosphorus (P2O5) and Potash (K2O) of
experimental field during 1998-99 were 218.0, 11.0 and
289.0 kg/ha and during 1999-2000 were 230.0, 13.0 and
260.0 kg/ha, respectively. Similarly, the pH and electric
conductivity (m.mhos/cm at 250C) of the above field was 7.3
and 0.4 during 1998-99 and 7.4 and 0.4 during 1999-2000,
respectively. The treatments imposed were combination of 5
intercropping systems (chickpea sole at 45 cm spacing,
mustard sole at 45 cm spacing, chickpea + mustard (3:1) row
ratio, chickpea + mustard (4:1) row ratio and chickpea +
mustard (6:2) row ratio) and 4 weed management practices
[weedy check control, hand weeding twice at 30 and 60
DAS, weed free (repeated weeding) and application of
35.23 and 14.40 per cent during 1999-2000 with W2, W3
and W4 respectively. It is evident from the results presented
The results in Table 1 reveals that the intercropping
system did not differ significantly in respect of chickpea
equivalent yield (q/ha) in both the seasons. However,
chickpea + mustard (4:1) intercropping system produced
higher chickpea equivalent yield (13.99 and 14.68 q/ha) than
other intercropping systems in both the seasons. Weed
management practices had significant effect on chickpea
equivalent yield in both the seasons (Table 1). Chickpea
equivalent yield increased significantly with weed free
conditions in both the seasons followed by HW twice at 30
and 60 DAS and application of pendimethalin. Significant
difference was observed among all the weed management
practices. The weed when allowed to compete with crop for
entire crop season reduced the chickpea equivalent yield by
29.70, 39.34 and 18.16 per cent during 1998-99 and 24.92,
in Table 2 that intercropping system in combination with
weed management practices had significant effect on
32
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
chickpea equivalent yield. It is clear from the data presented
in Table 2 that the highest gross profit of Rs 14673 and Rs
15350 per ha was recorded at chickpea + mustard (4:1)
intercropping system during 1998-99 and 1999-2000,
respectively. The highest chickpea equivalent yield (17.58
q/ha and 18.36 q/ha) was recorded in S4W3 followed by
S1W3 during 1998-99 and by S3W3 during 1999-2000.
Weed free condition gave the highest gross profit of
Rs. 17278/ha and Rs 17557/ha in both the years respectively.
An examination of Table 1 reveals that intercropping system
did not show marked variation in nitrogen content and
protein content in seed of chickpea during both the years.
Weed management practices also failed to affect the nitrogen
content and protein content in seed of chickpea in both the
season.
Table 1. Chickpea equivalent yield (q/ha), Gross profit (Rs/ha) and Nitrogen content & Protein content in seed of chickpea as influenced by
intercropping system and weed management practices.
Treatment
Intercropping Systems
S1, Chickpea sole at 45 cm spacing
S2, Mustard sole at 45 cm spacing
S3, Chickpea + Mustard (3:1)
S4, Chickpea + Mustard (4:1)
S5, Chickpea + Mustard (6:2)
SE m +
CD (P=0.05)
Weed management practices
W1, Weedy check control
W2, HW twice at 30 and 60 DAS
W3, Weed free
W4, Pendimethalin @ 1Kg a.i./ha
SE m+
CD (P=0.05)
Chickpea equivalent
yield (q/ha)
1998-99 1999-2000
Gross profit (Rs/ha)
1998-99
1999-2000
Nitrogen content in
seed of chickpea
1998-99
1999-2000
Protein content in
seed of chickpea
1998-99
1999-2000
13.42
12.32
12.48
13.99
12.73
0.70
NS
13.25
12.75
14.09
14.68
12.68
1.06
NS
13904.25
13771.25
13724.50
14672.50
13606.50
13730.50
14256.25
15084.25
15350.25
13583.50
3.09
0.00
3.10
3.09
3.10
0.004
NS
3.10
0.00
3.09
3.10
3.10
0.004
NS
19.33
0.00
19.35
19.33
19.35
0.03
NS
19.35
0.00
19.33
19.36
19.36
0.03
NS
9.87
14.04
16.27
12.06
0.13
0.26
10.70
14.25
16.52
12.50
0.12
0.25
10590.60
14976.20
17277.60
12898.80
11504.40
15216.60
17556.60
13326.20
2.47
2.48
2.48
2.48
0.006
NS
2.47
2.48
2.48
2.48
0.006
NS
15.45
15.49
15.48
15.48
0.04
NS
15.45
15.49
15.49
15.49
0.04
NS
Table 2. Chickpea equivalent yield (q/ha) and Gross profit (Rs/ha) of chickpea as influenced by intercropping system and weed management
practices.
1998-99
Chickpea
Treatments*
equivalent
yield (q/ha)
S1W1
10.462
S1W2
14.035
S1W3
16.365
S1W4
12.833
S2W1
9.240
S2W2
13.507
S2W3
14.983
S2W4
11.558
S3W1
9.592
S3W2
13.815
S3W3
16.240
S3W4
11.720
S4W1
10.698
S4W2
15.198
S4W3
17.583
S4W4
12.465
S5W1
9.350
S5W2
13.658
S5W3
16.165
S5W4
11.735
* Details of treatments are given in Table 1
Sale price of chickpea Rs. 1000 /q
Sale price of mustard Rs. 1100 /q
1999-2000
Gross
profit
(Rs/ha)
10862
14540
16896
13319
10462
15051
16663
12909
10285
14752
17294
12567
11282
15944
18367
13097
10062
14594
17168
12602
Chickpea
equivalent
yield (q/ha)
10.385
14.015
16.190
12.417
10.703
13.417
14.712
12.167
11.262
15.047
17.177
12.890
11.410
15.623
18.355
13.345
9.735
13.170
16.142
11.663
33
Gross
Profit
(Rs/ha)
10795
14522
16718
12887
12062
14976
16402
13585
12131
16099
18290
13817
12021
16376
19195
13809
10513
14110
17178
12533
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
REFERENCES
A.O.A.C. 1960. Official and tentave methods and analysis association of
agricultural chemists, Washington.
Singh, H.P.; Saxena, M.C. and Sahu, J.P. 1987. Mechanical and
herbicidal weed control in chickpea. Indian J. of weed science. 19 : 12.
ALI,M. 1992. Genotypic compatibility and spatial arrangement in chickpea
(Cicer arietinum) and India mustard (Brassica juncea) intercropping
in North-East plains. Indian J. of Agri. Sc. 62 (4) : 249-253.
Singh, D.K. and Yadav, D.S. 1992. Production potential and
economics of chickpea based intercropping system under rainfed
conditions. Indian J. of Agronomy. 37 (3) : 424-429.
ALI,M. 1993. Studies on crop-weed competition in chickpea (Cicer
arietinum)/mustard (Brassica juncea) intercropping. Indian Society of
Weed Sc. Vol. II. : 39 - 40.
34
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Constraints analysis and prioritization through PRA techniques in the agency area of East
Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh
K SUMAN KALYANI, V KRISHNAMURTHY, C CHANDRA SEKHAR RAO AND N ARUNA KUMARI
Central Tobacco Research Institute, Rajahmundry, A.P., India.
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
A socio economic survey was carried out by using PRA techniques to analyze the tribal scenario of East Godavari
district. In order to evoke their participation and to open ways in which these closed groups can participate better in
assessment of opportunities, needs, priorities and constraints in project design and implementation. The constraints
were identified through PRA techniques viz. social map, resource map, agro-ecology map, transect were used in agroeco system analysis. Ex-post facto research design was used and a sample of 500 tribal families were selected on
stratified random sampling procedure from two village panchayats viz. Peddageddada from Rampachodavarm mandal
and Vattigadda from Rajavomangi mandal of East Godavari district based on purposive random sampling method.
The major problems were identified and the interventions were proposed based on the analysis of PRA techniques.
Keywords: Constraint, PRA.
The tribal population in East Godavari district is
concentrated mostly in the agency area covering 559 villages
of nine mandals. The tribal communities are very primitive,
indigenous and closed groups. Participatory Rural Appraisal
(PRA) is a methodology for interacting with villagers,
understanding them and learning from them. It is a method
of collecting different kinds of data, identifying and
mobilizing intended groups and evoking their participation
and opening ways in which intended groups can participate
in decision making, project design, implementation and
monitoring based on objectives, purposes and resources. It
provides supplementary and complementary framework for
data collection and analysis in a visual format in
participatory development process.
The most prominent tribal communities in the
selected villages are Konda Reddies, Koya Doras, Konda
Kammaras, Valmikis, Manne Doras, Konda Kapus. The
tribes follow primitive methods of agriculture, which is
known as ‘Podu cultivation’ and ‘Shifting cultivation’. They
clear away the forest lands on hill slopes by cutting and
burning. They also depend up on the traditional occupations
like Bamboo basket weaving, Mat weaving. They live in
huts made up of mud and bamboo walls covered with
thatched (Palm, Straw) roofs. They live in colonies ( 10 -20
families) locally called as gudems by constructing their huts
very close to each other for protecting from wild animals like
bandi sinduga( Cheetah) bear and wolf. They generally
select their habitat near water source.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A socio economic survey was carried out by using
PRA techniques to analyze the tribal situation. The PRA
techniques viz. social map, resource map, agro-ecology
map, transect, mobility map, technology map, livelihood
analysis, seasonal analysis, venn diagram, matrix ranking,
flow diagram, impact diagram, ITK map, wealth ranking etc.
were used in agro-eco system analysis and important among
them are discussed below.
Agro-Ecology Map: Agro-ecosystem analysis was carried
out for the villages for resource characterization,
identification of prevailing systems and practices and
constraints / problems. Problems were prioritized and
technology interventions were prepared. Budget planning
was prepared based on the technology interventions. The
following tools were used for generating basic information.
Hence, a survey was carried out to analyze the tribal
scenario.
Major Crops: The staple food for tribal population is rice
followed by minor millets like jowar, sorghum, pearl millet
and tapioca. They also raise commercial crops like cotton,
tobacco, chillies; pulses like redgram, blackgram,
greengram, rajmah, cowpea; oil seeds like groundnut,
gingelly; plantation crops like cashew, rubber, coffee and
orchards like mango, banana, citrus, pineapple etc.
Crop Calendar & Cropping System: There is no strict
calendar as such. But the tribal farmers follow certain series
of crops as sequence. Important Cropping systems followed
in this area are Paddy - Black gram/ Green gram, SorghumVegetables, Gingelly/ Groudnut- Vegetables, MaizeTobacco & Fallow Tobacco etc. The vegetables like Beans,
Ridge gourd, Banana and tubers like Tapioca and forest
tubers are generally used by the tribals.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Ex-post facto research design was used and a
sample of 500 tribal families were selected through stratified
random sampling procedure from two village panchayaths
viz. Pedageddada and Vattigadda based on purposive
random sampling method.
35
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Climate: Cool winter and summer with moderate
temperatures are the characteristic feature of this area. The
mean and maximum temperatures range between 24 - 32° C
and the minimum between 14 - 24° C, respectively. The
average annual rainfall varies from 900- 1400 mm with a
mean rainfall of 1150 mm, most of which is received during
the South-West monsoon. Evening showers are common in
rainy season due to the existence of thick forests. Cloudiness
and low light intensity prevail for a number of days during
South-West monsoon period. Heavy rains are common in
Kharif during the months of August to October. Day length
ranges between 9 -11 hours. A high relative humidity of 70
to 80% exists in the atmosphere. High humidity and pleasant
winters are characteristic of this area. Number of rainy days
is more (around 45 out of 75) here. The temperatures are
cool and may range between 15° to 40° C with a minimum
temperature ranging between 15° to 20° C during winters
and a maximum of 35° to 40° C during summer months.
villages. The villages have no proper drainage facilities. The
depth of water table is around 80-100 feet. Yeleru reservoir
supplies water to the villages covering 20-25 villages.
Resource Map: The resource map shows different kinds of
natural resources and its utilization among farmers. The
labour resource is high in both the villages as all the farmers
contribute for the labour requirement of their village. The
cost of the labour extends is Rs.50/- to Rs. 100/- per day.
The tribal farmers rear buffaloes, cow, goat and sheep.
Animal resource is high with cows, goats followed by sheep,
buffaloes and pigs. Green fodders like guinea grass and Para
grass are available in plenty on the hill tops. Tree and fuel
resources are the assets of the tribal villages. The goat
population is high in Vattigadda village followed by cows
70. Apart from those engaged in agriculture, most of them
depend on goat rearing, cattle rearing and minor forest
produce. Pedageddada village has 180 ha of rain fed light
soils (Alfisols), 60 ha of light soils under tanks, 90 ha under
canals altogether constituting 330 ha of cultivable area and
5466 ha of total geographical area. The major crops grown
are paddy, blackgram, bajra, jowar, Cotton. The vegetables
like beans, bottle gourds, ridge gourd, bhendi, tomato and
brinjal are also being cultivated. Water resources are canals,
tanks and ponds. Vattigadda village has 194 ha of total
cultivable land with red soils (80 ha) and black soils (114 ha)
under different crops. The main crop is white burley tobacco
which constitutes followed by Tapioca, Paddy, Cashew and
Cotton.
Soils: The soils are light-textured sandy loams (Alfisols),
except small patches of black soils. The soils are very fertile
and support a variety of crops. With the mountainous terrain,
the soils are subjected to severe erosion during heavy
monsoon rains. To avoid soil erosion, horizontal contours
are made on the hill tops. Both the soils at Pedageddada and
Bandapalle are light soils and sandy loams. Thantikonda
panchayath (Vattigadda) has red soils (80 ha) and black soils
(114ha). Cheruvu Kommupalem (Bornagudem) panchayath
has four soil types i.e. red soils (60ha), sandy loams, black
cotton soils(40ha) and saline soils(33ha). The hill slopes are
mostly of sandy loams. Contours are made on the hill slopes
horizontally to prevent soil erosion. The rain water is
allowed to drain out through small channels here and there.
Minor Forest Produce (MFP): Minor Forest produce have
been traditionally sustaining the tribal economies significantly.
The tribals collect forest products like roots, fruits, tubers, beedi
leaf, mahua flower, honey, gum, tamarind, tannins, dyes, fibres
etc. for major requirements like food, shelter, fuel, fibre and
medicines. They earn a meager income by selling these to
traders and government co-operatives. The commonly available
MFP include Honey (Stick Honey, Ball Honey, Borra Honey,
Ant-Hole Honey, Screen Honey), Tamarind(Tamarindus
indica), Amla, Forest tubers (Amorphophallus campanulatus),
Tapioca (Manihot utilissima) for food purpose. They use Mushti
(Strychnos nuxvomica), Gachakayalu, Indugapicca, Chillaginja,
Nallacheedi Picca, Musilikaya (Curculigo orchiodes),
Karakkaya (Terminalia chebula), Naramamidi Bark (Polyalthca
longifolia), Mahua (Bassia latifolia) Pongamia (Pongamia
pinnata) Pepper (Piper nigrum) etc. for medicinal purpose. Sisal
(Agave sisalana), Palmyrah (Borassus flabellifer) are being
used for fibre purpose where as
Vippa (Bassia latifolia),
Jeelugu (Ceylon piassava) are used for brew purpose. Sirimanu,
Tangedu (Cassia auriculata), Bamboo(Bambusa vulgaris, Teak
(Tectonagrandis), Eucalyptus(Eucalyptus globules); Palm
(Borassus flabellifer), Vegisa (Indian kino) etc. are used for fuel
and agricultural implements. Shikakai (Acacia concinna), Soap
Nuts (Sapirdus trifoliatus), Hill-brooms (Kondachipurlu), Gum
Karaya (Stercuilla urens), Puthika Sticks (Holoptelea
integrifolia), Tendu Leaves (Diospyros melanoxylon), Adda
Leaves etc. are used for other economic purpose.
Rainfall: The average annual rainfall varies from 900 to
1400 mm with a mean rainfall of 1300 mm, most of which is
received during South-West monsoon (64%). North-East
monsoon and summer showers account for 27% and 9%,
respectively. The number of rainy days is 42 days.
Cloudiness and low intensity prevail for a number of days
during South-West monsoon period. Heavy rains are
common in Kharif during September-October or cyclones
during October, November leading. Cloudiness and low
wgight to prevent soil erosion.ack soils (114ha). to floods
and inundation of fields with 60-90cm water for 2-5 days
(some time extending up to 10-12 days).
Physiography: Majority of the tribal villages have 80%
elevated terrains. On the elevated terrains, the tribes grow
cotton, vegetables and tobacco by shifting cultivation.
Irrigation: Crops are grown mostly under rain fed
conditions. To avoid soil erosion, horizontal contours are
made on the hill tops. Excess water from the hill tops/slopes
is allowed to drain out through small drainage channels. In
addition to rainwater, ponds are also available in the villages.
Small canals, borewells and tanks supply water to the
36
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Fig. – 1 : Agro-ecology & Resource Map
Fig.- 2: Social Map
Fig.- 3: Social Map
37
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Social Map: The social map is a symbolic representation of
a social structure to understand and to simplify the location,
social stratification and the availability of other social
facilities in the context of village socio economic conditions.
A transect was made in and around the villages viz.
Pedageddada and Vattigadda starting from one end to
another. viz. Schools, Hospital, Post-office, Bank, Village
panchayat office, Youth club, Primary Health Center (PHC)
and Temples. The map has attracted the attention of women
folk, as it is colourful. All the tribal families are engaged in
occupations viz. fishing, agriculture, horticulture and
primitive hunting. Most of them are landless labourers with
small holdings of 0.25 to 1.0 acre. Pedageddada village is
situated 5-6 km away from Rampachodavaram Mandal.
Smt.V.Lakshmi & M.Venkata Ramana have volunteered the
group to draw and locate various social institutions
Pedageddada. Social map of Pedageddada constitutes PHC,
Bank, Girijan Co-operative Credit (GCC) Stores,
Community hall, Primary School and 4 bore wells and one
temple. Transport facilities are good with pucca roads.
Drinking water facility was provided by Sri Satya Sai Trust
through a water tank with a capacity of 500 lts. Pedageddada
village has a total population of 844 representing from 221
households. Thatched houses are predominant in the village
with 30 pucca houses. There are 15 Self Help Groups (SHG)
s, two Vana Samrakshana Samithis (VSS)s and one water
users association. Vattigadda village is situated in the
jurisdiction of Thantikonda panchayat. The village is located
5 km away from Jeddangi towards Rajavommangi mandal.
The social map of Vattigadda village constitutes Mandal
Praja Parishad (MPP) School, Post-office, Bank, Temple and
4 bore wells. Transport facilities are good with pucca roads.
Drinking water facility was provided by Sri Satya Sai Trust
through a water tank with a capacity of 500 lts. Village has a
total population of 1046 representing 260 households.
Thatched houses are predominant in the village with fifty
pucca houses. Village organizations viz. two Rytu mitra
groups, 1 water users association, one Vana Samrakshana
Samithi (VSS) and 7 Self-Help Groups (SHGs).
Low income from alternative sources of livelihood
Low egg productivity in local chicks
Poor health and nutritional status in women and children
Occupational health hazards and drudgery in agro-based
activities
Based on the problems identified among the selected villages
in tribal area, the need based, location specific agro-based
interventions and enterprising interventions were identified
for the upliftment of the tribals.
Selected Agro-based Interventions:
Package of practices in cereals, pulses, millets and tobacco
Soil test based fertilizer application.
Introduction of indigenous, high yielding backyard poultry,
sheep and goattery
Introduction of green manuring and vermicompost
technologies.
Drudgery reduction by introduction of agricultural
implements
Nutritional security through back yard kitchen gardening
Interventions through Micro enterprises and homestead
units
Training and skill development in the proposed micro
enterprises viz. adda leaf plate making, tamarind processing,
bamboo products making and burley seedling production.
Homestead units viz. Natural dyes, Tannins & gums unit,
Herbal products unit, garment making and value addition.
Value-addition in minor forest produces.
Introduction of floriculture - Firecracker plants- Crossandra
infundibuliformis (Kanakambaram) in tribal backyards.
Development of marketing avenues to the finished products.
The proposed interventions will be carried out in the selected
villages for the employment generation and sustenance of
tribal families.
Need based vocational training programs which are
technologically sound and economically productive help the
tribal youth to sustain themselves through self employment
and making them self-reliant over a period of time. The
increased living standard will ensure the quality of health,
education and employment leading towards empowerment.
The proposed interventions are intended to bring desirable
and qualitative change in the living system of the targeted
group.
The productivity level of the agro based cropping system
will be enhanced by dealing the local agro-based problems
effectively. Adoption of appropriate technologies for onfarm value-addition of agricultural by-products and wastes
will result in greater economic dividen.
Identified Problems Through PRA Techniques :
Low productivity and low net returns in cereals (Rice, Jowar,
Maize) pulses (Blackgram, Greengram, Cow pea) and tubers
(Tapioca)
Lack of awareness and knowledge about high yielding
varieties (cereals and pulses) and the latest technical knowhow in crop production.
Lack of employment during lean period ( March to July
months)
Under/ non-utilization of natural resources like Minor Forest
Produce (MFP).
38
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Evaluation of fungicides for management of downy mildew of isabgol caused by Pseudoperonospora
plantaginis in Rajasthan
R K YADAV, JEEWA RAM* AND M P SHARMA
Department of Plant Pathology, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, MPUAT, Udaipur- 313001, *KVK, (SKRAU)
Sriganganagar, Rajasthan, India
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The isabgoal (Plantago ovata Forsk.) is an important medicinal crop and it is grown in arid or semi region of Rajasthan.
Annually a major production become suffered due to Pseudoperonospora plantaginis, causes Downy mildew of isabgol
and results in a considerable loss in yield. The fungicides were tested to prevent the Downey mildew disease of isabgoal.
The efficacy of 6 fungicides i.e Apron 35 SD, Ridomil MZ, Fosetyl Al, Carbendazim,Mancozeb and Blitox were
evaluated at 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 and 200 ppm concentration against zoosporangial germination. Minimum zoosporangial
germination was recorded in Apron35 SD (4.81%) followed by Ridomil MZ-72 WP, Fosetyl Al and Mancozeb. In the
field trials, the systemic infection in different treatment ranged from 4.47 to 10.33 per cent and non-systemic infection
ranged from 48.67 to 60.67 per centin both the years . Three seed dressers ot four doses(0.5,1.0,1.5 and 2 %) of each
were evaluated, Apron35 SD (2g per kg seed) proved most effective in reducing infection as compaired to control
691kg/ha. Seed yield in different treatment varied from 730 to 820 kg per ha in both the years.
Key words: Pseudoperonospora plantaginis, fungicides, isabgol, downy mildew
Isabgol (Plantago ovata Forsk) is the main source
of seed and husk for use in medicines. India commands
nearly monopoly in production and export of the seed and
husk to the world market, which brings unmatched
perspectives to the cultivation of this important medicinal
crop. More than 90 per cent of the total Indian produce is
exported all over the World. In Rajasthan the crop was
cultivated in 81538 ha area with annual production of 41721
tonnes and the productivity of 512 kg /ha (Annonymous
2004-05). Downy mildew is reported to be caused by
Peronospora alta (Rathore, 1996) and Pseudoperonospora
plantaginis (Sharma and Pushpendra, 1997) in western and
southern parts of Rajasthan respectively. In field, the downy
mildew affected plants produce systemic and non-systemic
symptoms. The disease causes extensive damage to the crop
and makes the cultivation of isabgol crop unprofitable At
present resistant varieties are not available against this
disease.. The present study was therefore, made to examine
relative efficacy of different fungicides against P.
plantaginis in vitro and in planta conditions.
In Field evaluation: The field experiment was
conducted for two consecutive years i.e. 2001-02 & 200203.The seed of GI -2 variety collected from diseased plants
in the previous season were sown in triplicate plots each of
4 x3 m size with crop geometry of 30 x10 cm. The oosporic
powers collected in previous year was applied at 6 g m-1
row prior to sowing to ensure appreance of 50 days after
sowing with conidial suspension of @ 1x 10 5 conidia /ml.
Seed of treatment of three fungicides were Apron SD,
Carbendazim and Mancozeb at four levels I e 0.5, 1.0, 1.5,
and 2.0 gm used and separate control without fungicides
served as control was also maintained .Each treatment was
replicated thrice 30 and 45 DAS , five randomly selected
plants
from
each
replication
were
used
todetermineseedyield,estimate systemic and non systemic
infection. Five randomly selected plants from each
replication were collected separately. Five-day-old seedlings
were whorl inoculated for three consecutive days. Numbers
of systemically infected plants were recoded 30 and 45 days
after sowing. Per cent disease incidence of systemically
infected plants was calculated by counting number of
diseased plants and the total number of plants in the pots.
Percents disease intensity for non systemic infection was
recorded 30 and 45 days after sowing following the 0-5 scale
(Rathore and Pathak 2001).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
In vitro evaluation:, Freshly harvested sporangia of
P. plantaginis were collected in water from systemically
infected plants. Systematic and non systemic fungicides viz
Apron 35 SD, Ridomil MZ-72 WP, Fosetyl Al, Bavistin,
Mancozeb and Blitox were evaluated in vitro against the P.
plantaginis These fungicides were prepared in double
concentrations of 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 and 200 ppm and their
effect on zoosporangial germination was studied by slide
germination method having three replications for each
treatment. The slides were placed in Petriplates lined with
moist blotting papers. The Petri dishes were incubated at 25
± 1 C for 24 h and slides were examined under microscope
for counting total germinated sporangia and percentage of
inhibition of germination was calculated.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The mean sporangial germination in different
fungicides varied from 4.81 to 27.85 per cent as against
57.00 % in control (Table-1). Apron 35 SD, Ridomil MZWP and Fosetyl Al were effectively inhibited sporangial
germination at (50 ppm) concentration. Mancozeb and Blitox
also completely inhibited sporangial germination at 200 ppm
concentration Apron 35 SD, Ridomil MZ-72 WP, Fosetyl
Al, Mancozeb and Blitox complletly inhibit the myceial
growth of the P alta even at 200 ppm while in case of
39
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
carbendazim could not check the growth of pathogen as
reorted earliar by Rathore and Pathak 2004.Spraying of
different fungicides had no significance bearing on reduction
of per cent systemic infection. Apron 35 SD (2g per kg seed)
as seed treatment was found most effective to lowest the
systemic infection of downy mildew as followed by doses
of Apron 35 SD i.e .05,1.0 and 1.5 gm / kg of seed as
compared to Carbendazim and Mancozeb at any
concentration (Table-2). The seed yield in this treatment was
820 kg per ha in the year 2001-02 and 825 kg per ha in the
year 2002-03. It was also observed that Apron 35 SD
provided protection to isabgol seedling from foliar infection
for 30 days, where as, Mancozeb and Bavistin could not
provide protection to seedlings. Spraying of Apron 35 SD
proved most effective and significantly superior over all
other treatment exhibiting maximum values of different
parameters of seed yield. Several researchworkers have
succeeded in managing downey mildew of various host
plants with the use of different of fungicides including
Metalaxyl. Desai and Desai (1969) reported that two spray of
aureofungin @ 15 g / ha per spray effectively controlled
Peronospora plantaginis on blond psyllium. Rathore and
Pathak (2002) reported that seed treatment with chemicals
enhanced vigour of blond psyllium plants. In the present
study we recorded improvement in seed yield. Foliar sprays
of chemicals persisted in plants for longer period and could
protect the crop from secondary infection but were
effectively only in preventing non systemic (locals)
infection. Rathore and Pathak (2001) have also made similar
observation. Several workers have succeeded in controlling
downy mildew of different host plants with the use of
different fungicides including metalaxyl ( Hartill, 1982;
Rathore et al.,1986; Georgy et al.,1986; Dunleavey, 1987;
Jesperson and Sulton, 1987 & Mir et al.,1987 ).
Table 1. Effect of different concentrations of fungicides on zoosporangial germination of Pseudoperonospora plantaginis
Fungicides
Per cent germination at concentration (ppm)
25
50
100
3.10
0.0.
0.0
Apron 35 SD
5
16.10
10
9.70
Ridomil MZ-72 WP
20.70
11.70
Fosetyl Al
25.50
13.10
6.40
0.0
0.0
0.0
7.50
Bavistin
37.00
31.30
29.00
25.77
22.07
21.97
27.85
Mancozeb
31.80
26.00
12.60
8.17
5.27
0.0
13.97
Blitox
40.40
27.70
18.70
11.63
6.50
0.0
17.48
Control
51.00
52.40
54.10
55.87
57.47
57.87
54.78
SEm. ±
1.391
1.394
1.591
1.341
1.437
1.363
CD (P=0.05)
4.285
4.294
4.903
4.133
4.429
4.199
5.30
0.0
0.0
200
0.0
Mean
4.81
0.0
6.20
Table 2: Effect of seed treatment on downy mildew of Isabgol under field conditions
Fungicides
Apron35 SD
Apro 35 SD
2001-02
Dose
(gkg-1
seed)
0.5
1.0
DI (%)*
(Syst infection)
6.77
5.80
Apro 35 SD
1.5
5.67
Apro 35 SD
2.0
5.50
Mancozeb
0.5
7.80)
Mancozeb
1.0
7.00
Mancozeb
1.5
6.80
Mancozeb
2.0
6.00
Carbendazim 50
0.5
10.33
Carbendazim 50
1.0
9.50
Carbendazim 50
1.5
8.00
Carbendazim 50
2.0
7.50
Control
18.00
SEm. ±
0.380
CD (P=0.05)
1.110
DI = Disease incidence *Average of three replication
2002-03
DI (%)
(non-syst
infection)
55.58)
761
DI%)
(Syst
infection)
6.08
53.00
775
4.87
52.30
781
51.20
49.67
57.00
54.67
52.00
51.17
60.67
60.00
57.93
56.00
64.50
0.836
2.441
800
820
734
748
765
782
730
748
755
771
675
5.291
15.444
4.78
4.47
6.77
6.40
5.77
5.00
9.37
8.53
6.97
6.50)
17.07
0.307
0.895
50.27
48.67
55.9
53.70
52.14)
51.03
59.23
58.97
56.73
55.07
62.50
0.742
2.167
805
825
740
755
775
795
735
750
762
778
681
6.599
19.260
Seed yield
(kg ha-1)
40
DI (%)
(non-syst
infection)
54.37
Seed yield
(kg ha-1)
765
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
REFERENCES
Annonomous, 2005-06. Vital Agriculture Statistics. Directorate of
Agriculture, Jaipur Rajasthan. pp 112.
(Peronospora destructor) on onion. Indian J. Mycol. Pl. Pathol. 17:
321-322
Desai, M.V. and D.B. Desai. 1969. Control of downy mildew of Isabgol by
aureofungin. Hindustan Antibiot. Bull. 11: 254-257.
Rathore, R.S., S. Mathur and K. Mathur. 1986. Control of secondary
infection of opium downy mildew induced by Peronospora
arborescens by metalaxyl. Summa Phytopathologica.12: 202-206.
Dunleavey, J.M. 1987. Yield reduction in soybean caused by downy
mildew. Plant Disease. 71: 1112-1114.
Rathore, B S 1996. Economic management of downy mildew of Isabgol
through chemicals. Plant Disease Research, 11: 90-92
Georgy, N.I., I.A. Radwan, H.A. Mohammed and A.E. Shahabi. 1986.
Chemical control of downy mildew and purple leaf blotch of onion in
Egypt. Agric. Res. 61: 25-41.
Rathore, B S and R.S. Rathore, 1996. Downy mildew of Isabgol in
Rajasthan. PKV Research J. 20: 107.
Hartill, W.F.T. 1982. Control of downy mildew of Brassica seedling and
lettuce with systemic fungicides. New Zealand J. of Experimental
Agriculture. 10: 69-72.
Rathore B S and Pathak VN. 2001. Management of downy mildew of
blond psyllium through seed treatment –cum foliar spray. Indian
Phytopath 54 :409-412
Jesperson, G.D. and J.C. Sulton. 1987. Evaluation of a forecaster for
downy mildew of onion (Allium cepa L.). Crop Protection. 6: 95103.
Rathore B S and Pathak VN. 2002. Effect of seed treatment on downy
mildew of blond psyllium.J Mycol Pl Pathol 32:35-37
Sharma, M P and Pushpendra. 1997. A new pathogen causing downy
mildew of Isabgol (Plantago ovataForsk.).J. Mycol. Pl. Pathol. 28:
74.
Mir, N.M., A.K. Dhar, M.A. Khan, G.H. Dar and M.V. Zargar. 1987.
Screening of fungicides for field control downy mildew
41
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Yield gap analysis of black gram production through frontline demonstration
SWAPNIL DUBEY, SARVESH TRIPATHY, PRADYUMN SINGH, RAKESH KUMAR SHARMA
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Raisen, M.P., India.
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Blackgram is and important food legume widely consume in India. It also plays an important role in sustainable
agriculture enriching the soil through biological nitrogen fixation. Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Raisen (M.P.) during the
period from 2007-08 to 2009-10 conducted a total 36 frontline demonstration of blackgram crop. The highest seed yield
(9.89 q ha-1) was recorded in the year 2009-10. In FLD, it was 46.51% more over the farmers practice (6.75 q ha -1).
Average extension gap was recorded 2.53 q ha -1 and average technology index was recorded 24.36 percent. The
technology gap was ranged between 2.11 q ha -1 to 3.57 q ha-1. The productivity gain under FLD over farmer’s practice
created greater awareness and motivated the other farmer’s to adopt appropriate production technology of the crop.
Keywords: Black gram, yield gap, technology gap.
Black gram (Vigna mungo L.) is the most important
pulse crop in India, covering an area of 2434 lac hectare with
total production of 14 million tones. The average
productivity is 432 kg ha-1. (Anonymous, 2008). The crop is
resistant to adverse climatic conditions and improves the soil
fertility by fixing atmosphere nitrogen in soil. It has been
reported that the crop produce equivalent to 22.10 kg of
N/ha.
gap analysis of black gram production through front line
demonstration in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh.
METERIALS AND METHODS
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Raisen (M.P.) conducted
front line demonstrations on black gram during the period
2007-08 to 2009-10 in villages of Sanchi and Gairatganj
block. A total 36 farmers were covered under this
programme. The demonstration of improved technology was
taken in area of 0.4 ha was covered in 3 years for
demonstration of recommended improved practices of
Blackgram. To compare with flds, a control plot was
maintained at each location. Details of technologies
demonstrated have been given in table 1. In general, soils of
the area under sandy loam and medium in fertility status.
The yield data were collected from both the fld plots and
control plots and their technology gap, extension gap and the
technology index were worked out (Samui et al 2000) as
given below.
The pulse “black gram” play important role in
Indian diet. It contains about 20% protein, which is almost
three times that of cereal and other minerals and vitamins.
Raisen district occupies 5000 ha of land with the average
productivity of 357 kg ha-1 of black gram. In pulse crops
there are a number of diseases, insect and pest, which cause
heavy losses resulting in poor production.
Though several resistant / tolerant varieties have
been developed by research scientist. The spread of such
variety in the farmers’ field is very limited. Keeping in this
view the present study was carried out to find out the yield
(Potential yield – Demonstration yield) X 100
Technology index =
Potential yield
Extension gap = Demonstration yield – Farmers yield
Technology gap = Potential yield – Demonstration yield
42
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Regular visit by the KVK scientists to
demonstration field were made to guide the farmers. These
visits were also utilized to collect feed back information for
further improvement in research and extension programme.
The critical input in the form of quality seed, balanced
fertilizers etc. were supplied to the farmers by the KVK.
Data were collected from the FLDs plots and analyzed with
the suitable statistical tools to compare the yield of fld plots
and control plots.
observed may be attributed dissimilarity in the soil fertility
status, agricultural practices and local climatic conditions.
The technology index shows the feasibility of evolved
technology at the farmer’s field. The lower value of
technology more is the feasibility of the technology
demonstrated (Sagar and Chandra 2004). As such reduction
of technology index from 29.75% (2007-08) to 17.58%
(2009-10) exhibited the feasibility of technology
demonstrated. The FLD produced a significant positive
result and provided the research an opportunity to
demonstrate the productivity potential and profitability of the
improved technology under real farm situation, which they
have been advocating for a long time. This could circumvent
some of the constraints in the existing transfer of technology
system in the district. Similar findings were reported by
Kirar et al.,(2005).
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The results obtained during three year presented in
table 2. The results revealed that the highest yield in FLD
plots and farmer’s plots was 9.89 q ha-1 and 6.75 q ha-1
respectively. The yield of black gram under demonstration
ranged between 8.43 q ha-1 to 9.89 q ha-1 over observation
period. The results clearly indicated that due to knowledge
and adoption of appropriate production technology, the yield
of black gram could be increased by 26.76%, 43.01% and
46.51% over the yield obtained under farmers practices. The
above finding are in line with the findings of Singh (2002).
The highest extension gap which ranged from 1.78 q ha -1 to
3.14 q ha-1 under the study. Average extension gap was 2.53
q ha-1, which emphasized the need to educate the farmers
through various extension means like FLD higher for
adoption of improved agricultural technologies. The
technology gap, the difference between potential yield and
yield of demonstration plots were range between 2.11 q ha 1
to 3.57 q ha-1. On an average technology gap under 3 year
FLD programme was 2.92 q ha-1. The technology gap
CONCLUSION
It is concluded that the front line demonstration
conducted on improved technologies of black gram at
farmer’s fields of Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh showed
that the farmers could increase black gram production
significantly. In demonstration the integration of improved
production technology of black gram performed better than
control plots. It improves the productivity by 38.68 percent.
The productivity gain under FLD over farmer’s practice
created awareness and motivated the other farmers to adopt
appropriate production technology of black gram in the
district.
Table 1 : Particulars showing the details of black gram growing under FLD and existing practices.
Particulars
Farmer’s practices
Demonstration practices
Variety
JU-86
Local
20 Kg ha-1
30 Kg ha-1
Sowing method
Line sowing (30 cm)
Line sowing (22.5 cm)
Fertilizer dose
20:60:20 (N:P:K) ha-1
50 Kg ha-1 (DAP)
Weedicide
Imizathapyre 1 Lt ha-1
Hand weeding
Need based insecticide and fungicide spray
One spray of insecticide
Seed rate
Plant Protection
Table 2 : Exploitable productivity, extension gap, technology gap and technology index of Blackgram as grown under
FLD’s and existing package of practices.
Highest
Lowest
Average
FP
12
9.84
7.42
8.43
6.65
%
increase in
yield over
FP
26.96
12
10.85
7.85
8.91
6.23
43.01
5 ha
12
11.12
8.23
9.89
6.75
15 ha
36
10.60
7.83
9.07
6.54
Year
Area
No. of
Demo
2007-08
5 ha
2008-09
5 ha
2009-10
Mean
Yield q ha-1
43
Extension
gap q ha-1
Technology
gap q ha-1
Technology index
1.78
3.57
29.75
2.68
3.09
25.75
46.51
3.14
2.11
17.58
38.76
2.53
2.92
24.36
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
REFERENCES
Anonymous, 2008. Evaluation
http://agricoop.nic.in
Agricultural
statistics
at
glance,
Samui, S.K., Maitra, S., Roy, D. K., Mandal, A. K., Saha, D, 2000.
Evaluation front line demonstration on groundnut. J. of the Indian
Society Costal Agricultural Research, 18(2): 180-183.
Kirar, B. S., Mahajan, S.K., Nshine, R., Awasthi, H.K. and Shukla,
R.K., 2005. Impact of technological practices on the productivity of
Soybean in Frontline demonstration. Ind. Res. J. of Ext. Edu. 5(1):1517.
Singh, P. K., 2002. Impact of participation in planning on adoption of new
technology through FLD. MANAGE Extension Research Review JulyDec-45-48.
Sagar, R. L. and Ganesh Chandra, 2004. Front line demonstration on
seasame in West Bengal. Agricultural Extension Review 16 (2): 7-10.
44
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Integrated pest and disease management through organic farming approaches in fenugreek
L K CHHATA*, JEEVA RAM**, Q G QURESHI * AND P L MALIWAL***
*Dryland Farming Research Station Arjia, Bhilwara, **KVK (SKRAU) Sriganganagar, ***ARS, Udaipur, ***DEE, MPUAT,
Udaipur-313001, Rajasthan, India.
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Field trials were conducted at Dryland Farming Research Station Arjia, Bhilwara during Rabi season from 2007 to
2009 for the management of wilt and powdery mildew diseases along with aphid and weevil intensity on fenugreek
through soil amendments with neemcake, seed treatment with Trichoderma, foliar spray of neem formulation
(Azaderachtin @2ml/lit.), foliar spray of neem seed karnel extract @ 5% and actinomycetes based formulation under
disease inoculation conditions. The module comparing soil application of neemcake + seed treatment with Trichoderma
@ 8 kg/ha + Foliar spray of neem formulation (Azadirachtin) found effective for organic pest and disease management
module for fenugreek. Minimum incidence of root rot 5.73 and 9.53 were recorded under this treatment while aphid
infestation was also found low (136.87). Powdery mildew was also observed at minimum level i.e. 21.45 and 26.78 % at
70 and 100 DAS respectively.
Key words: Fenugreek, Fusarium oxysporium, organic amendment, Aphid, alfalfa weevil.
Fenugreek is not only one of the important spices
grown in Rajasthan but also an important leafy vegetable
during winter season. Wilt of fenugreek induced by F.
oxysporium Schlecht and powdery mildew caused by
Erysiphae polygoni one some of the important diseases
resulting heavy losses. Initially the fungus was isolated from
locally collected plants sold as leafy vegetable in the local
market. It is a soil born pathogen and is very difficult to
control because of its continuous persistence and
multiplication in the soil. Although number of chemicals
have been suggested for its control due to there adverse
effect to ecosystem, management of these disease and insect
through some organic method were tried.
and pods. Symptoms start with white powdery growth on
leaves which may coalesce and over the white leaf with the
white powdery growth of the fungus. Aphids are small
insects found in large number of on the aerial part of the
plant. They suck the plant sap and make plants weak.
Fenugrek has earlier been reported to be attacked by
different species of aphids, viz. Aphis craccivara (Brar and
Kawar 1994) Acyrthosiphon pisum ( Dadhich et al. 1989) A.
craccivora is reported to cause seed yield loses to the extent
of 60 to 68 percent (Sharma and Kalara, 1999). Similarly
another insect (Hypera sp.) attack on fenugreek crop
commonly called “alfalfa weevil” initiated in the first week
of February and remained till the middle of March.
Extensive feeding by this pest resulted in numerous holes
on the leaves rendering the top canopy of the crop a meshed
appearance.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The trial was conducted with five treatments
including control in a field using four replications and
individual plot size of 24 m2. Neem cake @ 2 q/ha and FYM
@ 100q/ha were added to each plot 10 days before sowing.
Inoculums of F. oxysporium was multiplied on sorghum
grain medium and 10 days old culture was added to each row
at the time of sowing. Sowing was done in the last week of
November every year. To get maximum disease level the
inoculums was added twice. The first symptoms appeared in
the month of January showing dropping of the plants.
Infected plants start drying and finally die. The root of
infected plant looks light brown to dark brown in color.
Symptoms of powdery mildew appeared in month of
February. White floury patches were found on leaves stems
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Pooling of two years data revealed that the different
organic pest/disease management module effectively
controlled pest and disease and increases the fenugreek
yield. The module comprising soil application of neem cake
@ 2 q/ha+ seed treatment with Trichoderma @ 8g/kg +
foliar spray of neem formulation (Azadirachtin) @ 5ml/lit at
45, 60 and 90 DAS found effective for rest organic pest and
disease management module for fenugreek. This treatment
showed minimum incidence of root rot (5.73 and 9.53 %) at
70 and 100 DAS respectively (Table 1).
45
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Table1: Effect of different modules on wilt/root rot, powdery mildew disease and fenugreek yield during 2007 & 2008 (Mean)
Mean infestation
of wilt/root rot
(%) at
Treatments
Soil application of neem cake @ 2 q/ha + seed treatment
with Trichoderma @ 8 g/kg + foliar spray of neem
formulation (Azadirachtin @ 2 ml/lit.) at 60, 75 and 90 DAS
Soil application of neem cake @ 2 q/ha + seed treatment
with Trichoderma at 8 gm/kg + foliar spray of NSKE @ 5%
at 60, 75 and 90 DAS
Soil application of neem cake @ 2 q/ha + seed treatment
with Trichoderma @ 8 gm/kg + foliar spray of NSKE @ 5%
at 60 DAS + Actinomycetes based formulation
Seed treatment with Trichoderma @ 8 g/kg + foliar spray of
NSKE at 60 DAS + Azadirachtin at 75 and 90 DAS
Control (untreated check)
S.Em ±
C.D. (P= 0.5)
(Figures in the parenthesis are angular transformed value)
* Net return from control Rs. 23210/-
Mean infection of
powdery mildew
(%) at
Mean
Net
return
over
control
Rs/ha.*
C:B
ratio
Yield
2007
2008
26.78
(31.11)
10.72
12.28
11.50
12005
1:3.14
27.59
(31.70)
31.84
(34.32)
9.16
10.21
9.68
6430
1:1.87
11.19
(19.52)
25.99
(30.64)
29.00
(33.07)
9.83
11.61
10.72
9619
1:2.61
12.38
(20.57)
17.77
(24.91)
-
25.36
(30.21)
32.09
(34.49)
-
31.86
(34.33)
38.74
(37.77)
-
8.43
10.48
9.45
5726
1:5.21
7.24
7.93
7.58
0.35
1.07
0.41
1.26
-
70
DAS
100
DAS
70
DAS
100 DAS
5.73
(13.75)
9.53
(17.96)
21.45
(27.56)
7.42
(15.75)
11.45
(19.77)
8.59
(17.00)
9.66
(17.59)
14.24
(22.14)
-
Table 2 : Effect of modules on aphid intensity and weevil on fenugreek yield during 2007 and 2008 (Mean)
Treatments
Soil application of neem cake @ 2 q/ha+seed treatment with
Trichoderma @ 8 g/kg + foliar spray of neem formulation
(Azadirachtin @ 2 ml/lit.) at 60, 75 & 90 DAS
Soil application of neem cake @ 2 q/ha + seed treatment
with Trichoderma at 8 gm/kg + foliar spray of NSKE @ 5%
at 60, 75 and 90 DAS
Soil application of neem cake @ 2 q/ha + seed treatment
with Trichoderma @ 8 gm/kg + foliar spray of NSKE @
5% at 60 DAS + Actinomycetes based formulation
Seed treatment with Trichoderma @ 8 g/kg + foliar spray of
NSKE at 60 DAS + Azadirachtin at 75 and 90 DAS
Control (untreated check)
Av. no. of aphids per twigs
(10 cm) mean of 20072008 at
Av. percent
infestation of
weevil mean of
2007-2008 at
100
85 DAS
DAS
70
DAS
85
DAS
100
DAS
44.12
(6.25)
74.12
(8.62)
136.87
(23.39)
9.50
(18.05)*
75.12
(8.67)
119.12
(10.91)
251.25
(15.85)
56.37
(7.51)
90.87
(9.55)
77.62
(8.80)
105.75
(10.29)
134.12
(11.49)
244.75
(15.51)
Seed yield
q/ha
Mean
seed
yield
q/ha
Net
return
over
control
Rs/ha.**
C:B
ratio
2007
2008
14.31
(22.21)
10.72
12.29
11.50
12005
1:3.14
7.69
(15.97)
12.80
(20.94)
9.16
10.21
9.68
6430
1:1.87
200.87
(14.15)
6.10
(14.18)
9.40
(17.81)
9.83
11.61
10.72
9619
1:2.61
258.25
(15.99)
485.50
(21.91)
8.38
(16.75)
11.09
(19.44)
0.94
2.88
13.70
(21.71)
17.86
(24.99)
0.69
2.13
8.43
10.48
9.45
5726
1:5.21
7.24
7.93
7.58
0.35
1.07
0.41
1.26
S.Em ±
C.D. (P= 0.5)
Figures in the parenthesis are transformed x+0.5 values.
* Figures in parentheses are angular transformed values.
** Net return from control Rs. 23210/-
Above treatment also effectively controlled Aphid
and alfalfa weevil and showed minimum aphid population
(136.87) at 100 DAS while maximum aphid population
(485.50) and minimum seed yield (7.58 q/ha) was recorded
in control (Table 2). The minimum infestation (9.40%) of
alfalfa weevil (Hypera sp.) at 100 DAS was recorded with
the module comprising of soil treatment of neem cake @
2q/ha + seed treatment with Trichoderma 8 g/ha + foliar
spray of NSKE @ 5% at 60 DAS + Actinomycetes based
formulation at 75 and 90 DAS where as in control the
maximum infestation (17.86%) was recorded (Table 2).
Yield of fenugreek seed in both years found significantly
superior in above treatments with pooled yield was 11.50
q/ha over check (7.58 q/ha). Two years experiment on effect
of soil amendment on wilt disease of fenugreek showed that
use of neem cake @ 2 q/ha gave maximum reduction in
disease incidence that led to the highest yield (11.50q/ha).
This study indicate that organic amendment of soil by adding
neem cake was found effective in reducing wilt disease
incidence and increasing the yield in fenugreek. Many root
pathogens have been successfully controlled by ploughing
organic materials in the soil (Mehrotra, 1976, Ghaffar 1993,
Chakreborty and Purkyastha 1984, Tu 1978 and Malajckuk
et al. 1984) According to them addition of fresh organic
material controlled the growth of pathogenic soil organism’s
viz. M. phaseolina, R. solani and Fusarium spp by producing
either a toxic metabolite or parasitizing hyphae of pathogenic
fungi or by lying them- suppression of wilt symptoms in
fenugreek may be attributed by many causes. The
application of neem cake to the field increased the
46
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
multiplication
of
aerobic
microorganisms.
These
microorganisms might have fixed the available nitrogen and
utilized it for decomposition of organic matter. Desai and
Kulkarni (2001) reported that the sclerotial germination of
Macrophomia phaseolina was inhibited by neem cake. In
this way they might have created the scarcity of nitrogen for
germination and penetration of chlamydospores of the
pathogen and in turn suppressed the disease expression. The
use of bioagents (Trichoderma) are able to stimulate growth
of plants but suppress the pathogenic expression in
leguminous crop (Azcon, 1989) especially of F.solani, F.
oxysporium and Ascochyta pisi in pea (Wang Kaun Chang et
al., 1977). Increased aerobic activity of micro- organism
increased the released of CO2, which in turn inhibits the
growth of pathogen and helps to build up the crop health.
These microorganisms also release some enzymes, which
help to improve the crop health and check the growth of
pathogenic fungi (Anonymous, 2002).
Acknowledgement: Authors are thankful to
Director of Research, MPUAT Udaipur for providing
facilities.
REFERENCES
Anonymous, 2002. Organic Farming, Publication from Indian Agricultural
Research Institute, New Delhi 3-4.
Ghaffar, A. 1993 Rhizobia as biocontrol organisms. Rept. Deptt. Botany,
Univer. Karachi, Pakistan.
Azcon, B. 1989. Soil Biol. Bio Chem. 21: 539-644.
Malajckak, N. 1984. Trans Br. Mycol Soc. 82-491-500.
Brar, K.S. and Kanwar, J.S. 1994. Field responce of fenugreek
germplasm to Aphis craccivora (Koch.) J. Insect Sci, 7(2): 211-212.
Mehrotra R.S. and D.P. Twari 1976. Ann Microbiol. (Inst. Pasteur) 127
(A) 415-421.
Chakrabrty, U. and P.P. Purkayastha. 1984. Can J. Plant Pathol. 8: 140146.
Sharma, S.S. and Kalra, V.K. 1999, Assessment of seed yield losses
caused by Aphis craccivora Koch in fenugreek Forage Research, (In
press).
Dadhich, S.R. , Kumawat, K.C., Jain, P.C. and Sharma, J.K. 1989.
Studies on varietal tolerance to fenugreek (Ttigonella foenumgraecum L) to aphids and its management through insecticides. First
National Seminar on Seed Spices, October. 2-5, 9, Jaipur pp 43-44.
Wang Kaun Chang, Zhang Zanyshan, Chenjian Ming, Fan Zhong Ding
and Nia BAO Shan. 1977. Ningxia J. Agri. Forestry Sci. Tech.
China 5: 1-5.
Desai S.A. and Kulharni S.. 2001. Effect of neem extracts and products on
the growth and sclerotia formation of Macrophomia phaseolina
(Tassi) Gold J.Pl.Pathol. 19: 100-102.
47
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
An economic study of plant nursery business in Udaipur, Rajasthan
RUCHIRA SHUKLA
Institute of Agribusiness Management (IABM), Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari-396450, Gujarat, India
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The present study was conducted in Udaipur districts during 2005-2006 to assess the socio-economic status of plant
nursery business. A total of 20 private plant nurseries was selected for the study. The study revealed that 50% of the
nursery owners had primary level of education and 60% owners performed their business on their own land. More than
55% owners had upto 5 years of experience in nursery business. This business has vast potentials of generating
employment and income of the owners. The yearly net returns per ha nursery was Rs. 145226.5. The rate of returns
over full-cost was found to be 1.44. Non-availability of improved seeds/seedlings was the main constraint in nurseries.
Key words: Plant nursery, Economic analysis, Udaipur.
India is an agrarian society with about 65 per cent
of its population engaged in agricultural production. The
agricultural sector provides food, employment, foreign
exchange as well as raw materials for the nation’s agro-allied
industries among other benefits. In order to meet the
nutritional demand of increasing population of the country,
huge amount of fruits and vegetables need to be produced.
The government has, therefore, given special emphasis for
planting different fruit trees and medicinal plants over the
country. In this situation, improved variety of fruit and
medicinal saplings/seedlings are very essential for
distribution among the farmers and other enthusiastic people.
A huge number of private plant nurseries has been
established in different parts of the country and are playing
an important role for successful implementation of tree
plantation as well as forestation programme in the country.
Unfortunately, no study has been conducted for this plant
nursery management or nursery business. Therefore, detail
information about the plant nursery business would help the
researchers as well as policy makers for the improvement of
the business. Nevertheless, the findings of the study will
encourage more entrepreneurs to invest in setting plant
nursery. Therefore, the present study has been undertaken in
order to: know the socio-economic conditions of private
plant nursery owners;
data were edited, summarized, tabulated, and analyzed to
fulfill the objectives of the study. Tabular method was used
in analyzing the collected data for the study. Land use cost
was calculated on the basis of per year rental value of land.
Relative profitability of plant nursery business was examined
on the basis of gross margin and net return analysis. Gross
return was calculated by multiplying number of seedlings
with market price of the seedling. Total variable cost refers
to all variable costs including the imputed value of family
supplied inputs. Gross margins were calculated by deducting
the total variable cost from the gross return. Net return was
calculated by deducting total cost from the return. Weighted
scores were calculated against each individual problem faced
by the respondents using the following formula for ranking
the severity of the nursery business problems.
Weighted Score = Σ Si
Where, Si indicates the score given by the respondent for the
th
i problem, and i = 1, 2, 3.....n
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Socio-economic profile of private nursery owners
The socio-economic characteristics of the nursery
owners revealed that the average family size was 6.5 which
was more or less similar to the national average of persons
per family of India. The adult male, female, and children
constituted 55.38%, 33.84%, and 10.76% of total family
members, respectively. On the average, 50% of the plant
nursery owners had primary level of education, 40%
secondary, and the rest owners had above secondary level of
education (10%). About 50% of the respondents mentioned
that their principal and sole occupation was nursery business
and 46% respondents depended on nursery business along
with other agricultural activities (Table 1). 55% of the
nursery owners reported that their experience on nursery
business was five years, while 30% reported 6-10 years.
Only 15% of the respondents were experienced by more than
10 years. In the case of ownership pattern of nursery
land,50% nursery owners started business on their own
lands, 30% on leased land and only 10% nursery owners
mentioned both own plus leased land. The incomes of the
Find out the income and employment potentials of plant
nursery business;
Identify the socio-economic constraints to plant nursery
business.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted in Udaipur city and its
nearby areas of Rajasthan where the plant nurseries has been
established. The sample plant nurseries were selected with
consultation of the concerned personnel of the nursery. A
total of 20 private plant nursery owners were purposively
selected for the study. Both horticulture and forest nurseries
are operated by private entrepreneurs. The data were
collected through survey method by pre-tested interview
schedules during January-February 2005-2006. The collected
48
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
nursery owners come from various sources. It was found that
the main sources of income of the 83%, 9%, and 7% of the
respondents were plant nursery, agricultural activities and
privet service, respectively.
produce different types of saplings/seedlings and cutting of
fruits, forest trees, and flowers. The names of the fruits,
flowers, ornamentals, and forest plants produced in different
sample nurseries are given in Table-2 and the prices of
saplings are given in Table-2.
Table 1. Socio-economic profiles of the plant nursery owners
Characteristics
Family size (no./farm)
6.5 (100)
Adult male
3.6 (55.38%)
Types of land
Adult female
2.2 (33.84)
Owned cultivated land
0.720
Children (Below 13 yrs)
0.7 (10.76%)
Homestead land
0.069
Education level (%)
--
Fallow
--
Primary
50
Rente in
0.149
Secondary
40
Total cultivated land
Above secondary
10
Land under plant nursery
Occupation (%)
--
Nursery (sole)
50
Nursery plus other agril. Activities
46
Service
03
Other
01
Source of income (%)
--
Nursery (sole)
83.00
Nursery plus other agril. Activities
09
Service
07
Other
01
Length of nursery business (%)
--
Upto 5 years
55
6 to 10 years
30
Above 10 years
15
Ownership of nursery land (%)
--
Own
60
Lease
30
Own plus lease
10
Table 2. Land distribution pattern of private plant nursery owners
Area (ha/farm)
0.796
0.193 (24%)
Input use pattern of different plant nurseries
The number of labourers required for private
nursery management was estimated to be 2601 mandays/ha/year. The shares of family and hired labour were
40.37% and 59.63%, respectively. These nursery owners
used 25000 kg cowdung and 600 kg oilcake as manure, and
650 kg urea, 1200 kg TSP, and 375 kg MOP as fertilizers per
ha nursery (Table 3). The fairly good literacy level of the
respondents could affect their choice of inputs and the
utilization of existing inputs and also their willingness to
adopt improved technologies (Segun et al., 2008)
Table 3. Input use pattern and cost of different categories of plant
nursery
Particulars
The present findings conferms the work of Segun et
al (2008) who reported that plant nursery business was
managed by youth and few adults.They also reported that
majority of the respondents have tertiory education having
resenable formal educational background that could enable
them introduce improvements into plant nursery business.
Majority of the respondents have an average experinece of 5
years implies that the plant nursery operators in the study
area can be considred to be quite knowledeble on the
operations and constraints of plant nursery operations.
Respondents could therefore appreciate any improved
technology introduced to them.
Item
Quantity
Human labour (Man days)
2601
117045.00
Family
1050 (40.37)
47250.00
Hired
1551 (59.63)
69795.00
Seed/ seedling
--
99534.80
Owned
--
32295.4
Purchased
-
67239.4
Manure (Kg.)
25600
7250.00
Cow dung
25000
3750.00
Oil cake
600
3500.00
Chemical fertilizers (Kg.)
2225
14337.00
650
2470.00
1200
9780.00
Urea
TSP
MOP
Land distribution pattern of sample plant nurseries
The average area per plant nursery was found to be
0.193 ha, which covered 25% of the total cultivated land.
This finding agree with the Iluyonade et al. (1997) that about
ninety per cent of ornamental plant production in Nigeria is
operated in small land size. The nurseries in the study areas
49
Value
Approx.
percentage
of total cost
35.10
29.85
2.17
4.30
375
2087.00
Cost of soil
--
7685.80
2.30
Cost of earthen pots
--
28778.00
8.63
Irrigation charges
--
9218.40
2.76
Cost of pesticides
--
4576.90
1.37
Intercultural operation
capital
--
17403.00
5.21
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
(Table 4). The rate of return (BCR) on full-cost and cashcost basis was 1.44 and 2.20, respectively, indicating that the
private plant nursery business was a profitable venture. The
present findings was supported by the work of Segun et al.
(2008) who also reported that plant nursery business is a
profitable business.
Particulars
Item
Quantity
Land use cost
--
12468.70
3.73
Equipment cost
--
1958.60
0.64
Total cost
--
--
Cash cost basis
--
216712.21
65.00
Full cost basis
--
333403.40
--
Value
Approx.
percentage
of total cost
--
Problems faced by plant nursery owners
The respondents were asked to give their opinion
regarding the problems of plant nursery business. In this
respect, respondents expressed more than one opinion which
was ranked according to the importance of problems (Table
5). The study revealed that non-availability of improved
seed/seedling in the study areas was the crucial problem for
plant nurseries. The second most important problem faced by
all nursery owners was low price of sapling and seedling.
The other problems of nursery business were damage of
seedling, lack of efficient labour, attack of insect and
diseases, lack of technical know-how, inadequate irrigation
and credit facilities. The present study was partely supported
by Segun et al. (2008) by quoting availability of quality
planting material as the major constraint in plant nursery
business which was followed by lack of adequate fund, pest
and disease problem and poor marketing.
Cost of plant nursery business
The variable cost of plant nursery included the cost
of human labour, seeds/seedlings, organic manures, chemical
fertilizers, soil, earthen pot, polythene, irrigation,
insecticides, and interest on operating capital. On the other
hand, the fixed cost included cost of family labour, cost of
land use, and depreciation of tools and equipment. The total
cost of plant nursery business was Rs. 333403.40 per ha on
full-cost and Rs. 216712.21 on cash-cost basis. The cost of
human labour was the highest cost item accounting for
35.10% of the total cost followed by the cost of
seeds/seedlings i.e. 29.85% (Table 3). Segun et al.,(2008)
also reported that majority of the plant nursery operators
employed hired labour for their nursery operations. Further,
they also reported that majority of the nursery operators used
manures such as compost, animal dung and poultry
droppings for their plant nurseries and only few used the
chemical fertilizers like NPK.
Table 5. Constraints of different categories of plant nursery
Table 4. Costs and returns of different categories of plant nursery
Items
Amount
Total cost (Rs/ha)-
--
Full cost basis
334182.00
Cash cost basis
218716.80
Total return (Rs/ha)-
--
Fruit’s saplings
211758.60
Flowers and ornamentals
135849.30
Wood and forest plants
131800.70
Net return (Rs/ha)-
--
Full cost basis
145266.50
Cash cost basis
260691.50
Rate of return (BC ratio)-
--
Full cost basis
1.44
Cash cost basis
2.20
Constraints
Rank value
Lack of adequate fund
5
Inadequate supply of improved seed and
seedling
Lack of technical know-how
Low price of sapling and seedling
Lack of efficient labour
Damage of sapling and seedling
Infestation of insects and diseases
Lack of irrigation facilities
Lack of credit facilities
1
6
2
4
3
5
7
8
The findings of the study reveal that the level of
education and experience regarding nursery business are
quite satisfactory. Besides, the nursery business is found to
be a profitable business in the study area. All the nurseries
generate a substantial number of employment and income for
the owners. The findings of the study also reveal that various
socio-economic problems, to some extent, hamper the
nursery business in the study area.
General people are highly benefiting by getting
sapling of ornamentals, fruit trees from different plant
nurseries and are contributing, to some extent, to the
ecological balance of the region by planting of these
saplings. Therefore, government should release adequate
fund for the plant nursery so that private nursery owners can
also receive improved saplings of different trees from
government nurseries. Besides, government should provide
training to the private nursery owners.
Profitability of plant nursery business
The income of plant nursery owners came from
selling of saplings/seedlings of fruits, flowers/ornamentals
and wood/forest plants. The nursery owners in the study
areas received Rs. 145266 and Rs. 260691.70 per ha as net
return on full-cost and cash-cost basis, respectively. The
highest return was received from the sale of sapling of
fruit/ornemantal plants followed by forest and wood plants
50
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
REFERENCES
Iluyonade, O.N. and Oladapo, M.O. 1997. Trend analysis of
plantain/Banana production in Nigeria (1980-1994). In : Adejoro, M.A. and
Aiyelaagbe, I.O. (Eds.). Proceedings of the 15th annual conference of the
Horticultural Society of Nigeria.
Segum, F.B., Olaniyi, A.M., Rahji, M.A. and Ademola, J.J. 2008.
Viability and resource use in ornamental plants nursery business in
Nigeria.Europ. J. Socal Sc., 6 (4): 19-28.
51
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Effect of thio-urea on yield and economics of coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) varieties under
normal and late sown conditions
L R BALAI AND G L KESHWA
Department of Agronomy SKN College of Agriculture, (SKRAU) Jobner, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India.
Email:[email protected]
ABSTRACT
An experiment was conducted during the rabi season of 2003-04 and 2004-05 to study the effect of thiourea on yield and
economics of coriander varieties under normal and late sown conditions. The crop sown at normal sowing time (last
week of October) produced significantly higher growth attributes, yield attributes, seed and straw yield and net returns
of coriander as compared to late sown. Variety RCr-435 gave significantly higher seed and straw yield and net returns
over variety RCr-41. The highest seed yield (14.2 q ha-1), straw yield and net returns (Rs 29,519 ha-1) obtained
observed under two foliar sprays of 1000 ppm thiourea at vegetative and flowering stages was significantly higher over
one foliar spray of 500 ppm at vegetative stage, seed soaking with 500 and 1000 ppm thiourea and water sprayed
control.
Key words: Coriander, Thiourea, Seed yield, Economics
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Coriander is one of the widely grown condiment
crops in tropical countries including India. It is an
established fact that a crop when sown at optimum time, is
able to exploit the environmental factors most favourably.
In north India especially in Rajasthan, temperature start
rising by February onwards, coinciding the time of late
flowering and grain filling stage coupled with soil moisture
stress which lead to low productivity of coriander. Delay in
sowing of coriander due to any reason, reduces the crop
yield drastically. It is largely assumed that the rise in
temperature during terminal stage of coriander is the major
cause of reduction in seed yield under late sown conditions.
Use of some chemicals like thiourea has been reported to
improve the dry matter partitioning and subsequently
enhance the productivity of crops and mitigate the problem
of late sowing to some extent. Application of thiourea
especially under late sown condition may enhance
photosynthetic efficiency with greater translocation and
partitioning of metabolites towards reproductive sink, which
ultimately leads to greater seed yield (Yadav, 2005).
Varieties RCr-435 and RCr-41 are the suitable for normal
conditions and also cover a large area of Rajasthan. It has
been reported that the productivity has come to stagnate
with prevailing management practices. Therefore, it was felt
necessary to look for the use of chemicals like thiourea to
break the yield stagnation of these two important varieties
and its differential effect on yield under normal and late
sown condition.
A field experiment was conducted during rabi
season of 2003-04 and 2004-05 at Agronomy farm, S.K.N.
College of Agriculture, Jobner (Jaipur) on loamy sand soil
having pH-8.31, ECe-1.25 dSm-1, organic carbon-0.18 %
and available N, P and K 140, 7.18 and 159.9 kg ha-1,
respectively. The rainfall of the region varies between 400500 mm, most of which is received during July to
September. The experiment consisted of two sowing dates
(normal and late sown i.e. last of October and second week
of November), two varieties (RCr-41 and RCr-435) and
seven thiourea treatments (water sprayed control, seed
soaking with 500 ppm thiourea, seed soaking with 1000
ppm thiourea, foliar of 500 ppm thiourea at vegetative stage,
foliar spray of 500 ppm thiourea at vegetative and flowering
stages, foliar spray of 1000 ppm at vegetative stage and
foliar spray of 1000 ppm thiourea at vegetative and
flowering stages), making 28 treatment combinations were
replicated three times in split plot design, keeping dates of
sowing and varieties in main plots and thiourea treatments
in sub-plots. Coriander seed were sown in lines 30 cm apart,
keeping 12 kg ha-1 seed rate. A uniform dose of 60 kg N
and 40 kg P2O5 ha-1 through urea and DAP was given. A
basal dose of 30 kg N ha-1 and full dose of phosphorus was
drilled about 5-7 cm deep through at sowing. Remaining
dose of nitrogen through urea was applied in two equal
splits with irrigation. Seed of coriander were soaked over
night in 500 and 1000 ppm thiourea in seed soaking
treatments.
52
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
increased the plant height, number of branches per plant and
dry matter accumulation per plant as compared to one foliar
sprays of 500 ppm thiourea and seed soaking treatments.
The increase in crop duration as well as overall growth and
vigour of the crop by normal sowing seems to be on account
of exposure of plants to much favourable climatic
conditions. While under late sowing, prevalence of low
temperature at early stage and high temperature at terminal
phase of the crop might have adversely (forced maturity)
affected the growth of each developing structure Hornok
(1976) also observed that low temperature at the time of
emergence caused slow germination of coriander. Both the
varieties were grown under identical agronomic or
management practices and environmental conditions, the
observed variation in overall growth of varieties seems to be
due to their genetic milieu. (Anonymous, 1998). The
favourable effect of thiourea on growth of plants might be
due to on account of improved photosynthetic efficiency.
The involvement of –SH group in phloem for sucrose
transport was also noted by Giaquinta (1976).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Growth attributes
Data (Table 1) revealed that normal sown crop
attained significantly more plant height, number of branches
and dry matter accumulation per plant at 60, 90 DAS and at
harvest over late sown crop during both the years of study
and in pooled mean basis. A perusal of data showed that
coriander variety RCr-41 represented significantly higher
plant height at all the growth stages during both the years
and pooled mean basis. The coriander variety RCr-435
recorded significantly higher number of branches and dry
matter per plant at all the stages during both the years and
pooled data, as compared to RCr-41. Foliar spray of 1000
ppm thiourea twice at vegetative and flowering stages
significantly enhanced the plant height number of branches
per plant and dry matter accumulation over rest of the
treatments during both the years and in pooled mean at 90
DAS and at harvest. similarly, one spray of 1000 ppm being
at par with two sprays of 500 ppm thiourea significantly
Table 1: Effect of dates of sowing, varieties and thiourea on plant height, branches per plant and dry matter per plant
(pooled mean)
Treatments
Plant height (cm)
Branches per plant
Dry matter accumulation (g)
60 DAS
90 DAS
Harvest
60 DAS
90 DAS
Harvest
60 DAS
90 DAS
Harvest
8.45
6.53
34.5
27.5
91.8
77.7
2.44
1.87
4.19
3.07
5.96
4.31
0.97
0.90
7.44
11.69
Late (D2)
5.97
8.63
SEm +
0.10
0.33
0.96
0.03
0.04
0.06
0.01
0.08
0.10
CD (P = 0.05)
0.31
1.02
2.95
0.08
0.12
0.18
0.03
0.25
0.31
RCr-41 (V1)
8.46
33.7
92.8
2.08
3.44
4.68
0.86
6.08
9.14
RCr-435 (V2)
6.52
28.3
76.7
2.25
3.81
5.60
1.01
7.32
11.17
SEm +
0.10
0.33
0.96
0.03
0.04
0.06
0.01
0.08
0.10
CD (P = 0.05)
0.31
1.02
2.95
0.08
0.12
0.18
0.03
0.25
0.31
Water spray (control) (TU0)
7.41
26.9
75.0
2.13
3.18
4.63
0.92
5.92
8.74
Seed soaking in 500 ppm (TU1)
7.63
28.8
81.0
2.22
3.46
4.95
0.95
6.50
9.38
Seed soaking in 1000 ppm (TU2)
7.71
29.6
82.3
2.26
3.48
5.08
0.97
6.53
9.69
Spray of 500 ppm at V (TU3)
7.41
31.1
85.1
2.15
3.60
5.13
0.92
6.60
10.31
Spray of 500 ppm at V+F (TU4)
7.40
32.6
87.6
2.14
3.73
5.20
0.94
6.68
10.80
Spray of 1000 ppm at V (TU5)
7.42
33.1
88.9
2.13
3.83
5.30
0.92
7.09
10.82
Spray of 1000 ppm at V+F (TU6)
7.44
35.1
93.4
2.15
4.10
5.68
0.93
7.62
11.38
SEm +
0.13
0.40
1.09
0.05
0.06
0.08
0.01
0.13
0.13
CD (P = 0.05)
NS
1.20
3.05
NS
0.18
0.22
NS
0.36
0.36
A. Dates of sowing
Normal (D1)
B. Varieties
C. Thiourea
V= Vegetative stage, F=Flowering stage
NS = Non significant
53
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
foliar spray of 500 ppm, seed soaking with 500 and 1000
ppm thiourea on pooled mean basis. This might be due to
favourable environmental conditions available to the crop
during its initial growth, flowering and fruiting stages. The
possible reason for setting of low yield attributes in delayed
sowing might be due to in sufficient time for vegetative
growth as the plant entered in the reproductive phase at a
faster rate. These results are in conformity with the findings
of Baswana et al. (1989), Bhati (1991) and Khoja and Gupta
(2004) in coriander. Thus, thiourea with its sulphydiyl group
not only favoured the green photosynthetic surface but have
also improved the activity of starch synthetare and hence,
the effective filling of seeds Giaquanta (1976) reported that
the bioregulatory effect of thiourea was chiefly through
mobilization of dry matter and translocation of
photosynthates to sink which ultimately improved the seed
yield of coriander..
Yield and yield attributes
The data (Table 2) showed that normal sown crop
produced significantly higher number of umbels per plant,
number of seeds per umbel, seed yield and straw yield as
compared to late sown and on pooled mean basis.
Coriander variety RCr-435 recorded significantly
higher number of umbels per plant, number of seeds per
umbel, seed yield and straw yield over RCr-41 during both
the years and on pooled mean basis. The highest number of
umbels per plant, number of seeds per umbel, seed yield
(14.2 q ha-1) and straw yield (23.9 q ha-1) recorded under
two foliar sprays of 1000 ppm thiourea at vegetative and
flowering stages was found significantly superior to rest of
the thiourea treatments and control. Similarly, foliar spray
of 1000 ppm thiourea at vegetative stage, being at par with
two sprays of 500 ppm at vegetative and flowering stages
significantly increased higher seed yield as compared to one
Table 2: Effect of dates of sowing, varieties and thiourea on yield and yield attributes and net return of coriander
(pooled mean)
Umbels per
plant
Umbellets per
umbel
Seeds per
umbel
Seed yield
(q ha-1)
Straw yield
(q ha-1)
Net return
5.41
5.15
23.0
20.9
13.8
22.3
29324
Late (D2)
24.2
22.6
12.0
20.8
24010
CD (P = 0.05)
0.60
0.11
0.48
0.38
0.60
654
RCr-41 (V1)
21.9
5.16
21.5
12.2
20.8
24535
RCr-435 (V2)
24.9
5.40
22.4
13.6
22.2
28799
CD (P = 0.05)
0.60
0.11
0.48
0.38
0.60
654
Water spray (control) (TU0)
20.7
4.61
19.0
11.4
19.0
22494
Seed soaking in 500 ppm (TU1)
21.8
5.00
20.2
12.2
20.1
25239
Seed soaking in 1000 ppm (TU2)
22.1
5.17
21.2
12.6
20.5
26172
Spray of 500 ppm at V (TU3)
23.1
5.31
22.1
13.0
21.7
27083
Spray of 500 ppm at V+F (TU4)
24.5
5.39
23.3
13.4
22.8
27804
Spray of 1000 ppm at V (TU5)
25.3
5.57
23.7
13.6
22.8
28357
Spray of 1000 ppm at V+F (TU6)
26.3
5.91
24.2
14.2
23.9
29519
CD (P = 0.05)
0.70
0.17
0.72
0.41
0.71
868
Treatments
A. Dates of sowing
Normal (D1)
B. Varieties
C. Thiourea
V= Vegetative stage, F=Flowering stage
Table 3 Combined effect of thiourea and sowing dates on seed yield (q/ha) (pooled mean)
Treatments
D1
D2
TU0
12.4
10.3
TU1
13.4
11.1
TU2
13.7
11.4
TU3
14.2
11.9
TU at same level of D
D at same level or different level of TU
54
TU4
14.5
12.4
TU5
14.0
13.1
CD (P=0.05)
0.58
1.24
TU6
14.5
14.0
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
A critical examination of the data in Table 3 revealed that
interactive effect of thiourea and sowing dates was found
significant on seed yield. Foliar application of different
thiourea treatments significantly improved the seed yield at
individual sowing date over control. Foliar spray of 1000
ppm thiourea twice at vegetative and flowering stages at
normal sowing date (TU6D1) represented an increase of
16.9 per cent over water sprayed control under same sowing
date (TU0D1) as against 35.9 per cent by TU6D2 ( two
foliar spray of 1000 ppm at vegetative and flowering at late
sowing) over water sprayed control under late sowing
(TU6D2). It clearly indicates that the magnitude of increase
in seed yield was more under late sown condition as
compared to normal sowing due to foliar spray of thiourea.
Foliar application of 1000 ppm thiourea at vegetative and
flowering stages at normal sowing time (TU6D1), being at
par with TU3D1, TU4D1 and TU5D1 produced the
maximum seed yield (14.5 q ha-1) and proved significantly
superior to all other treatment combinations of thiourea and
sowing dates.
Net returns
Data in Table 2 reveled that the normal sown crop
significantly increased the net returns (Rs 29324 ha-1) over
late sowing during both the years and in pooled mean,
indicating an increase of Rs 5314 ha-1 on pooled basis.
Variety RCr-435 recorded significantly higher net returns
(Rs 28799 ha-1) over RCr-41 and represented an increase of
(Rs 4264 ha-1) pooled mean basis. Application of thiourea
had a profound effect on net returns wherein foliar spray of
1000 ppm thiourea at vegetative and flowering stages
significantly increased the net returns and proved
significantly superior to rest of the thiourea treatments and
water sprayed control.
REFERENCES
Anonymous, 1998. Annual Report, 1997-98. All Indian Co-ordinated
Research Project on Spices. S.K.N. College of Agriculture, Jobner.
Hornok, L. 1976. The effect of sowing dates on the yield and essential oil
content of coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.). Jerba hungarica 15 (1)
: 55-62.
Baswana, K.S., Pandita, M.L. and Sharma, S.S. 1989. Response of
coriander to dates of planting and row spacing. Indian J. of Agronomy
34 (3) : 355-357.
Khoja, J.R. and Gupta, A.K. 2004. Effect of sowing date and sources of
nitrogen on yield attributes and yield of coriander. (In) Abstracts of
National Seminar on New Perspectives in Commercial Cultivation,
Processing and Marketing of Seed Spices and Medicinal Plants, held
during 25-26 March, 2004, S.K.N. College of Agriculture, Jobner
(Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner).
Bhati, D.S. 1991. Effect of sowing date, row spacing and nitrogen on
growth, yield and quality of coriander Coriandrum sativum L.). Ph.
D. Thesis, Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner.
Giaquinta, R.T. 1976. Evidence of phloem loading from apoplast:
Chemical modification of membrane sulphydryl group. Plant
Physiology 58 (5) : 872-875.
Yadav, L.R. 2005. Effect of bioregulators on productivity of wheat
(Triticum aestivum L. emend. Fiori and Paol) varieties under normal
and late sown conditions. Ph.D. Thesis, Rajasthan Agricultural
University, Bikaner.
55
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Agricultural technologies: Impact on labour employment and wages in green revolution belt of
India
NIRMAL KUMAR, K S SUHAG, JAGDISH KUMAR, PREM CHAND AND RAM SINGH
Department of Agricultural Economics, CCS HAU, Hisar, Haryana, India.
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The rapid modernization of agriculture and the introduction of new technologies such as those that characterized the
Green Revolution, farm mechanization, etc. have had a differential impact on rural population, particularly in
agriculturally advanced states of India like Punjab and Haryana. Agricultural technology in India appears to have had
mixed impact on farm income, labour use patter, employment, wages etc. The present study workouts the impact of
improved farm technology on agricultural labour, wages and employment in Haryana. The results of study show that
the machinery labour displaces the human labour and bullock labour by inducing improved farm technology. Family
labour employment was displaced by hired agricultural labourers on progressive over non-progressive farms. It was
also found that that high labour requirement in peak operation periods tends to increase the level of wage rates of hired
labour as compared to slack period on all sizes of land holdings of both types of farms i.e. progressive and nonprogressive farms. The low employment in slack period as compared to peak puts a downward pressure on wages. Still
there existed a wide gap between the wage rates actually paid to the casual labourers and minimum wage rate (Rs.
95.55) announced by the government during the period under study and there is need to strengthen the implementation
part of this act by the government as well as to persuade and convince the people to obey the act.
During the 1960’s, the principal agricultural
technology available to developing countries was known as
green revolution. This ‘package of technologies’ consisted of
new varieties of seeds to be adopted in conjunction with
fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation, farm machinery etc. the
resulting increase in crop yields often implied increments in
income par capita as well as an increase in food selfsufficiency. One could thus argue that the successful
application of green revolution technologies may have
resulted in the improvement in the lives of the population in
developing countries. However, if the technological
innovations in agriculture were labour displacing, implying
lower labour demand in the production process, then it did
not always follow that population was made better off by
economic growth.
employment, and wages. The second part of the paper deals
with me theology used followed by Results & discussion,
and conclusion in third & fourth sections, respectively.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The Haryana state was divided into two main agroclimatic zones, viz. (i) Western zone and (ii) Eastern zone.
From each zone, Sirsa and karnal districts were selected
purposively on the basis of maximum number of agricultural
labourers, further one tehsil from each selected district was
also chosen on the same pattern. Three villages were selected
randomly from two tehsils i.e. Sirsa and Karnal. All farmers
of selected villages were classified into progressive and nonprogressive farmers. The progressive farmers were
categorized considering atleast 80 % sown area irrigated by
mode of tubewell/sprinkler, under HYVs, using chemical
fertilizer and pesticide, etc. The rest of the farmers were kept
in the category of non-progressive farmers. The farmers
were further divided into three groups on the basis of size of
their operational land holdings with the help of cumulative
cube root square method. A sample of 40 progressive / nonprogressive farmers under the different size groups were
drown randomly from each selected village in proportion of
total number of farmers. Thus, in all 240 farmers were
selected finally for this study. To study the impact of farm
technology on pattern and extent of agricultural labour in
different farm activities, wages and employment etc. simple
form of mathematical and statistical analysis as percentages,
averages and changes in caste, education, family size, annual
income of labourer’s family, labour hours applied in
different
In India, majority of rural households have small
holdings or landless and forming is only a marginal source
of income. Most of these households are bottom of the rural
income scale. Their income depends on condition in the
labour market that is duration of employment of wage rate.
The new technology would affect the agricultural labour
market by changing the labour intensity of cultivation, the
productivity of labour, which in tern would influence the
wage rate. When agriculture in a predominantly agrarian
country starts developing rapidly with replacing traditional
agricultural methods by an improved technology there is
bound to be considerable impact on employment as well as
wages. Employment opportunities in agriculture due to some
of the technologies like irrigation & fertiliser band
technologies could have increased but at the same time, the
extensive farm mechanization may have adverse impact on
labour employment opportunities, wages in advance status
like Haryana. In this background, the present study works
out the impact of farm technology on agricultural labour
56
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
farm activities, wages (in money terms) and employment (in
man days equivalent) in each farm activity on progressive
over non-progressive farms were worked out by applying
budgeting technique and were interpreted accordingly in a
suitable form.
farms, the change in wage rates of permanent male labour
was 1.88 per cent. In case casual hired labourers, changes in
average wage rates were 3.57, 4.52 and 6.87 per cent in
male, female and child labourers, respectively. The highest
increase in wages of casual male labourers was found in
threshing followed by intercultural and picking by 5.47, 5.05
and 5.00 per cent, respectively whereas decrease (-1.32 per
cent) in wage rate was found in planking activity only. In
casual female wage rate the highest positive change was
found in winnowing (10.43%) followed by har vesting
(6.24%)and picking (6.12%)operations, respectively. The
highest change in wage rate of casual child labourers was
found in picking followed by irrigation and intercultural
activities by 12.77, 11.88 and 10.64 per cent, respectively.
Table 2 reveals the changes in wage rates in eastern zone.
The positive change in average wage rates of casual
labourers on progressive over non-progressive farms of
small category were 8.05,8.44 and 7.62 per cent of casual
male, female and child labourers, respectively. Permanent
child labours in medium category farms were 8.64 on
progressive overnon-progressivefarms where as per manent
male labour sinlarge category were1.4 per cent. On medium
farms the changes in average wage rates were 5.55, 3.70 and
1.49 per cent for male, female and child labourers,
respectively whereas on large farms the figures were 3.53,
4.26 and 6.41 per cent on progressive over non-progressive
farms. Positive trends were found for all the activities except
transplanting activity on medium farms for female and child
labour on progressive over non-progressive farms. Same
trend was found for all the activities on small, medium and
large farms of western zone. This may be due to induction of
new technology. The average change in wages of casual
male labour was in decreasing order as size of land holdings
were increasing in both the zones. The change in wages of
casual female is also showing a decreasing trend as size of
land holding were increasing except in large holdings in both
the zones. Hence improved farm technology push up the
wage of agricultural labourers on the one hand and fill up the
gap in wages of labourers of progressive and traditional
farms, on the other hand, as size of land holding increases.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Overall average wage rates of labours on different
sized on progressive over non-progressive farms in western
and eastern zones are shown in Tables 1 and 2 depicts
changes in wage rates in western and eastern zones. The
positive changes in average wage rates of casual labourers
on progressive over non-progressive farms of small category
in western zone were 8.15, 8.18 and 9.28 per cent for casual
male, female and child labourers respectively. The highest
positive male wage rate was found in transportation
(10.36%) followed by interculture (9.52%) and harvesting
(8.75%) respectively. In female wage rate highest positive
change was in picking (10.09%) followed by harvesting
(8.53%) and intercultural activities (.8.25%) respectively.
The highest positive change in child wage rate was found in
manuring followed by harvesting and intercultural operations
by 14.21, 9.11 and 9.02 per cent, respectively on progressive
over non-progressive farms as indicated by Table 1. On
medium size of land holdings, the change in wage rates of
permanent male labourers was 4.00 per cent. In case of
casual hired labourers, the changes in average wage rates
were 6.12, 3.84 and 2.90 per cent for male, female and child
labourers, respectively. The highest positive change in wage
rate of casual male labourers was found in interculture
followed by picking and harvesting activities by 10.18, 9.41
and 6.79 per cent, respectively. The highest positive change
in wages of casual female labourer was found in threshing
(6.90%), picking (6.24%) and winnowing (5.68%). The
highest change in wage rates of casual child labourers was
found in sowing followed by manuring and picking by 7.97,
6.37 and 6.29 per cent, respectively. Whereas negative
change (-0.19) per cent was only found in winnowing
activity on progressive over non-progressive farms. On large
Table 1: Over all Average Wage Rates of Labourers on Different Sized Progressive Over Non-Progressive Farms in Western Zone
(Rs./day)
Farm
Operations
Manuring
Permanent
M F C
-
Picking
-
-
-
Pre-sowing
irrigation
Ploughing
-
-
-
-
-
-
Planking
-
-
-
Small Farms
Casual
M
F
6.38
3.67
(8.04)
(6.50)
6.42
5.92
(7.66)
(10.09)
3.23
(3.25)
C
4.40
(14.21)
2.67
(7.90)
-
-
-
-
-
*
Plot-making
-
-
-
*
Fertilizer
application
Pesticide
application
-
-
-
-
-
-
*
-
-
-
-
*
*
Medium Farms
Permanent
Casual
M
F C
M
F
2.74
5.08
3.22
(4.00)
*
(6.11)
(5.27)
2.74
8.28
3.96
(4.00)
*
(9.41)
(6.24)
2.74
(4.00)
*
*
*
2.74
4.11
(4.00)
*
(4.70)
2.74
4.40
(4.00)
*
(5.07)
2.74
(4.00)
2.74
(4.00)
2.74
(4.00)
-
C
2.31
(6.37)
2.40
(6.29)
*
*
0.87
(2.36)
*
*
*
*
-
*
-
*
*
57
*
-
Large Farms
Permanent
Casual
M
F C
M
F
1.37
3.52
0.62
(1.88)
(3.98)
(0.97)
1.37
4.78
4.20
(1.88)
(5.00)
(6.12)
1.37
(1.88)
*
*
1.37
(1.88)
*
1.37
-1.23
(1.88)
(1.32)
1.37
*
(1.88)
*
1.37
2.45
(1.88)
(2.60)
*
1.37
(1.88)
C
2.51
(6.69)
5.27
(12.77)
*
2.43
(6.66)
*
1.37
(3.48)
-
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Farm
Operations
Medium Farms
Large Farms
Permanent
Casual
Permanent
Casual
C
M
F C
M
F
C
M
F C
M
F
C
Sowing
2.74
5.04
2.93
1.37
4.69
(4.00)
*
(5.75)
(7.97) (1.88)
(4.91)
*
*
Interculture
3.04
2.74
8.59
3.18
1.37
4.89
3.95
4.33
(9.02)
(4.00)
*
(10.18) (4.96)
*
(1.88)
(5.05)
(5.85)
(10.64)
Irrigation
2.74
1.37
2.89
2.26
4.49
*
(4.00)
*
*
*
*
(1.88)
(3.04)
(3.44)
(11.88)
Harvesting
3.04
2.74
6.08
3.31
1.03
1.37
4.33
4.32
2.58
(9.11)
(4.00)
*
(6.79)
(5.10) (2.58) (1.88)
(4.44)
(6.24)
(5.99)
Threshing
1.69
2.74
5.50
4.29
0.43
1.37
5.18
2.42
1.38
(5.15)
(4.00)
*
(6.27)
(6.90) (1.14) (1.88)
(5.47)
(3.73)
(3.44)
Winnowing
2.74
4.59
3.49
-0.07
1.37
3.37
6.55
3.22
*
(4.00)
*
(5.27)
(5.68) (-0.19)
(1.88)
(3.50) (10.43)
(8.69)
Transportation
2.74
1.37
4.63
3.37
2.52
*
(4.00)
*
*
*
*
(1.88)
(4.83)
(5.24)
(6.45)
Other activities
2.74
1.37
*
(4.00)
*
*
*
*
(1.88)
*
*
*
Average
6.62
4.71
2.38
2.74
5.33
2.42
1.08
1.37
3.38
2.97
2.68
(8.15)
(8.18)
(7.28)
(4.00)
*
(6.12)
(3.84) (2.90) (1.88)
(3.57)
(4.52)
(6.87)
Note: M- Man, F- Female, C- Child. Figures in parenthesis are the percentage changes in average wage rates on progressive over non-progressive farms. * Can not
be calculated because hired labour was absent either on progressive or non- progressive farms.
Permanent
M F C
-
Small Farms
Casual
M
F
5.35
(6.60)
7.66
4.80
(9.58)
(8.25)
*
1.18
5.00
(8.75)
(8.53)
6.03
2.73
(7.42)
(4.75)
*
8.03
(10.36)
-
Table 2 : Over all in Average Wage Rates of Labourers on Different Sized Progressive Over Non-Progressive Farms in Eastern Zone
(Rs/day)
Farm
Operations
Manuring
Permanent
M F C
-
Transplanting
-
-
-
Pre-sowing
irrigation
Ploughing
-
-
-
-
-
-
Planking
-
-
-
Small Farms
Casual
M
F
6.82
3.91
(8.05)
(6.48)
6.29
7.42
(6.90)
(12.11)
3.47
(3.88)
C
4.68
(14.16)
3.87
(10.73)
-
-
-
-
-
*
Plot-making
-
-
-
*
Fertilizer
application
Pesticide
application
Sowing
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Irrigation
-
-
-
Harvesting
-
-
-
Threshing
-
-
-
Winnowing
-
-
-
Transportation
-
-
-
Other activities
-
-
-
Average
-
-
-
*
*
5.72
(6.61)
8.18
(9.59)
*
7.66
(8.75)
6.42
(7.40)
-
-
-
-
2.71
(8.64)
-
-
-
-
2.71
(8.64)
2.71
(8.64)
2.71
(8.64)
*
-
*
Interculture
Medium Farms
Permanent
Casual
M F
C
M
F
2.71
5.41
2.87
*
(8.64)
(6.09)
(4.37)
2.71
6.57
0.49
*
(8.64)
(6.87)
(-0.57)
2.71
*
(8.64)
*
*
4.38
*
*
(4.70)
4.71
*
*
(5.08)
-
-
*
-
-
C
2.47
((6.38)
-0.49
(-1.14)
*
*
0.94
(2.40)
*
*
*
*
-
*
-
*
-
5.39
(5.76)
9.17
(10.18)
3.39
(4.96)
1.64
(3.96)
1.96
(4.74)
*
6.49
(6.79)
0.87
(0.93)
4.90
(5.28)
*
3.54
(5.11)
4.57
(6.89)
4.38
(6.75)
*
1.10
(2.59)
1.60
(4.07)
-0.09
(-0.23)
*
*
*
*
5.16
(5.55)
*
2.48
(3.70)
*
0.60
(1.49)
*
*
5.12
(8.24)
5.34
(8.54)
2.90
(4.73)
-
8.87
(10.38)
-
-
6.99
(8.05)
5.17
(8.44)
3.24
(9.02)
*
-
*
3.24
(9.09)
1.80
(5.14)
*
*
*
-
*
*
*
*
*
2.71
(8.64)
-
-
*
2.26
(7.62)
*
*
*
2.71
(8.64)
2.71
(8.64)
Large Farms
Permanent
Casual
M
F C
M
F
1.07
3.76
0.67
(1.42)
(3.99)
(0.98)
1.07
4.70
4.63
(1.42)
(4.57)
(6.26)
1.07
(1.42)
*
*
1.07
(1.42)
*
1.07
-1.31
(1.42)
(1.32)
*
*
*
2.61
*
(2.60)
*
*
1.07
5.01
(1.42)
(4.91)
*
5.22
4.22
*
(5.05)
(5.87)
1.07
3.08
2.42
(1.42)
(3.03)
(3.40)
1.07
4.62
4.50
(1.42)
(4.44)
(6.09)
1.07
5.53
2.58
(1.42)
(5.48)
(3.72)
3.06
6.99
(2.98) (10.42)
1.07
4.95
1.46
(1.42)
(4.84)
(2.12))
*
*
*
1.07
3.57
2.99
(1.42)
(3.53)
(4.26)
C
2.68
(6.70)
2.70
(5.83)
*
2.59
(6.65)
*
2.36
(5.62)
-
*
4.92
(11.33)
5.62
(13.94)
2.76
(6.01)
1.93
(4.50)
3.44
(8.70)
2.69
(6.45)
*
2.69
(6.41)
Note: M- Man, F- Female, C- Child. Figures in parenthesis are the percentage changes in average wage rates on progressive over non-progressive farms.
* Can not be calculated because hired labour was absent either on progressive or non- progressive farms.
58
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Table 3 : Change in Labour Employment Due to Technology in Different Types of Farms in Western Zone
Size
Groups
Family
Change in Human labour
Permanent
Casual
Small
-9.77
(-9.71)
-
6.24
(120.90)
Medium
-24.90
(-25.91)
2.62
(178.27)
2.32
(15.67)
Total
Change in Bullock labour
Owned
Hired
Total
Change in Machinery labour
Owned
Hired
Total
-3.53
(-3.33)
-5.98
(-77.85)
7.82
(96.54)
-1.96
(-100.00)
-7.94
(82.36)
-1.34
(65.82)
0.08
(7.64)
0.95
(86.36)
8.84
(95.98)
(Day’s ha-1)
Change in
Total
Employment
-2.63
(-2.12)
-19.96
-1.34
11.49
-0.99
10.50
-10.80
((-65.82)
(98.50)
(-58.82)
(78.64)
(-8.45)
17.76)
Large
-33.61
3.57
3.47
-26.95
0.08
10.34
-1.03
9.34
-17.69
(-38.46)
(80.49)
(12.37)
((7.64)
(72.49)
(-100.00)
(60.87)
(-13.20)
23.06)
Over all
-22.76
3.10
4.01
-16.81
-24.13
-1.96
-3.10
9.88
-0.35
9.56
-10.37
(-24.04)
(104.89)
(25.93)
((-67.60)
(-100.00)
((87.32)
(-28.15)
(75.68)
(-8.04)
15.05)
72.62)
Note: Figures in parenthesis are the percentage changes in progressive farms over non-progressive farms. Total employment includes human, bullock and
machinery labour.
Change in employment due to farm technology
Table 3 shows the change in labour employment
due to technology in western zone. The over all change in
total employment was –8.04 per cent on progressive over
non-progressive farms. Due to farm technology all sizes of
land holdings have a negative change in employment as
2.12, 8.45 and 13.20 per cent, respectively on small, medium
and large holdings. The over all human and bullock labour
days were replaced by 15.05 and 72.62 per cent,
respectively. Whereas machinery labour was substituted by
75.68 per cent on progressive over non-progressive farms.
Family labour was replaced at increasing rate as size of land
holdings increased. Permanent labour employment was
highly increased (178.27%) on medium farms followed by
large farms (80.49%). Total human labour was replaced by
3.33, 17.76 and 23.06 per cent on small, medium and large
holdings, respectively. Hired bullock labour was replaced by
100.00 per cent on small farms. The owned bullock labour
was replaced by 67.60 per cent on progressive over nonprogressive farms. The total machinery labour employment
was increased by 95.98, 78.64 and 60.87 per cent,
respectively on small, medium and large holdings on
progressive over non-progressive farms. The hired
machinery labour replaced by 58.82 and 100.00 per cent on
medium and large holdings, whereas it increased by 86.36
per cent on small farms after adoption of new technology.
Owned machinery labour has positive change on all sizes of
land holdings. Table 4. Presented change in employment due
to farm technology in eastern zone. The overall change in
total employment was –9.75 per cent on progressive over
non-progressive farms. Due to farm technology, all sizes of
land holdings have a negative change in employment as
2.93, 6.48 and 19.00 per cent, respectively on small, medium
and large holdings. The overall human and bullock labour
days were replaced by 15.72 and 84.39 per cent,
respectively.
Whereas machinery labour was substituted by 68.52
per cent on progressive over non-progressive farms. Family
labour was replaced at increasing rate as size of land
holdings increased. Permanent labour employment was
highly increased (167.20%) on medium farms followed by
large farms (80.89%). Casual labour employment decreased
as size of land holdings increased on progressive over nonprogressive
farms.
Table 4: Change in Labour Employment Due to Technology in Different Types of Farms in Eastern Zone
Small
-10.82
(-9.83)
-
7.34
(123.57)
-3.40
(-2.99)
-8.06
(-95.75)
-2.16
(-100.00)
-10.59
(-99.61)
8.64
(97.21)
1.04
(85.87)
9.67
(95.79)
(Day’s ha-1)
Change in
Total
Employment
-4.33
(-2.93)
Medium
-27.46
(-26.13)
2.82
(167.20)
4.13
(25.43)
-20.49
(-16.66)
-1.50
(-67.06)
-
-1.50
(-67.06)
12.60
(98.57)
0.34
(18.22)
12.94
(88.36)
-9.05
(-6.48)
Large
-41.16
(-41.38)
3.93
(80.89)
3.15
(11.60)
-34.38
(-26.00)
0.05
(4.89)
-
0.05
(4.89)
12.01
(76.90)
10.88
(64.97)
-28.51
(-19.00)
Over all
-26.48
(-25.29)
3.38
(103.17)
4.87
(29.64)
-19.42
(-15.72)
-3.17
(-81.41)
-2.16
(-100.00)
-4.01
(-84.39)
9.40
(75.58)
-1.13
(100.00)
0.83
(58.70)
9.48
(68.52)
-13.96
(-9.75)
Size
Groups
Family
Change in Human labour
Permanent
Casual
Total
Change in Bullock labour
Owned
Hired
Total
Change in Machinery labour
Owned
Hired
Total
Note: Figures in parenthesis are the percentage changes in progressive farms over non-progressive farms. Total employment includes human, bullock and
machinery labour.
59
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Total human labour was replaced by 2.99, 16.66
and 26.00 per cent on small, medium and large holdings,
respectively. Hired bullock labour was replaced by 100.00
per cent on small farms. The total machinery labour
employment was increased by 95.79, 88.36 and 64.97 per
cent, respectively on small, medium and large holdings on
progressive over non-progressive farms. The hired
machinery labour replaced by 100.00 per cent on large
holdings, whereas it increased by 85.87 and 18.22 per cent
on small and medium farms, respectively. Owned machinery
labour has positive change on all sizes of land holdings. To
sum up, it could be concluded that machinery labour
replaced the human and bullock labour on all sizes of land
holdings after induction of new technology. Family labour
employment was replaced by hired casual, permanent labour
on progressive over non-progressive farms.
sizes of land holdings in western zone. The over all hired
human labour on progressive farms was 12.57 and 6.31 days
per hectare respectively in peak and slack periods of
operations compared to 11.23 and 3.74 days per hectare on
non-progressive farms respectively. The overall change in
hired human labour was 99.20 per cent on progressive in
contrast to 200.27 per cent on non-progressive farms. The
highest positive change in hired human labour was 929.70
per cent on small farms in peak over slack periods. The days
per hectare of hired labour were in increasing order as size of
land holdings increases on both progressive and nonprogressive farms except small category on progressive
farms. The overall wages of hired labourers on progressive
farms were Rs. 68.23 and Rs. 65.91 respectively in peak and
slack periods of operations compared to Rs. 67.28 and Rs.
61.92 respectively on non-progressive farms. The overall
change in wage rates of hired labourers was 3.52 per cent of
progressive in contrast to 8.66 per cent on non-progressive
farms. The wage rates were highly increased in peak over
slack periods by 5.50 and 9.63 per cent on large progressive
and non-progressive from respectively.
Employment situation and wage rates of hired labour
Table 5 presents the employment situation and wage rates of
hired human labour in peak and slack periods on different
Table 5 : Employment Situation and Wage Rates of Hired Labourers on Progressive and Non-Progressive Farms in Western Zone
Category of Farms
Peak Period
Hired Labour
Wage Rates
(Labour in day’s ha-1 and Wages in Rs. per day)
Slack Period
Change in peak over slack period
Hired Labour
Wage Rates
Hired Labour
Wage Rates
Progressive Farms
Small
10.40
66.40
1.01
65.24
9.39 (929.70)
1.16 (1.78)
Medium
9.36
66.52
7.74
64.45
1.62 (20.93)
2.07 (3.21)
Large
17.95
71.77
10.18
68.03
7.77 (76.33)
3.74 (5.50)
Over all
12.57
68.23
6.31
65.91
6.26 (99.20)
2.32 (3.52)
Non-Progressive Farms
Small
4.36
62.40
0.80
58.52
3.56 (445.00)
3.88 (6.63)
Medium
11.42
67.60
3.37
61.70
8.05 (238.87)
5.90 (9.56)
Large
17.92
71.85
7.05
65.54
10.87 (154.84)
6.31 (9.63)
Over all
11.23
67.28
3.74
61.92
7.79 (200.27)
5.36 (8.66)
Note: Peak period operation includes: Picking, ploughing, sowing, intercultural, irrigation, harvesting activities and rest of the farm operations are included in
slack period
Table 6 : Employment Situation and Wage Rates of Hired Labourers on Progressive and Non-Progressive Farms in Eastern Zone
(Labour in day’s ha-1 and Wages in Rs. Per
day)
Category of Farms
Progressive Farms
Small
Medium
Large
Over all
Non-Progressive Farms
Small
Medium
Large
Over all
Peak Period
Hired Labour
Wage Rates
Slack Period
Hired Labour
Wage Rates
Change in peak over slack period
Hired Labour
Wage Rates
12.19
11.62
19.19
14.33
70.94
72.75
76.74
73.48
1.11
8.75
11.15
7.00
69.64
68.24
72.25
70.04
11.08 (998.20)
2.87 (32.80)
8.04 (72.10)
7.33 (104.70)
1.30 (1.87)
4.51 (6.61)
4.49 (6.22)
3.44 (4.91)
5.07
12.53
19.46
12.35
66.51
70.21
77.07
71.26
0.88
3.71
7.74
4.11
62.47
65.73
69.96
66.05
4.19 (476.14)
8.82 (237.73)
11.72 (151.14)
8.24 (200.48)
4.04 (6.47)
4.48 (6.81)
11.02 (15.75)
5.21 (7.89)
Note: Peak period operation includes: Transplanting, ploughing, sowing, interculture, irrigation, harvesting activities and rest of the farm operations are
included in slack period. Figures in parenthesis indicate the percentage changes in peak over slack periods. Wage rates are the averages of wages
of male, female and child in peak /slack periods.
Table 6. Shows an employment level and wage
rates of hired human labour in peak and slack periods on
different sizes of land holdings in eastern zone. The overall
hired human labour on progressive farms was 14.33 and 7.00
days per hectare respectively in peak and slack periods of
operations compared to 12.35 and 4.11 days per hectare on
non-progressive farms, respectively. The overall change in
hired human labour was 104.70 per cent on progressive in
contrast to 200.48 per cent on non-progressive farms. The
highest positive change in hired human labour was 998.20
60
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
per cent on small farms peak over slack periods. The overall
wages of hired labourers on progressive farms were Rs.
73.48 and Rs. 70.04 respectively in peak and slack periods of
operations compared to Rs. 71.26 and Rs. 66.05 respectively
on non-progressive farms. The overall change in wage rates
of hired labourers was 4.91 per cent on progressive farms in
contrast to 7.89 per cent on non-progressive farms. The wage
rates were highly increased in peak over slack periods by
6.61 per cent in medium progressive farms and 15.75 per
cent on large non-progressive farms, respectively. Hence, it
can be inferred that high labour requirement in peak
operation period tends to increased the level of wage rates of
hired labour as compared to slack periods on all sizes of land
holdings of both types of farms. But the overall changes in
hired labour and wage rates are low on progressive farms
compared to non-progressive farms because the hired labour
requirement and wages are very low in slack period of nonprogressive farms compared to progressive farms. In case of
change in pattern of employment, machinery labour
displaces the human labour and bullock labour by inducing
improve farm technology. Family labour employment was
displaced by hired agricultural labourers on progressive over
non-progressive farms. It can also be inferred that high
labour requirement in peak operation periods tends to
increase the level of wage rates of hired labour as compared
to slack period on all sizes of land holdings of both types of
farms. The low employment in slack period as compared to
peak puts a downward pressure on wages.
labour by 15.72 per cent. In human labour the replacement
was mainly of family labour (-25.29%) which has been
substituted mainly by hired labour (66.40%) due to the
improved farm technology thus, widening the scope of
labour market. Progressive farms were found paying more
wage rates (Rs. 67.07) to the agricultural labourers than the
non-progressive ones (Rs. 64.60) in western zone. Similarly,
in eastern zone progressive farms were paying more wage
rates (Rs. 71.76%) to the agricultural labourers than the nonprogressive ones (Rs. 68.65). The total human labour on
progressive farms was less as compared to non-progressive
farms in both the zones indicating more use of machinery
labour. In peak period high wage rates (Rs. 68.23) were paid
to the agricultural labourers than in the slack period (Rs.
65.91) in western zone and in eastern zone too high wage
rates (Rs. 73.48) were paid in peak period than in the slack
period (Rs. 70.04) indicating positive relationship between
labour demand and wage rates. Still there exist a wide gap
between the wage rates actually paid to the casual labourers
and minimum wage rate (Rs. 95.55) announced by the
government. Despite of the minimum wage act which came
into force in 1948, there existed a wide gap between the
wage rates actually paid and the minimum wage rate (Rs.
95.55) announced by the government, there is need to
strengthen the implementation part of this act by the
government as well as to persuade and convince the people
to obey the act.
CONCLUSION
In eastern zone too the machinery labour has mainly
replaced the bullock labour by 84.39 per cent and human
REFERENCES
Hanchate A D and Ramaswamy KV 1997. New agricultural
technology, timeliness and wages for labour. A –Longitudinal
study of rural wages in India. Applied Econ. Latters. 4 (4) : 267270.
Raju VT 1976. Impact of new farm technology on human labour
employment. Indian J. Indus. Relations. 11 (4) : 493-510.
Singh K 1972. The impact of new agricultural technology on agricultural
wage rates and employment in the IADP Districts. Indian J. Agril.
Econ. 24 (4) : 223-277.
Manshahia R, Gupta AK and Jindal BR 2003. Socio-economic and
psychological problems of married working women in the Sangrur
district of Punjab – An analysis. J. Agril. Develop. and Policy. 15
(2) : 115-121.
Singh T and Sharma VK 2004. Employment of farm resources in
Punjab Agriculture. Productivity 45 (1) : 140-144.
61
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Role of NGO in knowledge and economic improvement of farmers
K GHADEI* AND G C MISHRA**
Department of Extension Education, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi,U.P., India
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The aim of this paper is to analyse and asses the contributions of an NGO named Ramakrishna Ashram for the
development of farmers. The information regarding the NGO intervention on occupation, employment, income and
growth in Agriculture of the farmers was collected in a three point scale i.e. frequently, occasionally and never assigning
scores 2, 1, and 0 respectively. The change in farmers has been compared with control group through simple score
analysis. Attempt has been made to classify the farmers on the basis of economic improvement. The significance of the
change has been tested through‘t’ test. Similar findings have been observed by Lewis (1993) where he revealed that
NGOs were bringing the home – stead – based - income - generation - successful activities like poultry rearing, paddy
husking and vegetable gardening to bring the people into the main stream development in Bangladesh. Ghosh and
Pandey (2001) observed that farmers who were exposed to training of NGO-(KVK) had higher productivity of rice,
higher cropping intensity and higher net income
Key words: NGO, Farmers, Economy, Communication, occupation, employment, income
Once regarded with suspicion, NGOs have now
gained a large measure of legitimacy and credibility in the
world. Keeping the emerging role of NGOs in Extension
services in view, a research work was designed entitled as
“Role of NGO in Extension services: An Appraisal of
Ramakrishna Ashram, Kalahandi, India. The objectives of
the study were to study the socio-personal characteristics of
the farmers, attitude of the farmers towards the extension
services offered by the NGO, knowledge gained by the
farmers on rice cultivation through training imparted by the
NGO, impact of NGO on economic status of the farmers,
trickledown effect of community information in the area of
study, pattern of extension services offered by the NGO and
the constraints encountered by the NGO and the
beneficiaries in the imparting and getting extension services.
Kalahandi District of India is still ridden with illiteracy,
poverty, and malnourishment and under development. Large
scale governmental efforts coupled with private extension
service form lead NGOs like Ramakrishna Ashram etc. are
in full- swing yet, the developmental achievements in terms
of quality of living of the poor tribal has to be achieved
through parallel efforts.
from the Ashram in the yester years. Stratified random
sampling was followed all throughout.
The ultimate aim of extension service is to bring
change in the standard of living pattern specifically in
occupation, income, employment, and ancillary aspects. The
improvement in the three aspects in rural area is normally
assessed through change in area in different crops, change of
inputs, production, cropping pattern, cropping intensity and
irrigation.
In the present study an attempt has been made to
find out the change in economy status of farmers covered by
Rama Krishna Ashram. The
term ‘economy ‘is
operationalized as the degree to which there is change in
occupational growth mostly in the field of agriculture,
annual income and employment opportunity round the year.
These three components together considered to be the
determinants of economy of the sample under study. These
three criteria were considered in consultation with local
expert, farmers and NGO personnel.
The change was
measured in terms of increase, decrease and constant
assigning 2, 0, 1 scores respectively against the prepared
statements for analysis.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted using Expost- facto
research design. The district of Kalahandi in Orissa state was
selected purposively for the present study because it’s most
backwardness, poverty and dominance of tribal population.
The district consists of 13 community development (CD)
Blocks, out of which, Ramakrishna Ashram was working in
4 CD blocks only. Mandanpur Rampur block was selected
purposively out of these 4 blocks for its remote location
from district head quarter. A sample of 12 villages were
selected randomly form 23 villages where the Ashram is
incorporating maximum services for the tribal groups under
study. A list of 220 farmers from the 12 sample villages were
selected for study who have received training & exposure
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Improvement in occupational growth
The occupation of farmers in Kalahandi District of
Orissa is farming and mostly land based enterprises.
parameters like increased area under high yielding rice,
pulses, vegetables and oil seeds were taken to consideration
to have more income from the occupation .The analysis has
been made basing on mean score on each concerned item to
62
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Table 3. Change in production
see the economic development of the farmers.The table
below shows the change in area under different crops after
intervention of Rama Krishna Ashram.
Change
production
Rice
Pulses
Vegetable
Oil seeds
Average
Table 1. Change in area of cultivation
Change in area Experiment Group Control
Difference
(mean score)
Group (mean percentage
score)
Area
under
1.84
1.54
16.30
improved rice
Area under pulse
1.60
1.45
9.37
Area
under
1.90
1.40
33.15
Vegetable
Area under oil
1.98
1.81
8.58
seed
Average
1.83
1.55
in
in Experiment Group Control Group Difference
(mean score)
(mean score)
in percentage
1.92
1.45
24.47
1.94
1.63
15.97
2.01
1.55
22.88
1.97
1.64
16.75
1.91
1.57
20.02
The above table depicts that comparatively more
change is in case of experimental group than the control the
group in rice, pulses, vegetables and oil seeds. The
experimental group farmers have increased their production
of vegetables and oil seeds whereas, pulses and rice are
lacking behind. The difference between the two groups was
observed up to 20.02. However the production levels of the
specific area are not much encouraging (Fig 1).
16.85
The table 1. reveals that there has been significant
increase in area under oil seed, vegetable and improved rice
so far as experimental group was concerned. The sample
under control group is reported to have increased area under
oil seed crop and rice where as area under pulses and
vegetable has not been increased. Both the groups differ up
to 16.85 so for as the occupational growth is concerned.
Fig. 1 Change in production
2.5
2.01
2
1.97
1.94
1.92
1.64
1.63
1.55
1.45
1.5
MEAN SCORE
Input use
1
Expansion of area and adoption of new technology
were characterised by more use of inputs like seeds, fertiliser
and implements. The obtained information under score
analysis revealed the following result.
0.5
0
Rice
Pulses
Vegetable
Oil seeds
CHANGE IN PRODUCTION LEVEL
EXPERIMENT GROUP
CONTROL GROUP
Table 2.Change in input use
Change in input use
Experiment Control
Difference
Group
Group
in percentage
(mean score) (mean score)
Improved seed of rice
1.98
1.59
19.69
Improved pulses
1.40
1.22
9.91
Improved vegetables
1.87
1.54
17.64
Oil seeds
1.86
1.37
26.34
Fertiliser and FYM use
1.70
1.49
12.35
Implements
1.85
1.45
21.62
1.77
1.49
17.93
Average
Cropping Pattern and infrastructure
Irrigation is most essential factor for rice cultivation
which influences the cropping pattern and cropping intensity.
The analysis was done in terms of increase, decrease and
constant of the variables.
Table 4 Change in Cropping Pattern and infrastructure
An examination of above table no 2 reveals that the
farmers of experimental group have increased input use in
case of seed in rice, vegetables and implements while
neglected the use of improved seeds for pulse and use of
fertilisers use in general. The difference between two
groups on the above specific criteria is 17.93 %. This shows
that the farmers of experimental group are more aware about
use of inputs
Change in Cropping Experiment
Control
Difference in
pattern
and Group
Group (mean percentage
infrastructure
(mean score) score)
Irrigation facilities*
1.93
1.63
15.54
Cropping pattern
1.50
1.27
15.33
Cropping intensity
1.90
1.67
12.10
Average
1.77
1.51
14.32
*Irrigation is included under infrastructure keeping in view of its expansion through
Production Level
Looking at the table above it is ascertained that
irrigation and cropping intensity has increased whereas
cropping pattern has not changed much. The results of the
control group farmers are also show same trend .The cropping
pattern in both the cases were not increased much. The
difference in between two groups is observed up to 14.32
percent only.
different means of irrigation.
The level of production is the measurement of
achievement in the field of agriculture. While determining
the change in production and productivity level of
production of the crops like rice, pulses, vegetables and oil
seeds, the following result were obtained.
63
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Income and Employment
From the table 6. it is evident that the distribution of
respondents both in control and experimental group follows
a normal pattern. In experimental group 34.55 % farmers
were found to be in high, 40.00% medium and 25.45 percent
in low as against the control group where 22.73 % high,
61.82 % medium and only 15.45 percent were in low
economic status. This was observation was similar with the
findings of Dubey (2005).
The
economic
status
has
been
operationalised in two aspects i.e. annual income and
employment throughout year. It was hypothesized that the
farmers seeking help from NGO have increased their income
and farm employment. The results in this connection are
given in the table below:
Table 5. Change in Income and Employment
Income
Employment
1.98
2.26
Control
Group
(mean
score)
1.59
1.36
Difference
percentage
Fig -2: Distribution of respondent on basis of improvement in economic
condition
in
70
19.69
39.82
50
The above table no. 5 indicates that annual income
per family head is more in case of experimental group than
control group with a difference of 19.69. Equally in case of
employment experimental group score is higher than control
group with a difference of 39.82 percent. It shows that
overall income and employment increased significantly in
case of experimental group due to intervention of Ram
Krishna Ashram. This finding is in conformity with the
study of Kumar (2004) and Purusottam (2005).
0
High
Medium
Low
Level Improvement
Table7. Overall differences in improvement in economy of the farmers
Category
Mean Difference T value of mean difference
Exp. group
51.25
10.87
9.21**
Control group
40.38
**Significant at 0.01 percent level of probability.
A look at the table above indicates that there is
difference between Experimental group and control group to
a significant level with respect to improvement in economy
after the intervention of NGO, the Ramakrishna Ashram.
The beneficiaries were exposed to training, filed visit and
demonstration programmes of Ramakrishna Ashram. Due to
this exposure and intervention of the Ashram their economy
has been improved as compared to control group. This
finding is in conformity with the findings of Shah (1993),
Ghosh (2001), Kumar (2004). So the null hypothesis(H O4) )
stating that there was no improvement in economic
condition was rejected and the alternative hypothesis(H A4
)that there is improvement in economic condition of the
respondents after the intervention of NGO was accepted
An attempt also was made to prepare the index on
each respondent taking the total scores obtained and
maximum obtainable score. Then the respondents were
classified on the basis of mean and standard deviation.
Table 6. Distribution of respondents on the basis of improvement
in economic condition
High
Medium
Low
Total
Exp.Group
Group
30
10
Economy Index to measure the improvement in economy
Frequency
Exp. Group
38(34.55)
44(40.00)
28 (25.45)
110 (100)
40
20
It is therefore, inferred that the Ramakrishna
Ashram and its extension service have brought significant
change in economic status and employment in the
experimental group under study.
Category
Distribution of responent on basis of improvement in economic condition
60
Percentage
Change in Income Experiment
and Employment
Group
(mean score)
Group
25(22.73)
68 (61.82)
17 (15.45)
110 (100)
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage. Mean 51.25, SD 3.97 Ex. group,
Mean 40.38, SD 5.09 Control group
REFERENCES
Dubey, A. K. Srivastava .J.P 2005. Impact of KVK on socio economic
status and knowledge of trainees in Allahabad district of India .
ABSTRACTs National seminar on Green evergreen: challenges to
Extension Education, Organised by ISEE at Division of Agricultural
Extension, IARI, New Delhi. Pp -9-10
Kumar, P. 2005. Rural development: collaboration of GOs & NGOs,
Kuruskhetra, a monthly developmental journal published from
department of information and broad casting, Government of India.
Lewis D. J. 1993. Bangaledesh rural Agricultural co-operative. Non
governmental organization and the state in Asia, pp:49-56.53No-10,
August 2005 pp 38.
Ghosh P. Pandey, K.N. 2000. Role of NGOs in transfer of Technology: an
Appaisal of Dibyayan KVK, Ranchi, An unpublished Ph.D. thesis
Submitted to Department of Extension Education, I.Ag, Sciences,
BHU, Varanasi
Purusottam 2005. Appropriate Technology for Employment Generation in
Agro-industries. Kurushetra 53 (10):10-12
64
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Response of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) varieties to fertility levels and growth
regulators on productivity, profitability and quality
R.C. BAIRWA AND M.K. KAUSHIK
Department of Agronomy, MPUA&T, Udaipur-313001, Rajasthan, India.
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Filed experiment was conducted for two consecutive rabi season of the years 2004-05 and 2005-06, to find out the
individual effect of varieties (Rmt-1, and Rmt-303), fertility levels (control, 10 kg N + 20 kg P 2O5 /ha, 20 kg N + 40 kg
P2O5 /ha and 30 kg N + 60 kg P2O5 /ha) and growth regulators (water spray, ethephon 100 ppm and NAA 20 ppm) were
studied on yield, protein content and monetary returns of fenugreek. The variety Rmt -303 gave significantly higher
mean seed yield by 11.69, 30.94 and 15.90 per cent (17.39,18.03 and 17.46 q/ha), protein content by 10.06, 19.98 and 1.62
per cent (21.27, 18.52 and 20.73 per cent) over control. With application of 30 kg N+60 kg P 2O5 /ha, growth regulator
NAA 20 ppm respectively and variety Rmt-303 gave significantly higher mean seed yield 18.03 q/ha, 17.46 q/ha and
17.39 q/ha respectively. Protein content by 19.98, 1.62 and 10.06 per cent over control, (18.52, 20.735 and 21.275%),
respectively. Net monetary returns and B:C ratio significantly affected by varieties, fertility levels and growth
regulators during both the years. Higher mean net returns (Rs.21727.00 /ha) and B:C ratio (2.16) were recorded with
variety Rmt-303 which were 17.56 and 17.39 per cent higher over control, respectively. On mean basis maximum net
returns (Rs.22348.50 /ha) and BC ratio (2.17) were recorded with 20 kg + 40 kg P2O5 /ha which was 36.36 and 23.29 per
cent higher over control, respectively. In case of growth regulators, application of NAA 200 ppm gave maximum mean
net returns (Rs.22403.50) and B:C ratio (2.335) by 23.02 and 20.67 per cent higher over control, respectively.
Key words: Fenugreek, quality, fertility levels, growth regulators, productivity, profitability.
Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-greacum L.) is an
important leguminous multipurpose crop mainly grown in
winter (rabi) season and it’s every part is utilized as leafy
vegetables, fodder, and condiments (Khiriya and
Singh,2003) and also have great export potential to foreign
country. Rajasthan occupies a prime position in production
of seed spices mainly fenugreek. It occupies 1.07 lakh ha
area with an annual production of 1.28 lakh tones (Vital
statistics 2002-03) and average productivity was only 1190
kg/ha. There is a wide gap between existent productivity
and potential productivity (2500 kg/ha) due to restricted
supply of inorganic fertilizers and cultivated mainly in P
deficient soils of western parts (ie. Sikar, Nagaur, Churu and
Jhanghunu) districts of Rajasthan.
regulators on fenugreek varieties on growth, yield attributes,
yield and quality.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Field experiment was conducted during two
consecutive rabi seasons of 2004-05 and 2005-06 at
instructional farm, Rajasthan College of Agriculture,
Udaipur. The treatment combinations comprising two
varieties (Rmt-1 and Rmt-303) and four levels of fertility
(control, 10 kg N +20 kg P2O5, 20 kg N +40 kg P2O5 and 30
kg N +60 kg P2O5 / ha) in main plot and three levels of
growth regulators (control or water spray, ethephon 100
ppm and NAA 20 ppm) in sub plot were evaluated in split
plot design with three replications. The soil of experimental
field was clay loam in texture having pH 8.20 and low in
available nitrogen (267 kg/ha), medium in available
phosphorus (24 kg/ha) and potassium (210 kg/ha).
Fenugreek seed was sown on 9th November in 2004 and 12th
November in 2005 at a spacing of 10 cm x 30 cm (intra row
and inter row spacing) and harvested 1 st April,2005 and 3rd
April, 2006, respectively. The climate of this zone is
typically same arid and subtropical characterized by mid
winters and moderate summers associated with relatively
high humidity during July to September. The mean annual
rainfall is 637 mm which mostly received from southwest
monsoon during last week of June to September.
To bridge the gap through use of balanced
inorganic fertilizers, growth regulators with improved
genotype leads to increase the crop productivity upto it’s
potential levels. Integration of inorganic fertilizers like
nitrogen and phosphorus are important to increase the
productivity of crop. Application of growth regulators like
ethepon and naphthalene acetic acid (NNA) induce higher
physiological efficiency including photosynthetic ability of
plants ultimately leads to better growth and yield of
fenugreek without substantial increase in the cost of
production. Therefore, present investigation was carried out
to the study the effect of inorganic fertilizers and growth
Full dose of nitrogen and phosphorous were drilled
at 4-5 cm below of the seed at the time of sowing was given
65
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
through Diammonium phosphate (DAP) and remaining dose
of nitrogen was supplied through Urea. Foliar spray of
ethephon 100 ppm and NAA 20 ppm was done at pre
flowering stage using 600 liters water/ha. The standard
procedures were adopted for computation of yield/ha and
protein content in seed. Economics of different treatments
were worked out in terms of net returns/ha and cost of the
treatments.
in close conformity
(Meena2001).
with
the
result
reported
by
Protein content of seeds significantly increased due
to variety Rmt-303 by 7.49 and 6.45 per cent higher over
variety Rmt-1 during 2004-05 and 2005-06, respectively
(Table1.). Under optimum conditions, quality parameters of
grain are largely determined by the genetic make up of
variety. Since nitrogen is a constituent of amino acids a
basic unit of protein while phosphorus increases protein
content indirectly as it is required in two processes of
protein synthesis viz., activation of amino acid and
fermentation of carbon in an RNA of polypeptide releasing
factors (Lehninger, 1990).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effect of varieties:
Significant increase in seed yield due to adoption
of variety Rmt-303 by 11.73 and 11.65 (mean) per cent
higher over variety Rmt-1 during 2004-05 and 2005-06,
respectively. Marked increases in seed yield appear to be
resultant of remarkable improvement in different yield
attributing components which was brought due to mutation
in variety Rmt-303 (Annual Report, 2002). These results are
Significant influence in net returns and B C ratio
due to adoption of varieties. On mean basis, maximum net
returns (Rs.21727.00 ha-1) and B:C ratio (2.16) was
recorded in variety Rmt-303 by 17.55 and 17.39 per cent
higher over variety Rmt-1, respectively(Table.1).
Table 1: Effect of varieties, fertility levels and growth regulators on seed yield, protein content, net returns and B:C
ratio(pooled data).
Treatment
Seed yield (q/ha)
Protein content (%)
Net returns (Rs/ ha)
B:C ratio
Rmt-1
15.57
19.89
18482.50
1.84
Rmt-303
17.39
21.27
21727.00
2.16
CD (P = 0.05)
0.197
0.521
841.135
0.097
SEm±
0.064
0.171
277.32
0.031
Control
13.77
18.52
16153.50
1.76
10 : 20
16.21
20.18
19786.00
2.02
20 : 40
17.89
21.40
22348.50
2.17
30 : 60
18.03
22.22
22313.00
2.06
CD (P = 0.05)
0.877
0.738
1392.248
0.137
SEm±
0.289
0.243
459.028
0.045
Control (water spray)
15.03
20.40
18211.50
1.93
Ethephon (100 ppm)
16.94
20.60
19699.00
1.73
NAA (20 ppm)
17.46
20.73
22403.50
2.33
CD (P = 0.05)
0.697
NS
1696.489
0.111
SEm±
0.251
--
612.229
0.040
Varieties
Fertility levels (N :P2O5 kg/ha)
Growth regulators
Table 2. Combined effect of fertility levels and growth regulators on seed yield, net returns (pooled data)
Seed yield (q / ha)
Fertility level (N : P2O5 kg / ha)
Control
10:20
20:40
30:60
13.41
15.24
15.61
15.90
Control (water spray)
13.78
16.39
18.77
18.83
Ethephon (100 ppm)
14.14
17.04
19.32
19.38
N A A (20 ppm)
1.606*
1.641**
CD (P = 0.05)
0.529*
0.592**
SEm±
* CD for fertility levels means at same level of growth regulators means
** CD for growth regulators means at same level of fertility levels means
Growth regulators
66
Net returns (Rs / ha)
Fertility level (N : P2O5 kg / ha)
Control
10:20
16262.50
18747.00
14945.00
18851.00
17277.50
21760.50
2577.85*
849.92*
20:40
18924.00
22654.00
25467.50
2626.06**
947.69**
30:60
18837.00
22346.50
25109.50
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
rate on reproductive organ the excretion of favourable
balance of exogenous hormone. These findings close
accordance with the finding of Medhi and Borbora (2002).
Foliar spray of plant of growth regulators did not
significantly influenced protein content of seed during both
the years. Significant influence in net returns and B:C ratio
due to spray of NAA. On mean basis, maximum net returns
(Rs.22205.00) and B: C ratio (2.33) was recorded in NAA
spray by 23.02 and 20.73 percent over control respectively.
Effect of fertility levels:
Application of combined fertilizer dose of 30 kg N
+ 60 kg P2O5 /ha resulted in significant increased in grain
yield but at par with 20 kg N + 40 kg P2O5 /ha. Per cent
increased in seed yield by 30 kg N+60 kg P 2O5 /ha was 30.39
and 31.19 higher over control, during 2004-05 and 2005-06,
respectively. Application of 30 kg N + 60 kg P 2O5 /ha
resulted significant increased in protein content by 19.63 and
20.32 per cent over control, during 2004-05 and 2005-06,
respectively. Increase in per cent protein content of seed with
the increasing fertilizer dose seem to be an account of greater
availability of N, as it is actively involved in the synthesis of
protein and phosphorus improve nitrogen use efficiency by
plant. This contention is in concurrence with the findings of
Meena (2002) and Purbey (2004). Significant influence of
net returns and B:C ratio due to application of 20 kg N + 45
kg P2O5 /ha. On mean basis, maximum net returns
(Rs.22348.50) and BC ratio (2.17) was recorded in 20 kg N+
40 kg P2O5 /ha by 38.35 and 23.29 per cent over control,
respectively.
Interaction:
Combined application of plant growth regulators
and fertility levels gave significant seed yield (Table2.).
Spray of NAA 20 ppm in combination with application of 30
kg N + 60 kg P2O5 gave significantly higher seed yield 19.43
and 19.32 q/ha during years 2004-05 and 2005-06,
respectively. Combined effects of application of plant growth
regulators and fertility levels on protein content were found
non significant. Net returns in fenugreek also significantly
influenced due to combined application of plant growth
regulators and fertility levels during both the years (Table 2).
Application of NAA 20 ppm in combination with 20 kg N +
40 kg P2O5 gave maximum net returns of Rs.25213 and
25722 /ha during years 2004-05 and 2005-06, respectively.
These results are in close conformity with the findings of
Meghwanshi (1992) who also observed significant
interaction between fertility levels and plant growth
regulators.
Effect of growth regulators:
Foliar spray of NAA significantly increased seed
yield by 16.19 and 16.13 per cent over control during 200405 2005-06, respectively but at par with ethephon. Increased
seed yield due to its unique role of delaying senescence
process, reducing flowers and fruit drop and higher fertility
REFERENCES
Lehninger, A.L. 1990. Principles of Biochemistry. CBS Publishers and
Distributors Pvt. Ltd., Delhi, pp.392-596.
Meena R.P. 2002. Effect of phosphorus, sulphur and phosphate solubilizing
bacteria on the productivity of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum
L.) Ph.D. Thesis, Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner.
Khiriya, K.D. and Singh, B.P. 2003. Effect of phosphorus and farm yard
manure on yield attributes and nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
uptake of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L ). Indian journal
of Agronomy 48 (1):62-65
Meghwashi, J.C. 1992. Response of sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.)
Moench.] to nitrogen and hosphorus levels in combination with bactin
inoculation and plant growth regulator. M.Sc. Thesis, RAU, Bikaner.
Medhi, A.K. and Borbora, T.K. 2002. Effect of growth regulators on the
dry matter production, flower and pod setting of French bean
(Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Research on Crops,
3:119-122.
Purbey, S.K. 2004. Effect of Bio-inoculants and bio-regulators on growth,
yield and quality of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) cv. Rmt1. Ph.D. Thesis. RCA, MPUAT, Udaipur.
67
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Effect of phosphorus and bio-fertilizers on nutrient content and its uptake by mothbean (Vigna
aconitifolia (Jacq.) Marechal
SANTOSH KUMAR, M L REAGER AND B L PAREEK
Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, SKRAU, Bikaner, Rajasthan, India.
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted to study the effect of four levels of phosphorus and four levels of bio-fertilizers. The
results showed that application of phosphorus significantly increased nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium contents by
seed and straw and total NPK uptake by mothbean up to 40 kg P 2O5 ha-1 over lower doses. Dual inoculation of
Rhizobium + phosphate solubilizing bacteria significantly improved the nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium contents of
seed and straw, total NPK uptake by plant, seed and straw yields over no inoculation and single inoculation either with
Rhizobium or PSB (have at par with each other) increased the nutrient contents and their uptake of mothbean over no
inoculation.
Key words : Nutrient content, nutrient uptake, mothbean, phosphorus, bio-fertilizer, Rhizobium, PSB
Mothbean (Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.) Marechal] known as
kidneybean, aconitebean and dewgram in different linguistic
zones of India indicating its wide social acceptance and
adaptation. In ecological terms, it is placed as an annual
legume of dry and warm habitats and is characterized as one
of the most drought hardy annual legume in arid region
adapted to low (200-300 mm) and erratic rainfall situation
and atmospheric temperature heighting to more than 40 °C.
Mothbean is known for higher proportion of albumin and
glutamin fractions of protein. It is also a good source of
amino acids particularly lysine and leucine and certain
vitamin, like carotene (Sudarsan et al., 2001). Green pods
are delicious source of vegetables and dry seed of mothbean
is used for a number of delicious confectionary items, which
are commonly used as daily snacks. India accounts for 11.5
mt of pulses production from an area of 21.7 m ha as against
1.27 mt. production from an area of 1.06 m ha in Rajasthan
during 2002. Phosphorus deficiency is a major constraint
usually the key factor for poor yield of pulses production in
rainfed agriculture system in semi-arid zone particular in the
lower –rainfall environments. Phosphorus application to
pulses not only benefit that particular crop and increase its
yield but also favourable effect to the soil nitrogen content
for succeeding non-legume crop (Ganeshammurthy et al.,
2003).
nitrogen or convert in soluble phosphate in the soil into form
available to plants. Phosphate solubilizing microorganism
plays a major role in solubilization and uptake of native
applied soils phosphorus.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experiment was conducted at College of
Agriculture, Bikaner during Kharif 2003. The soil of the
experimental field was loamy sand and low organic matter.
The soil pH was 8.2.It was low in organic carbon (0.09 %),
available nitrogen (62.85 kg ha-1) and available phosphorus
(12.02 kg ha-1) and medium in potassium (129.70 kg ha-1).
The treatments comprised four levels of phosphorus
(0, 20, 40 and 60 kg P2O5 ha-1) and four levels of biofertilizers (control, Rhizobium, PSB and Rhizobium + PSB)
were laid out in factorial RBD with three replications. A
uniform dose of 20 kg N ha-1 through urea and phosphorus
as per treatments through single super phosphate were
applied at the time of sowing by “Pora method”. Biofertilizers were applied as per treatments through seed
treatment by Rhizobium (MT-20 strain), PSB (Basillus
plimixa) and Rhizobium+ PSB. At first seeds were treated
with Rhizobium and then by PSB with the help of jaggary
solution. The mothbean variety RMO – 257 was sown in
rows spaced at 30 cm apart through ‘Kera’ methos on July
2003 using 15 kg seed ha-1.
The role of bio-fertilizers in agricultural production
assures special significance, particularly in the present
context of very high cost of chemical fertilizers. The
bacterial strains, which are capable of fixing atmospheric
68
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Increasing levels of applied phosphorus up to 40 kg
ha-1 significantly increased the seed and straw yields and
total uptake of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium of
mothbean over control and lower doses. Further, increase in
phosphorus up to 60 kg ha-1 results have no any significant
improvement in nutrient improvement in nutrient uptake by
plant (Table 2). Increased seed and straw yields of mothbean
with concomitant increase in their phosphorus content
seemed to be responsible for increased uptake of nutrient by
the crop due phosphorus fertilization. Similar increase in
nutrient uptake were also observed by Bhadoria et al. (1997)
in clusterbean.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effect of phosphorus
Application of graded doses of phosphorus
significantly increased the nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium contents in seed and straw up to 40 kg P 2O5 ha-1
over lower doses and control. Further increase in phosphorus
level up to 60 kg ha-1 had no significant effect on nutrient
contents of mothbean (Table 1). It might be due to improved
nutrient status in the root zone as well as in the plant system.
Such results have been reported by Mishra (2003).
Table 1: Effect of phosphorus and bio-fertilizers on NPK contents of seed and straw of mothbean
Treatments
Seed
Phosphorus (kg ha-1 )
0
20
40
60
SEm±
CD at 5 %
Bio-fertilizers
Control
Rhzobium
PSB
Rhzobium + PSB
SEm±
CD (P= 0.05)
Nitrogen (%)
Straw
Phosphorus (%)
Seed
Straw
Potassium (%)
Seed
Straw
3.313
3.541
3.663
3.687
0.0401
0.1159
0.996
1.164
1.317
1.406
0.0332
0.0959
0.535
0.567
0.592
0.598
0.0075
0.0216
0.247
0.279
0.293
0.301
0.0032
0.0094
0.288
0.319
0.347
0.351
0.0042
0.0121
0.774
0.859
0.908
0.911
0.0112
0.0324
3.279
3.565
3.541
3.819
0.0401
0.1159
0.921
1.303
1.212
1.447
0.0332
0.0959
0.533
0.568
0.579
0.612
0.0075
0.0216
0.246
0.277
0.286
0.311
0.0032
0.0094
0.281
0.326
0.329
0.369
0.0042
0.0121
0.739
0.885
0.892
0.936
0.0112
0.0324
PSB = Phosphate solubilizing bacteria
Table 2. Effect of phosphorus and bio-fertilizers on total N, P and K uptake and seed and straw yields of mothbean
Total nutrient uptake (kg ha-1)
Treatments
Phosphorus (kg ha-1)
0
Yield (q ha-1)
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potassium
Seed
Straw
31.97
6.35
12.66
5.31
14.20
20
45.51
8.79
16.38
7.50
16.28
40
57.04
10.64
19.33
9.18
17.78
60
59.82
11.02
19.68
9.36
18.00
SEm±
1.478
0.295
0.494
0.272
0.517
CD (P= 0.05)
4.269
0.852
1.426
0.786
1.493
Bio-fertilizers
Control
33.46
6.79
12.12
6.27
14.01
Rhzobium
50.06
9.14
17.41
7.92
16.75
PSB
48.17
9.32
17.28
7.98
16.43
Rhzobium + PSB
62.65
11.55
21.24
9.18
19.07
SEm±
1.478
0.295
0.494
0.272
0.517
CD (P= 0.05)
4.269
0.852
1.426
0.786
1.493
PSB = Phosphate solubilizing bacteria
69
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
on development of root system. Similar results were also
reported in black gram by Singh and Sharma (2001).
Effect of Bio-fertilizers
Dual application of Rhziboium + phosphate
solubilizing bacteria (Rhziboium + PSB) as well as single
inoculation with either Rhziboium or PSB significantly
increased the nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium contents
in seed and straw of mothbean over no inoculation. Seed
inoculation with Rhziboium + PSB recorded significant
higher NPK contents in seed and straw as compared to single
inoculation either Rhziboium or PSB (Table 1). Significant
improvement in nutrient content by the crop under the
influence of microbial inoculation appears to be an account
of improvement in nutritional environment and higher
nodulation. This might have resulted in improving
nutritional status of the soil, thus having a favourable effect
Dual inoculation with Rhizobium + PSB significantly
increased the seed and straw yields and total uptake of
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium of mothbean over
control and single inoculation either Rhizobium or PSB.
Inoculation with Rhizobium which were statistically non
significant with PSB improved, the seed and straw yield and
total uptake of NPK of mothbean over control (Table 2).
Significant improvement in nutrient uptake by the overall
improvement in crop growth yield and nutrient status of
plants ultimately led to accumulation of higher nutrient.
Similar findings have also been reported by Tomar et al.
(2003).
REFERENCES
Bhadoria, R.B.S., Tomar, R.A.S., Khan, H. and Sharma, M.K. 1997.
Effect of phosphorus and sulphur on yield and quality of clusterbean
(Cymopsis tetragonoloba). Indian J. Agron., 42 (1) : 131.-134.
Singh, D.D. and Shrma, A. 2001.Response of black gram (Phaseolus
mungo) to phosphorus fertilization and Rhizobium inoculation in the
hill soils of Assam. Ann. Agri. Res. 22 : 151-153.
Ganeshamurthy, A.N., Rao, Shirnivasa, C.H, Singh, K.K. and Ali
Massod, 2003. Management of phosphorus for higher productivity in
different agro-climatic regions of India. Fertilizer news, 48 (5): 23-41.
Tomar, A., Kumar, N., Pareek, R.P. and Chandra, R. 2003. Residual
effect of black gram inoculated with Rhizobium, VAM and PSB on
succeeding wheat crop. Indian J Pulses Res. 16 (2) : 141-143.
Mishra, S.K. 2003. Effect of Rhizobium inoculation, nitrogen and
phosphorus on root nodulation, protein production and nutrient uptake
in cowpea (Vigna sinensis Savi). Ann Agric Res.New Series 24 (1) :
139-144.
Sudarsanm Y., Kakard, R.K. and Sharma, R,C. 2001. Mothbean
nutritional quality. Mothbean in India. 11 : 147-155.
70
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Re-orienting extension for development
SEEMA JASUJA*, ARCHANA RAJ SINGH** D.S. BHATI* AND I M KHAN***
*KVK, Sriganganagar and **College of Home Science, SKRAU, Bikaner, *** SKN College of Agriculture, Jobner, Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India.
Email: [email protected]
Globalization has triggered fundamental changes in
social, ecomomic and political systems of many nations of
the world. Emerging opportunities and challenges pose task
of different perspective, where in extension needs to reorient
and revialize itself to strengthen the nation's initiative for its
prosperity. Besides the fulfillment of avowed objectives to
wipe the tears of the poorest of poor, it has to prepare the
people to withstand the pressures of WTO and globalize
economy. At this juncture extension has to play a crucial and
responsible role in propelling the society towards sustainable
development with stability and equality.
the farming community. Extension agencies, services and
workers will need to exercise an more proactive and
participatory role for dissemination of latest technologies to
the farming community. In this background, this paper
suggests some renovating strategies for strengthening the
extension system because there is need to develop cost
effective and sustainable extension system to facilitate the
farming community towards achieving prosperity.
(Kumbhare, 2003)
After reviewing various experiences of extension,
and related literature, here are some strategies, suggested for
reoienting extension towards its empowerment and
developoment.
Recorienting extension to help people to help
themselves with capacity building among the farming
community required a thorough analytical review of the
existing philosophy and approach to extension. The main
objectives of extension is competency development among
farmers and farm women including farm youths and not
mere transfer of technology. To develop an extension
strategy to meet this and we need to review what has
happened, document the experiences and the missing links
and take proactive efforts. Our efforts need to be focused on
building development competencies among the farming
community to empower and enable them to contrubute to
overall development.
Participatory Research and Extension in Partnership
(PREP)
In Order to increase the efficiency, relevance of
research and extension for farmers, a participatory system
should be initiated. The aim is to lessen the distance between
the farmers, the research and the industries to that the effort
of research are accurately directed to solving that what really
the farmer's problem are and not just what researchers
perccive them to be. The basic tenant of participatory
approach is that the extensionists and the reserchers no
longer see themselves as teachers but become partner in the
process of development. Thus, broadening the base of
participation, a partnership deed is formed among the
researchers, the extensions is, the development agencies, the
industries and the farmers (REDIF) in which dialogues and
negotiations. This increases the capacity of the farmers to
assess and analyze the constraints they face, makeuse of the
resources they have, utilize the available resources.
Before discussing about strategies, let us know a
little bit about "What is strategy"? Strategy is a planned
design to attack or tackle a problem or related problem
concerning an individual or organization for achieving
targeted goal within a specific time. The strategy is the style
of action within a system. It is like the beat of drummer
which sets the pace for all the activities of the system. A
strategy demands meticulous planning and exercise, which
has ultimate mission of "do or die" but it has differential
nature. It has to be recorient from time to time according to
changing circumstances to meet the current trends. Same
thing applies in case of extension, present strategies had lost
their competency to chalk out the path of growth and
development. Earlier beliefs and modes of extension are
found to be grossly inadequate in the present context of
competitive world, particularly when a number of events are
simultaneously taking place including new technology
explosion, demand for enhanced production and
producitivity, issue of equity and uneven development and
issues of sustainability and enhanced profitability. This has
called for reorientation in our approach to extension to cope
up with the present competive scenario otherwise the
profession of extension may loose its relevance.
Earlier, linkage between the farmers and the
researchers has been the extension service to carry farmer's
problem to the resarchers and return with the solution. For
variety of reasons. this has not worked well. While extension
workers were not trained in problem solving approach, the
researchers did not make joint diagnosis of the problems
with the farmers and often misunderstand the rationale for
technology development, upgradation and refinement.
Development agencies and industrial houses were alienated
from the mainstream of this technology propelled
development process.
In practical terms, this means all the five pivots (REDIF)
need to work together by way of contributing their
respective part. For example, researcher should supply the
technology, farmer should spare his land and labour,
industrial should make financial commitment, development
India's extension system is the largest in the world
but its normal task of transferring and disseminating
appropriate technologies is not sufficient for strengthening
71
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010


agent should offer logistic suport and extension should act as
facilitator in managing research in farmer's field. This sort of
experimenting should continue until jointly a definite goal is
achieved. This is what has been the Motto of "PREP" system
"work together, grow together and learn together from each
other". (Verma, 2003).
Emphasize Information Technology
Information technology has been geard up by the
advent of efficient and effective technology innoviations.
The new information tools and techniques can play a great
role to develop extension especially by the way of effective
media. There is need to harness IT for better efficiency of
extension. Hopefully, every extension worker and farmer
would welcome the technological advancements like expert
system multi-media, satellite communication etc to enjoy the
benefit. (Devraj et al, 2001)
The KVK's and various line departments need to be
connected with world wide information network. The
extension functionaries should also be trained in the area of
information technology.
Strengthening Research - Extension Linkage
The extension system must feed the research
worker information about the constraints farmers have
experineced in adopting research recommendations and the
research system much have the capacity and the readiness to
respond with problem specific recommendation. There is a
need to maintain liaison with research so as to translate field
problems into researchable question. Thus the research
extension linkages should be strengthened. On farm testing
to determine technology adaptation and farmers rection is a
key step in which joint research extension involvement is
critical. The extension system should consist of a strong
organizational frame, having well-directed research
extension
education
methodologies
for
effective
implimantation (Roy and Jha).
Involvement of Farmers in Setting Extension Agenda
Farmer's representaion as major stakeholder should be
ensured in all decision making bodies of public and private
extension services in planning and implementation of
extension programme. The bottom-up approach would be
helpful to identify and solve the location specific needs of
regions, disadvantaged areas and target grous. (Kumbhare,
2003)
Total Development through Extension
The broad based extension approach essentially
emphasized the total development of environment in which
a farm family resides and works. The total development of a
situation is the accumulation of efforts in different directions
that suppot living condition. A farmer in the village is not
only concerned with different branches of specialization in
scicence but also concerned with food cloth, health,
education, environment, exposure to outside world, and
future planning. The present context of extension approach
definitely does not have sufficient scope to accommodate
these aspects to bring changes. The total development
includes value system, social stability, psychological backup
and spiritual living. The present extension projects aiming at
crop production can hardly encompass these non-material
cultures. As our experience reveals, the sum total of effects
in a social change to consider these aspects to which our
extension system is to be geared up. (Singh and Kaur, 2003).
Nerkar et. al. (1999) experienced an innovative
approach by involving the farmers actively in an extension
programme. It was found that participating farmers initiation
in putting their porblem was increased, they become sold,
their need for seed, soil and water testing was aroused, rate
of adoption increased and a significant impact on the
neighhours was also seen.
Strengtening the Linkage through Mass Media
In view of large number of unreached rural
population, it is of paramount importance that the extension
systems needs to embard upon the distance education and
harvesting the toold of information technology viz,
television, radio, vidio programme, etc. The aim should be
to reach the unreached particularly the farm women and
youth. In this direction, the SAUs and ICAR institutes have
the responsibility of providing leadersihp to these target
groups throght KVK's, FTC's and distance education
prograeem. (Katteppa, 1999).
Mobilizing Human Resources
The basic problem of the country is that our human
resources have not been fully exploited and are
underdeveloped, Hence, the first task must be to build up its
human capital by improving the education and skills and
thus the mental and physical health of their men, women and
children. The training and reorientation of the development
functionaries to the new values are requirements, prioritizing
problem areas and identifying key areas of action are very
imperative for human resources development (Roy and Jha,
2001)
One Window Approch
Farmers have to deal with different phenomena at a
time viz., agriculture and live stock development. Both
sector wants equal weightage, In this way, is difficult for
farmer to avail extension services and offerings is that they
used to run at different counters for different services. In this
development initiative, availability of all the production
inputs is ensured under one roof at one place. One window
approach for extension services, is a "must" proposition. For
this purpose, a centre should be located at such a central
Globalization Strategies (Singh and Kaur, 2003)


Training farmers in agro processing.
Strengthening of infrastructure viz., transportation,
communication, storage, processing, packing and
marketing etc.
The farmers should be trained to make them aware of
GATT and its implcation.
Reorienting present extension system to suit the small
farmers.
72
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
place so that at least five villages could get easy access to it.
(Verma. 2003)
All the development programmes in the field
should be planned and implemented thrhough farmer users
groups to improve the feedback system, such as Self Help
Group (SHGs), Farmers Interest Group (FIGs), Community
Association (CAs) and other type of farmers organizations.
As measure of enrichinng the extension service
concept like broad basing and farming systems are now
being advanced. But they happen to be limited in their scope
since they cover only the combnination of enterprises and
not resource management on the farm. In this context the
whole farm approach is a far more comprehensive strategy.
(Kattepa, 1999)
Promotion of Farmer to Farmer Extension
Due to lack of resources or other factors extension
workers cann’t reach each and every farmer. The
dissemination process should also be carried out through
farmers. (Kumbhare, 2003)
Promotion
of
Demand
Driven
and
Farmer
Accountability Extension.
A demand driven exiension system is to be created
indstead of sypply driven by providing farmers with the
access to linkage mechanism through which they would be
provided all relevant information to help them to articulate
their problems and needs related to agrriculture and allied
aspects.
Organization of Training Programmes
Training is an important component to enhance
skill, knowledge and attitude. The training programme
should be system based and sustainable technologies
oriented. For building technical cometency, among farmers
specialized need based and skill oriented trainings should be
organized. There should be proper follow-up of the
programme to get continuity in the development process.
Appreciating Traditional Knowledge System (TKS)
The extension agent is no longer seen as the expert,
the indigenous technical knowledge of farmers are
recognized as major source. (Kumbhare, 2003)
Widening Exposure Frame of Farmers
A group of farmers should be exposed to the other
technologically developed areas so that can casily see the
innovative agricultural practices, on principle of seeing in
believing. For exposure of farmers to new technologies
regular visits should be organized at the newly extablished
ATIC centres. To promote better interaction between
farmers and scientists, "Farmer Scientitst Interface" should
be organized at appopriate levels. " Technology Centres"
should be established at the village level services of
scientists and researchers be made available at the centre for
on-the soot solution of the agricultural and related problems.
Kumar et. al. (2003) found that farmers traditional
knowledge system (TKS) are to appreciated, offered place in
planing and designing research and documented in depth.
TKS could be validated and perfected on station and
extrapolated to other farming situation in the identified
recommendation domain.
Implementation of programme through Functional
Group
REFERENCES
Dwivedi, Chaturvedi, S.K. and Khare, A.P. 2001, Information
technology and Agricultural Extension, Agriculture Extension
Review. 13(5); 3-6
Nerkar, Y.S., Sawat, G.K. and Khat, B.B. 1999. Out of University
Discussion on Farmers Field : An Innovative Approach for TOT
Ind. Journal of Extension Education 35 (1-2); 43-46
Katteppa, Y. 1999. Agricultural Extension System-Emerging
Challenges. Indian Journal of Extension Education. 34 (3-4); 71-73
Roy, S. and Jha, S.K. 2001. Extension till year 2000 versus Emerging
Issues, Agriculture Extension Review. 13(5); 23-27.
Kumar, S, Sah, U and Pal, P.P. 2003. Technology Development and
Delivery for the North Eastern Region, Kurukshetra. 51(7); 29-33.
Singh, D. and Kaur, R. 2003. An Appraisal of TRansfer of Technology
Experiences. Paper persented in National Seminar on Extension
Strategy for Promoting Initiatives amonng Farming Community.
(June 18-20, 2003) at IARI, New Delhi.
Kumbhare, N.V. 2003. Extension Strategies for Empowerment of
Farming Community. Paper presented in National Seminar on
Extension Strategy for Promoting Development Initiatives among
Farming Community (June 18-20,2003) at IARI, New Delhi.
Verma, O.S. 2003. Extension Strategy for Promoting Development
Initiatives. Paper presented in National Seminar on Extension
Strategy for Promoting Devlopment Initiatives among Farming
Community (June 18-20, 2003) at IARI, New Delhi.
73
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
ICT mediated agricultural extension: a survey of leading models and best practices
ADITYA AND BASAVAPRABHU JIRLI
Department of Extension Education, Institute of Agricultural Sciences,Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi
Email: [email protected] and [email protected]
In the past few years, the usefulness of Information
and Communication Technologies(ICTs) – especially
internet and cell phone to bridge the gap between scientific
know-how and field level do-how is felt by developmental
agencies throughout the world. Few technological
revolutions have such a wide ranging transformation in our
daily lives such as in the field of agriculture, healthcare,
education, defence and so on. The ICTs are beginning to
transform the way agricultural extension is being
implemented. The ICT mediated extension systems are
acting as key agents for changing agrarian situation and
farmers’ lives by improving access to information and
sharing of knowledge. There is an urgent need to study such
systems for sustainability, scalability and identification of
best practices for rural transformation. This report is a
survey of some of leading ICT initiatives in agriculture such
as eSagu, aAqua, RTBI’s agriculture initiative, agropedia
and the Digital Green. The eSagu aims at improving the
farm productivity by delivering high quality personalized
(farm specific) agro-expert advice in a timely manner to
each farmer at the farmer’s doorstep. The aAqua is an
online expert Question and Answer community forum,
developed for delivering information to the grass-roots. The
overall aim of RTBI’s agriculture initiative is to identify,
design, develop and pilot, rural inclusive businesses that
will enable the rural development process. The agropedia is
a digital knowledge repository for learning and sharing
information with an open platform related to Indian
agriculture where the content is semantically catalogued and
is easy to find. The “Digital Green” enables the
dissemination of targeted agricultural information to small
and marginal farmers using digital video technology.
to get acquainted with the proper working and functioning
of the ICT for Agriculture backbone in India. These are
described in detail in the following paragraphs.
Chronological order of the ICT initiatives in India
In eSagu, rather than visiting the crop in person,
the agricultural scientist delivers the expert advice by
getting the crop status in the form of digital photographs and
other information. The description eSagu is as follows: The
Farmers are the end users of the system and can be
illiterate. A Coordinator is an educated and experienced
farmer who can be found in the village. Agricultural
Experts possess a university degree in agriculture and are
qualified to provide expert advice. Agricultural
Information System is a computer based information
system that contains all the related information.
Communication System is a mechanism to transmit
information between farms to agricultural experts and vice
versa. If enough bandwidth is unavailable, information is
transmitted through courier service. However, the advice
text can be transmitted through dial-up Internet connection.
The ESAGU system
In view of technology/extension gaps in Indian
agriculture and to exploit ICT revolution, International
Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad, A.P., India
developed the eSagu model of extension system and
implemented it for the cotton crop in three villages of
Oorugonda, Gudeppad and Oglapur in Andhra Pradesh
covering 749 farmers and 1041 farms during 2004-05 crop
season. eSagu is a tool for IT-based personalized AgroAdvisory system. (“Sagu” means cultivation in Telugu
language.). It aims at improving the farm productivity by
delivering high quality personalized (farm-specific) agroexpert advice in a timely manner to each farm at the
farmer’s door-steps without the need arising for the farmer
to ask the question. The advice is provided on regular basis
(typically once a week) from sowing to harvesting which
reduces the cost of cultivation and increases the farm
productivity as well as quality of agri-commodities. In
eSagu, the developments in IT such as (database, internet,
and digital photography) are extended
to improve the
performance of agricultural extension services. It offers
next generation agricultural extension tool and supplements
and integrates into the existing agricultural extension
system. This chapter deals with the system architecture and
operation, effects, future plans and comments on the system.
System architecture and operation
It will be interesting to list the ICT initiatives in
India on the basis of the year of implementation. This will
give a vivid picture of the existing state of the initiative
under Indian conditions and also pave the path for further
scalability on a pan-India basis.
Survey on leading ICT models in India
A study on the major ICT for Agriculture initiative
in India is conducted so as to know regarding the usage and
future course of action of the projects on the livelihoods of
farmers. The various major projects studied are the eSagu
project in Hyderabad, the RTBI initiative of IIT-Madras and
the aAQUA project in Maharashtra state. A study of other
initiatives like the agropedia, Digital Green was also made
74
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Chronological order of the ICT initiatives in India
ICT Initiative
1.Akashganga
2.Deccan development society
Year
1996
1996
Coverage
Western parts of India(Gujarat & Maharashtra)
Medak district of A.P
Implementing Agency
Private
NGO
3.Community radio-Deccan development society
4.Information village centres of MSSRF
5.Warana Wired Villages Project
1998
1998
1998
NGO
Private
Government
6.Swayam Krishi Sangam(SKS)Microfinance
1998
7.Kudumbhashree
8.Online
Integrated
Computerised
Systems(OICS):Sumul Dairy
9.Pravara Village IT Project(PRAGATI)
10.Village Information Kiosks,A.P
1999
1999
Andhra Pradesh
Tamil Nadu
Kohlapur and Sangli district,Warana nagar
around Maharashtra
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra,
Orissa and Madhya
99 Panchayats and 58 Muncipalities of Kerala
12 district unions, Gujarat
Ahmednagar district, Maharashtra
Andhra Pradesh
Government
Private
All India
M.P,Haryana,Uttarakhand,U.P,Karnataka,A.P,
Bihar,Mah.,Raj.,Kerala
All India
Assam farmers
Palamu district, Jharkhand
Raj.,U.P,M.P,Haryana, Bihar,Punjab
Tamil Nadu
Some districts of Andhra Pradesh
11 Districts of Uttarakhand
Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan
State and District department of Agriculture
Government
Private
2003
2003
2003
2003
2003
2003
2003
2003
2003
2003
All India
Government
Private
Government
Government
Government
Government
Government
Government
Government
Private
2003`
Kanchipuram, Thoothukudi and Kanyakumari
districts of Tamil Nadu
Uttar Pradesh, Haryana &Punjab
Villages of Mahboobnagar district,A.P
All India
11.AGMARKNET
12.ITC e-choupal
1999
20002003
2000
2000
13.Agriwatch portal
14.ASHA
15.Chalao Ho Gaon Mein
16.Tara Haat-TARA Nirman Kendras
17.Muruggappa Groups,EID Parry
18.Society for Andhra Pradesh Network(SAPNET)
19.Swajaldhara
20.Dristee Foundation
21.AGRISNET(Agriculture
Informatics
and
Information Network)
22.Aaqua
23.Computer on wheels
24.DACNET
25.Digital Mandi
26.e-Krishi vipanan
26.Grasso PCO Project
27.Interlingua web
28.Jagriti e-seva
29.Kisan Kerala
30.Jamshedji Tata National Virtual Academy for Rural
Prosperity
31.RASI(Rural Access to Services through Internet)
2001
2001
2001
2001
2001
2002
2002
2002
2002
32.Tata Kisan Kendra
35.VASAT Project
36.Wireless Internet Post Office
37.Rural Knowledge Centre(RKC)
38.Village Resource Centre(VRCs)
39.Gender Resource Centre(GRC)
40.e-Sagu
41.i-shakti
42.Kisan call centres
43.e-Krishi(Agri Business Centres)
44.Coil-Net
2003
2003
2003
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2005
45.Kisan Soochna Kendra(KSK)
46.OSCAR Project
47.Sochna se Samdhan
48.RTBI
2005
2006
2006
2006
49.Village Knowledge Centers(IT-BHU)
50.Agropedia
2007
2009
All India
All India
Some districts of Andhra Pradesh
Some districts of West Bengal
All India
Punjab
Around Kochi in Kerala
Puducherri
Villages of Tamil Nadu
All India
Andhra Pradesh
Some districts of A.P
All India
Mallapuram District, Kerala
Raj.,Haryana,Delhi,U.P,Uttarakhand,M.P,Chatt
isgarh
Uttarakhand
All India
All India
Kanchipuram,Dharmapuri and Erode districts
of Tamil Nadu
Uttar Pradesh
All India
75
Private
Government
Private
Private
Government
NGO
Private
Private
Private
Government
Private
Government
NGO
Private
Private
Government
Private
Government
Government
Private
Private
Government
Private
Government
Government
Private
Private
Government
Government
Government
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
agriculture scientist to prepare the high quality expert advice.
The quality of advice should be equivalent to that of the advice
he/she delivers by physically observing the farm. It has been
identified that the agricultural expert should have knowledge of
the location-specific problems to deliver the expert advice.
Investigations are being carried out by the implementers to
develop a location-specific content preparation framework
which contains the description of problems and practices in the
corresponding agro-eco situatin.To improve the throughput of
agricultural expert, the notion of “virtual agricultural expert” is
developed. The software tools such as “static advisory content”
and “help desk” are developed. In addition, the notion of
“dynamic crop visits” is added to make the system more costeffective. Based on the encouraging results from eSagu project
and its benefits to the farming community, an effort is being
made by Media Lab Asia to start the Integrated Agri-Service
Programme (IASP) to carry out mass delivery of custom
solutions (by means of personalized agri services) to farmers at
their farm gate by harnessing the power of ICTs. The scope of
the services include personalized agro-advisories continuously
from seed to harvesting; facilitating availability of high quality
inputs at fair prices; enabling financial Institutions to provide
agri-credit; facilitate post-harvest management facilities and
various marketing channels at the disposal of the farmer. The
system will address, at key leverage points, the issues such as
producing the best quality output matching market
requirements, proper pre-harvest management and post-harvest
handling, scientific storage, better market intelligence for
improved risk mitigation, value addition and exports. It is
possible to further improve the Project if it follows the
following recommendations for future course of action. The
farmers are sometimes unable to determine properly whether
the crops are actually infected or not. In such case, proper
judgement regarding the status of the crop cannot be
established by the farmer resulting in losses and severe disease
infestation. Since, eSagu is a query-less system and provides
agro-advice even without the farmer asking a question by
following a proactive approach that usually avert problematic
situations; a regular visit of the experts and face-to-face
interaction is also necessary to maintain authenticity of the
recommendations and in order to create greater emphasis but
that part is missing in this system. eSagu should be a scalable
system which can developed on the available infrastructure and
can be made self-sustainable with a nominal service charge.
The system should have wide coverage and it should
necessarily include other states and district as well. eSagu must
aid in the successful implementation of crop insurance scheme
by making farm as a unit of insurance. It can help the financial
institutions for effective out-reach and efficient loan recovery.
eSagu should significantly reduce the lag period between
research efforts and field application besides helping in the
validation of new technologies. It should have a regular website
of the project containing queries and feedback of the various
researchers and members of the farming community so that
users who have the convenience of the internet can access the
information immediately at their home place without asking for
it.
The operation of eSagu is as follows. A team of
agriculture experts work at the eSagu (main) lab (normally
in a city) which is supported by agricultural information
system. One small computer centre (few computers and one
computer operator) is established for a group of five to six
villages. Appropriate numbers of coordinators are selected
from the villages. Depending on the crop, each coordinator
is assigned with a fixed number of farms. The coordinator
collects the registration details of the farms under him
including soil data, water resources, and capital availability
and sends the information to the main eSagu system. Every
day, the coordinator visits a fixed number of farms and
takes four to five photographs for each farm. A CD is
prepared with the photographs and other information and
transported to the main system by a regular parcel service.
The Agri-experts, with diverse background (Entomology,
Pathology, Agronomy and so on) at the eSagu (main) lab
analyse the crop situation with respect to soil, weather and
other agronomic practices and prepare a farm specific
advice. This advice is downloaded at the village eSagu
centre electronically through a dial-up Internet connection.
The coordinator collects the advice and delivers it to the
concerned farmer. In this way each farm gets the proactive
advice at the regular intervals starting from pre-sowing
operations to post-harvest precautions.
Usage and Effects of eSagu
The eSagu project has started in 2004. The progress of
eSagu project is briefly discussed as follows.
A. Prototype for 1051 cotton farms (2004-05)
Development of eSagu has started in March 2004. The
eSagu sysem was implemented for 1051 cotton farms. The
working of eSagu system was demonstrated. The impact
study showed that the farmers got the additional benefit of
Rs 3,820/- per acre by saving fertilizers, pesticide sprays
and getting extra yield. The cost to benefit ratio was 1:3.
B. Scaled-up experiment on 5000 farms and six crops
(2005-06)
A scaled-up experiment was implemented for 5000 farms for
six crops (cotton, chilies, rice, groundnut, castor and red gram)
in 35 villages spread over six districts in Andhra Pradesh. The
result was that the farmers got the additional benefit of Rs
3874/- per acre. The cost to benefit ratio was 1:4.
C. Optimizations to eSagu system (2006 onwards)
From 2006 onwards, efforts are being made to develop a
business model. In parallel, efforts are being made to develop
an efficient and robust eSagu system. For this, few eSagu local
centres are operationalized through public/private organizations
and NGOs. The eSagu service is also thought to be provisioned
on a subscription basis. Investigations are going on to enable
agricultural experts to improve both quality and efficiency of
advice delivery by building tools to provide different kinds of
information. Regarding quality aspect, the system has the
challenge to provide all the required information to help
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Table 1.1 shows basic information on eSagu implementation between 2004 and 2007 along with the benefits accrued to
the farmers of both agriculture and aquaculture.
Table 1.1: Summary of benefits accrued to farmers due to eSagu
Particulars
2004-05
Period
2005-06
eSagu (Agriculture)
Total number of crops covered
1
32
Total number of villages
3
39
Total number of farms
1,051
4,894
Total number of advices
20035
35804
Total number of crop photos
90,944
2,13,817
Average monitory benefit/acre (Rs.)
3,820
3,874
Cost : Benefit ratio
1:3
1:4
eSagu (Aquaculture)
Total number of farms
160
Average monitory benefit/acre (Rs.)
20, 405
Cost : Benefit ratio
1:7
SOURCE: Dr. P Krishna Reddy, Dr. G V Ramaraju, eSagu: An IT based Personolised Agro Advisory System, www.esgu.in






The Digital Green Project
Green Foundation, Bangalore in collaboration with
Microsoft Research Labs has developed a new method of
agricultural extension in India called as “The Digital Green”
initiative in September 2006 making successful extension
possible via multimedia presentations and personal
demonstrations. It enables the dissemination of targeted
agricultural information to small and marginal farmers using
Digital Video Technology. Unlike prevailing systems that
expect Information and Communication Technology alone
to deliver useful knowledge to marginal farmers, Digital
Green works with existing people-based extension systems
and aim to amplify their effectiveness. In its first
intervention, it demonstrated immense potential in
improving the lives of small and marginal farmers in a
highly cost effective manner. It is a testimony to their
efforts and vision that in a four months trial involving 13
villages comprising of almost 1070 households, it was seen
to increase the adoption of certain agricultural practices by a
factor of six to seven times over classical person-only
agricultural extension. It creates enabling environments for
communities to adopt new and better behaviours to bring
about sustainable change in the quality of life among
populations living at the base of social pyramid. This
outcome has added a totally new dimension to existing
behaviour change communication approaches. Encouraged
by such an impressive outcome, Digital Green is now set to
apply this approach to select locations in various parts of the
developing world. The technology and approach used has
also elicited interest in other social domains like public
health, education and livelihood. Like farmer field schools,
the Digital Green system provides structure to a traditional,
informally-trained vocation. The system improves the
efficiency of extension programs by delivering targeted
content to a wider audience and enabling farmers to better
manage their farming operations with reduced field support.
This case study deals with the features, principles involved,
working and the core values of the project.
2006-07
27
148
2,619
20,757
1,33,830
2,661
1:3
200
25, 999
1:8
Digital video database for farmers by farmers
Participatory process for content production.
Dissemination structure for informal training.
Sequence for initiating new communities
Diffusion strategy to generate sustained involvement
Network of hubs and spokes for scalable content
production and peer-learning
Farmers are motivated to adopt a new practice when
they see a fellow villager, living in similar circumstances,
experience its benefits. It has demonstrated early success in
the popularization of sustainable farming practices in the 12
villages in which the system is currently deployed. At least
5 times more farmers attempted better agricultural practices
after integration of the DG system over the NGO's previous
efforts. It aims to scale its system to offer relevant
agricultural extension services to a much wider population
of farmers. The project aims to eventually scale up the
system to cover a far greater number of villages and
farmers, contributing toward the Millennium Development
Goals of sustainable agriculture productivity and food and
nutrition security. It is deployed currently in the Karnataka
and Tamil-Nadu state borders of India.
“The system includes a digital video database, which is
produced by farmers and experts. The content within this
repository is of various types, and sequencing enables
farmers to progressively become better farmers. Content is
produced and distributed over a hub and spokes-based
architecture in which farmers are motivated and trained by
the recorded experiences of local peers and extension staff.
In contrast to traditional extension systems, Digital Green
follows two important principles: (1) cost realism, essential
to scale the system up to a significant number of villages
and farmers; and (2) building systems that solve end-to-end
agricultural issues with interactivity that develops
relationships between people and content.”
The overall aim of the Project is to raise the livelihoods
of smallholder farmers across the developing world through
the targeted production and dissemination of agricultural
information via participatory video and mediated instruction
System Architecture and Operation
The main features of the Digital Green system are:
77
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
through grassroots-level partnerships. This work begins by
disseminating targeted agriculture information to small and
marginal farmers using a cost-realistic media exchange that
is supported by existing, people-based extension systems
and local facilitators. The recent techniques in Agricultural
Extension like the Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and
Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) are effectively utilised for this
purpose. The unique components of Digital Green are a
participatory process for content production, a locally
generated digital video database, human-mediated
instruction for dissemination and training; and regimented
sequencing to initiate a new community. While video
provides a point of focus, it is people and social dynamics
that ultimately make Digital Green work. Local social
networks are tapped to connect farmers with experts; the
thrill of appearing on TV motivates farmers, and homophily
is exploited to minimize the distance between teacher and
learner. The Digital Green system still requires the support
of a grassroots-level extension system, but it magnifies its
effectiveness by using relevant content and a local presence
to connect with farmers on a sustained basis. Indeed, Digital
Green was shown to be ten times more effective per dollar
spent.
research and pre-incubation analysis and study platform for
rural ventures where the business model and rural dynamics
is not well understood. RTBI was set up primarily with
funding from Infodev and the Department of Science and
Technology along with support from the Indian Institute of
Technology, Madras. Additionally project partnership and
support from IBM, TI and UNDP enabled the establishment.
Main Features
In the pre-incubation space, RTBI started off its plans to
work in various venture sectors such as agriculture,
vocational training, health, education and financial
inclusion. In January 2007, the Agriculture Venture came
into existence. The team began meeting various
stakeholders in Agriculture. An initial fact-finding trip to
Theni District was completed followed up by a market
research and analysis exercise. Based on the analysis
findings, three thrust areas are identified namely, Provision
of advisory services Provision of market linkages Provision
of financial linkages The prior work started on the selection
of villages and respective kiosk operators for provision of
advisory service in Theni District The Incubator is currently
involved in supporting entrepreneurs in building ventures to
promote livelihoods, education, healthcare, agriculture,
connectivity and financial inclusion in India’s rural areas.
Needless to say, ICT’s play a crucial role in scaling RTBI’s
aims across geographies and in empowering large sections
of the underprivileged in India including women.
Usage and Effects
Digital Green is a good beginning to overcome the
traditional way in which Information and Communication
Technologies were used till date. It has found and utilised
new avenues for the successful implementation of the
agricultural extension activity. Changed and upgraded
technology will bring new potential for growth and overall
development of the clientele. The participatory method of
agricultural extension is the demand of the changing and
globalised world. It is the most effective means in which the
required technology can be transferred to the farmers not on
our desire but on the needs and requirement of the farmers
and the rural people concerned. Digital Green is utilising the
same it in an efficient way. Advisory services provisioning
was selected as first phase of Venture. The two key
milestones during this period were that
System Architecture and Operation in Agriculture
The research team was set up in mid January 2007. During
the period up to March 2007, the team established its goals
and processes. The immediate objectives that were defined
were:
 To create a Village Databank – a database that profiles
villages where RTBI would pilot its initiatives. The
profiles would aim to gauge the village’s access to
amenities.
 To create a Rural Household Databank –to implement a
baseline survey capturing socio-economic data of all
adults in 500 households each of all RTBI pilot villages.
 To support the rural information and analysis
requirements of ventures (pre-incubatees) and incubatees
of RTBI
Key Metrics till August 22, 2010 Objective: Increase cost-effectiveness
of existing extension systems, Produce locally relevant content,
Increase adoption rate
Number of States covered
Number of districts
Number of blocks
Number of operational villages
Number of field guides(Video Production)
Number of video production training conducted
Number of videos produced
Number of dissemination training conducted
5
9
22
43
47
11
387
28
The methodology thus decided was:
 Village Databank – The kiosk operator will be trained to
collect the data for his village from Panchayat officers
and village administrative officer
 Rural Household Databank - The kiosk operator will be
trained to administer the online survey among the
respondents in his village.
 Need based Venture specific data collection – sample
driven and most often contact based.
The initiative of RTBI in the agriculture front is
praiseworthy. RTBI has rightly noted that small or medium
sized land farmers in the Indian Agriculture mainly face
three problems, which are
• Disease Risk
• Weather Risk
The RTBI (Rural Technology and Business Incubator)
model
IITM’s Rural Technology and Business Incubator (RTBI) is
a registered Non- Profit Society, which was born in
October, 2006. The overall aim of the society is to identify,
design, develop and pilot, rural inclusive businesses that
will enable the rural development process. RTBI is a firstoff incubator in the sense that it provides a significant
78
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
• Price Risk
Also, a progressive farmer is identified in the village that is
given special training and made aware of the new
implements and practices. The progressive farmer later
disseminates the information to the co-farmers. The farmers
are now more interested in cultivating crops other than the
traditional crops like rice. Famers now cultivate cash crops
such as Ground Nut, Banana, Vegetables like Brinjal,
Lady’s finger, Bitter Gourd and so on. The farmers are also
made aware regarding various initiatives of the Government
for the advancement of the agriculture sectors. Farmers are
now interested in availing loans under the Kisan Credit Card
Scheme with very low rate of interest which prevents them
from the clutches of the money lenders and other noninstitutional sources of money supply. The famers are also
availing the facility under National Crop Insurance Scheme
to insure their crops under vagaries of nature and other
causes resulting in the shortfall in the production. The crop
insurance cover varies from almost all the crops from cereal
crops to cash crops. It is certainly a relief to the farmers who
are now able to take risk in the cultivation of crops other
than the traditional crops. The farmers get major subsidy on
the purchase of farm implements like Power Tiller, Tractors,
and Pump-sets and so on which requires a lot of capital.
They can also avail loan on the basis of their credit limit
under the Kisan Credit Card scheme from banks at lower
rates of interest.
RTBI continuously endeavours to lower these three
categories of risk and effectively leverage technology to
enhance productivity.
Usage and Effects
The efficient working and use by the farming community
for the purpose of agriculture may be explained under the
following groups.
Weather Monitoring Systems
It is seen that the amount of rainfall that a land receives is in
a cycle. Once in eight years, rainfall fails and hence creates
the weather risk that farmers face. RTBI has built a low-cost
weather monitoring station, and with support from the
Department of Science and Technology, has been deployed
in close to 100 locations in Tamil Nadu and will be
deployed in close to 1200 locations in Andhra Pradesh.
RTBI aims to work with Personalized Advisory Services
that not only provide regional specific (district or state)
advice, but also farm-specific advice. It is designing a desktop soil testing system to enable micro-level data on farms
through GPS mapping of individual farms on GIS systems.
These include periodic soil conditions, water levels and
rainfall at different times. What was grown when and the
farm practice employed crop selection, fertilizers, pesticide,
disease history etc. This is indeed very useful for the
farmers to ward off any uncertainty and risks associated
with the production process.
Some of the recommendations
mentioning is enumerated below
which
is
worth
 The initiatives of RTBI are very much localized. Having
no paucity of funds, it should be scaled up further but that
approach seems to be lacking from the administrative end.
Mobile-based Personalized Advisory Service
Farmer can query any relevant information on his/her
mobile. The Computer acts as a call-agent answering
questions in multiple Indian languages and also enables
carrying out any transaction based on an innovative patented
approach. The village Sirunagar close to National AgroFoundation at Kanchipuram district is having complete
computerisation of almost 20 farmers’ database in their
systems. When the farmers happen to call the expert for any
farm specific advise then the details of the farmers in terms
of their age, type of land, major crops cultivated, family
background, type of farming practiced, land size and all
other specific details gets flashed on the computer screen
making the expert easy to respond to the questions without
wasting time on knowing the back ground and other details
of the farmer. This enables the farmer to have trust in the
views expressed by the expert and they are ready to follow
the same. The farmers have become more risk-taking due to
the timely advice that they get over the phone almost
instantly. The phone numbers are toll-free so that farmers do
not feel any hesitation in questioning the experts regarding
the problems that they face on their land.
 The Project is mainly facing problems of acute labour and
manpower shortage. According to the farmers, this is
mainly due to social development programmes of the
Government like MNREGA which enables the labourers’
easy money with fewer efforts. RTBI should make sure
that the farmers do not face such problems during the
growing and harvesting season so that their model is
successful to a greater scale. Farmers are now hesitant to
follow commercial agricultural activities mainly due to
this problem. The family work force and the younger
generations are not very much interested in agricultural
activities and they shift to the cities and towns mainly
making it difficult for the interested farmers to pursue
their innovative agricultural practices.
Farmers Club
 The farmers mainly complain that the advice through
phones is not very productive. Sometimes, the farmers
fail to recognize the disease infestation on their crops. It
was better that the agricultural experts devoted some time
to personally survey their land on weekly or monthly
basis. This will ensure better results from their farming
practice.
RTBI provides a platform to the farmers of the villages to
express their thoughts and ideas every month once or twice
depending upon the need and farming season. The farmers
analyse their farming practice and difficulties they face with
the fellow farmers and the concerned agricultural experts.
 The whole-hearted initiative in the field of allied branches
of agriculture like poultry, horticulture, floriculture,
animal husbandry, fisheries and so on is not up to the
mark. The farmers are still ignorant about the benefits of
the allied sectors which are more remunerative and cost79
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
effective than the agriculture sector. RTBI should also
concentrate on the same so that the living standard and
per capita income of the farmers can be scaled up easily.
It will also encourage resource intensive farmers to
further develop these projects. It will also be able to
generate lot of employment opportunities, increasing
linkage to cities, creating partnerships among the farmers.
information pieces and this system can be rendered global
much in the way the librarians have been using globally
accepted classification schemes. Once available both new
and existing digital information pieces can be tagged and
the tagged materials can be located more easily and in a way
that is sensitive to the context and relationships. The IITKanpur team has built a baseline scheme for crops in
general and has codified it with the help of the FAO. The
GBPUAT and ICRISAT, both members of this consortium,
have developed tagging schemes for nine crops based on
institutional expertise. It uses a technology called Concept
Maps. They underlie the architecture of Agropedia and thus
enable any user to tag a piece of information with just few
clicks. It is possible for an editor to change/alter or tag
additionally. Once tagged, the information piece is located
by a search that looks at codified tags and not at the exact
content. The search thus is more at specific concept level
than at the non-specific word level.
 The Self-Help Groups (SHGs) should be diversified so as
to include all potential partners and stakeholders in
respective categories. The RTBI initiative in the case of
SHGs is only seen in the field of tailoring. The SHGs
should be further scaled-up to include other exciting areas
as well.
The Agropedia portal
Agropedia is a digital knowledge repository with the open
platform for learning and sharing information related to
Indian agriculture. The content is semantically catalogued
and easy to find. This agricultural encyclopaedia is being
designed as a sub project of the knowledge management
initiative of National Agricultural Innovation Project in
support of agricultural extension and outreach.
The application of semantic web techniques in this
endeavour is an international first. It is known that
agricultural content is scarce globally on the Web and the
very small scale occurrence of agricultural topics in the
famous Wikipedia in English is a good example: only about
3000 entries among almost 2 million entries there relate to
agriculture. With the availability of these new tools and
techniques, the makers of Agropedia believe that
agricultural community in education, research and extension
spheres, in both the private and the public sector, can make
lasting contributions. Multi-linguality is not a challenge in
Agropedia but adds to its richness. On a trial basis, the
Concept maps have been rendered into Hindi and Telugu
and more work along these lines is in progress. The open
access is a new feature of agropedia which is an online
agriculture depository containing conference papers, book
chapters, journal articles, full text books and miscellaneous
agricultural research documents which are searchable and
usable by any potential user with access to the internet. The
searching and achieving in open access is totally free for
any user. The agropedia has also come up with a new
initiative called as Virtual KVK (vKVK) which uses a
simple platform that provides facilities like sending SMS,
i.e., text messages and voice messages directly to the
productive and general category farmers for the services like
advisory, alert and private messages regarding new and
improved agricultural practices.
Main Features
The primary output is Agropedia (www.agropedia.net)
which was conceived and developed by a team of experts at
IIT-Kanpur. The Agropedia allows content contribution by
any member of the NARS institutions in India or even
abroad. It has built-in features and processes that enable
contributions to be reviewed or edited and released for
publication after a review process is complete. A group of
editors and contributors can manage the process of review
or validation from across many centres and locations. A
wide range of content can be considered and can include
multimedia elements such as audio, video or animations
besides text and images. Content in Agropedia can be
contributed in one of two streams: the Gyandhara is a
stream of content that is created, reviewed and published by
a community of Experts. Content in Gyandhara is certified.
The other stream is the Jangyan which allows practitioners
to place relevant and appropriate content in an interaction
space, without any certification by experts. In the parlance
of today’s KM, the Agropedia allows both explicit (expertsourced) and tacit (practice-based, more personal)
knowledge to be made available for browsing by all the
stakeholders.
System Architecture and Operations
At this stage, Agropedia focuses on content meant to
support extension processes although the technology
involved can support educational or research publication
processes as well. Standard online tools such as Wikis,
Blogs and Discussions Forum applications are available on
this platform. It is entirely in the Open Source domain. The
team at IIT-Kanpur has enabled the application of the new,
cutting-edge technology, called the Semantic Web, in this
effort. This technology, first conceived of by Tim BernersLee, the inventor of the World Wide Web, overcomes many
serious limitations on information discovery in today’s web.
It proposes a radical set of solutions that involve the
knowledge of subject matter specialists in various domains.
Such experts generate a codified system for tagging
This site provides the option for more specific search on a
specific agricultural topic. One can increase his knowledge
as well as can share his agricultural information with others.
'Extension Material' includes different types of content,
provided or thoroughly checked by the agricultural
scientists. Beside this, anyone can create content and share
his opinion and experiences through wiki, blogs, forum and
online chat. Facilities provided in this site are incorporated
by taking into account the requirement of different types of
users. Everyone can find and use his favourable way for
creation and sharing of agricultural knowledge as the
contents are provided through different form.
80
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
potential for local content creation. This chapter deals
with the goals set, features, current status and
recommendations for further enhancement of the project.
In a progressively shrinking global village, the only
barrier to widespread dispersal of knowledge is lack of
multilingual communication. A large section of the
society, particularly the rural populace, does not have
access to the huge knowledge base acquired through
scientific development through the centuries. There is
certainly an urgent need to establish a framework for
knowledge exchange between various communities &
cultures. aAQUA is an endeavour in this direction. The
goals of aAQUA are as following: - To create a
multilingual communication framework. To provide a
language independent knowledge database. To provide an
easy to use interface to accommodate even naive users.
To provide easy and fast access to reliable information
(both through artificial agents and Human Experts from
all over the world) It includes media like voice to text,
text to voice, videos, pictures, and images for non-literate
or semi-illiterate people.
Usage and Effects
The users are expected to be extension workers from
KVKs and NGOs, agricultural researchers, scientists,
experts, academic institutions, organizations, Agricultural
Research Stations (ARSs), advanced farmers, traders,
retailers, and self-help-group. Anyone with a keen interest
in agriculture can access this site, contribute towards it and
engage in healthy discussion. IITK works as the provider of
technical and architectural wherewithal to develop and host
the knowledge management platform, which is the
Agropedia. IITB and IIIT-Kerala provide specific
agricultural services through specific portlets in the
Agropedia user interface. The contents for Agropedia will
be provided by the GBPUAT, Pantnagar and UAS, Raichur.
They are also the implementing partners. The NAARM and
ICRISAT works as the support partners. ICRISAT is the
consortium leader and coordinator who work as a channel
for communication and overall impact assessment.
Some of the recommendations worth mentioning are
enumerated below.
Main Features
The farmers fail to find topics regarding immediate interest.
The website should contain SMS based application as well
so as to serve the farmers atleast from Uttar Pradesh and
adjoining regions so that they can get information regarding
the farming practice and latest practices on a time bound
and regular basis in a personalized way.
The key enabling features of the project is briefly
mentioned below: Use of Multimedia: The system is
designed to cater to the needs of rural users to express
themselves to each other as well as to the outer world.
The inability to articulate their thoughts using the input
devices commonly available is overcome by use of
images instead of text, building on their rich visual
vocabularies to communicate. Users are the consumers as
well as producers of the content: aAQUA eases the
creation of content i.e., text, images, short audio, video
and animations, thus helping the users move from being
passive consumers to active content creators. The
community has created more than 90% of the current
English, Hindi and Marathi content of aAQUA locally.
Assistance in creating content for aAQUA is provided by
the telecentre/kiosk operator. This takes the technology to
users who are unfamiliar to computers and often not
literate. They can now experience the Internet as well as
participate through it. This is a great motivating factor for
people as it showcases the benefits of using a computer in
their everyday lives. An end user can select the category
and the specific forum with which he/she wants to
interact, or from which hr/she wishes to view posts. The
user can choose an avatar, either from built-in avatars or
upload his/her own avatar (jpg/gif/png). This has been
observed to be a very popular feature with the
community.
1. The authenticity of the papers on Agropedia and Openagri
platform cannot be maintained. If some user wants to
quote it as a REFERENCESS than the exact details is not
usually available.
2. There is possibility for copyright violation as the files and
research findings get uploaded immediately without any
authentication. A proper system and code of conduct is
very necessary to make the users aware and restrict any
infringements.
3. The agrochat and agrowiki is a nice concept but the chat
function will be more productive if they arrange for
experts on different aspects at different slots of time so
that users actually become interested in the agricultural
scenario.
4. The users once registered should be asked to participate in
surveys and other feedback processes so as to judge the
working of the product and nature of the audience.
THE AQUA (ALMOST
ANSWERED) MODEL
ALL
QUESTIONS
aAQUA ('a'lmost 'A'll 'QU'estions 'A'nswered) is an
online expert Question & Answer based community
forum, developed by Media Labs Asia, KReSIT, IIT
Bombay, for delivering information to the grass roots. It
is an online, multilingual, multimedia, archived
discussion forum accessible using a web browser,
allowing members to create, view and manage content in
their mother tongue (Hindi, Marathi etc). aAQUA has
cyber extended the reach of experts at KVK, Baramati
and other partner institutions. It has demonstrated great
System Architecture and Operation
aAQUA has been in operation since the end of 2003.The
repository currently contains questions and answers in the
domain of crop and animal diseases and pertains to the
hamlet of villages around Pabal in Pune district. This
service is further being extended to the rural community
in the Rajgurunagar, Shirur and Haveli Talukas of Pune
district in Maharashtra state. As on June, 2010, aAQUA
had more than 99 threads under the crop diseases, animal
81
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
diseases and others forums consisting of more than
29,910 answered posts. The detailed analysis of aAQUA
usage is mentioned in the Table 3.2 and 3.3. The table 1.2
es
below shows the number of questions replied from
various
stat
Table 1.2: Table showing state and number of questions replied till date( as on 15 thJune,2010)
STATE
NUMBER OF QUESTIONS REPLIED
Maharashtra
7128
Karnataka
1421
Andhra Pradesh
682
Tamil Nadu
615
Uttar Pradesh
582
Uttrakhand
249
Gujarat
196
Madhya Pradesh
181
Not specified states
128
Kerala
124
SOURCE: aAQUA Story, aaqua.org/story.htm [Bahuman 2008]
Table 1.3: Table showing average monthly no. of threads, by section, by user and response times
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
March
April
May
a.Crop diseases
Number of threads
17
19
5
10
4
7
b.Animal diseases
2
2
3
1
2
0
c.Others
9
1
1
2
2
0
a.Field engineers
21
15
0
4
7
1
b.Kiosk operators
2
6
5
7
0
6
Posted by
c.Others
5
1
4
2
1
0
Avg.Response Time(in days)
56
22
32
9
8
2
Max.Response Time(in days)
145
110
85
70
19
4
Min.Response Time(in days)
31
4
8
20 Min.
3
2.5 Hrs.

KVK, Baramati is providing the expert consultation services with experts in the crop and animal diseases domains.
The following table shows the efficiency and work-out of
the system consisting of the average monthly number of
threads in terms of section, user and response times.
needs a solution very urgently. This implies that the
response time for aAQUA advice should be 12 hrs-1
business day. aAQUA is working hard in this line to
decrease the response time.
Usage and Effects
 Farmers who employ modern techniques of cultivation
generally seek information on these. They refer to
magazines like Krishi Udyog. Such information if
available on aAQUA would evoke interest in the farmers.
It will be implemented in the following years.
The experts at work in the Project are well aware of the
following factors which they hope to answer well in the
years to come. These are as follows:
 Media Labs Asia is working on a tool called agroexplorer, which will enable meaning-based searching of
aAQUA queries and content. In future, the farmer would
be able to search aAQUA or his problem before posting
his question on aAQUA. Another area where Media Labs
is putting efforts is enabling mobile wireless devices like
the Simputer and mobile phones to access aAQUA which
will enable connectivity on the go.
The following recommendations may be suggested for the
proper working and future growth.
 Further scaling up would need linking to a greater
number of experts from a variety of institutions like
agricultural colleges/ universities/ practitioners and so on.
It should be ready and take further concrete steps to
collaborate with other government and nongovernmental institutions.
 The current sources of information for farmers are
fertilizer/ pesticide shops, agricultural officers or other
farmers. When a farmer discovers a crop disease, it has
already spread to a part of the cultivation. Thus the farmer
 The efforts for content generation have to be increased.
One way is to put the local queries handled by KVK
82
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
 The experts at KVK feel that they are handicapped by
absence of knowledge of actual field conditions. If the
problems were supplemented by visuals, the expert
advice would be much more effective and relevant.
Problems should also detail parameters like approximate
temperature, humidity/ irrigation, area under infection
etc.
experts on aAQUA. Anyways the field engineer at
experts’ end is an underutilized resource which should be
used by providing proper training to him.
 Training the experts to use computers and digital cameras
etc themselves, thus reducing the dependence on field
engineer.
 A key success factor for aAQUA would be the motivation
of individual kiosk operators to run the service. This
implies having a commercial model for aAQUA.
CONCLUSION
Information technologies constitute one of the most
effective available ways of meeting basic human needs and
fulfilling fundamental human rights. Enhancing livelihoods
through ICTs is not as straightforward as merely installing
the technology, but it is not conceptually complex either.
Provided a few relatively simple principles can be followed,
it seems likely that widespread agricultural revolution and
improving livelihoods of farmers can be achieved with
ICTs. The main challenges are not actually in the
technology; they lie in the coordination of a disparate set of
local and national factors, each of which can spoil efforts if
not taken into account. If all the points can be integrated in a
holistic manner then it will result in a very efficient model
for the overall development of agriculture and progressive
extension through ICTs.
 The operationalization of the project should be on PanIndia basis where every farmer can have a say and may
benefit from the process. Custom-made solutions should
be provided making use of latest software so that better
answers are provided in a personalised way to the
farmers.
 There should be a strict check on users who advertise
their products on the ‘Ask Questions’ page. Such users
should be immediately terminated for saving the time and
interest of the genuine users.
 In some cases, the pesticide chemical to be used is given.
However, the name of commercially available pesticide
containing that chemical should be given. The solution
corresponds to a different stage in the farming cycle, for
e.g. which seed variety would be resistant to the pest is
given, while the solution to prevent infection is required.
REFERENCES
Bhatnagar,S.C and Patel,N.R., 1988,Decentralised Computing for Rural
Development,OMEGA,16(2),pp.165-70.
Roy,B., 1991. Rural Uplift:Grass without Roots,Times of India,February
23.
Bhatnagar,Subhash, 2000, Information Technology in Development:
Foundation and Key Issues,in, Bhatnagar and Schware,(ed.),
Information and Communication Technology in Development:Case
studies from India, Sage Publications,New Delhi,pp.17-31.
Sanwal,M., 1986. Computer Applications in District Administration,
Administrative Training Institute,Nainital.
Shubham,G, 2009. Study of ICT Projects in Rural Development and
Poverty Reduction,in,R.K Pandey(ed.)Proceeding of ICARD Seminar
2009.Excel India Publishers,New Delhi,pp.271.
DAC 2000. Policy Framework for Agricultural Extension, Extension
Division, Department of Agriculture and Co-operation (DAC),
Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi: Government of India(draft).
Sulaiman, V.R. and Jha, D., 2000. Determinants of demand for paid farm
extension services in India: A discriminant functions approach, AfroAsian J. of Rural Development 33 (2): 57–67.
Government of India, 1984, Planning Commission, Report of the Working
Group on District Planning, vol.I, May, New Delhi.
Sulaiman, V.R. and van den Ban, A.W., 2000. Reorienting Agricultural
Extension Curricula in India, J. of Agricultural Education and
Extension 7 (2): 69–78.
Meera,N.Shaik., 2008. ICTs in Agricultural Extension. Ganga Kaveri
Publishing House.Varanasi.
Ministry of Agriculture, 1987. Computerization of Rural Development
Information, Department of Rural Development,Ministry of
Agriculture,New Delhi.
Swaminathan, M.S., 1993. (ed.) Information technology: Reaching the
unreached. Chennai: Macmillan India.
Zijp, W., 1994. Improving the transfer and use of agricultural information
– a guide to Information Technology. Washington DC: World Bank.
83
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Study on calves management practices in tribal and non-tribal areas of Panchmahals district of
Gujarat
B S KHADDA*, KANAK LATA*, J K JADAV*, P KALASH** AND RAJ KUMAR**
*Krishi Vigyan Kendra Panchmahals, **Central Horticulture Experiment Station (CIAH), Vejalpur-Godhra, Gujarat, India.
[email protected].
ABSTRACT
Results of study with regard to calf management practices followed in tribal and non tribal cattle rears of Panchmahals
district revealed that the calves attended care were taken after parturition but the ligation cutting and disinfection of
navel cord and deworming practices followed by the farmers were very low and mostly farmers were feeding colostrum
to their newly born calf after removal of placenta, only few farmers followed this practice correctly and feed colostrum
within two hours of the birth. This may be due to lack of knowledge about scientific calf rearing and awareness how it is
important in future
Key wards: Calf management, colostrum, tribal and non-tribal, rear and disinfection
naval cord 6.67 and 11.67 per cent of tribal and non tribal
areas, respectively (Table-1). The low percentage of the
navel cord cutting and disinfection is mainly due to lack of
knowledge about scientific calf management practices. It
was found that 86.67% of tribal and 78.34% of non tribal
farmers were feeding colostrum to their newly born calves
after removal of placenta. Similar findings have been
reported by Dhiman et al (1990) in Hisar district and Sinha
et al (2010) in Bareilly district of Uttar Pradesh, Whereas
8.33 tribal and 13.33 non tribal farmers provide colostrum
within 2 to5 hrs of the birth and 5.00 and 8.33 per cent tribal
and non tribal farmers followed this practice appropriately,
where colostrums feeding was followed within 2 hrs. of the
birth. Similar result on colostrum feeding of cattle and
buffalo calves under rural, semi rural and urban areas were
also reported by Sinha et al (2010), Malik and Nagpal (1999)
reported that 40% farmers feed colostrum with in 2 hrs. of
birth, while 8.33% farmers provide it within 2 to 4 hrs after
birth and remaining 46.67% feed colostrum after separation
of placenta. Majority of the tribal (71.67%) and non tribal
(78.33%) farmers provide colostrum half quarter to the
newly born calf. These results are in agreement with the
findings (Dhiman et al 1999, Singh and Singh 2000 and
Deoras et al 2004). With aspect to quantity of milk left for
calf, the present study indicated that most of the farmers of
tribal 76.67% and non tribal 90% left some milk in all
quarters for their calf. These observations are in consonance
with the finding reported by Dhiman et al (1999), Singh and
Singh (2000) and Deoras et al (2004), which clearly
indicated that farmers had awareness about the nutritional
values of the milk and colostrums required for newly born
calf. All the farmers of this region adopted suckling method
of calf rearing, whereas not a single farmer practiced
weaning system of calf rearing, which is scientific method of
calf management. Generally most of the farmers allowed to
calves for suckling both time (before and after milking).
Parasitic problems are causes for the mortality in calves.
Colostrum feeding to the newly born calf is very
essential to provides nutrients to the newly born calf and
immunity to against various diseases in his early phase of
life. The calves are the future of dairy hard and they should
be reared under scientific management practices, but
unfortunately calf management is neglected part in this area.
Keeping these views in background, attempts were made to
examine time and quantity of colostrums feeding and its
methods of calf rearing in Tribal and Non-Tribal areas of
Panchmahals District of Gujarat.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present study was undertaken in Panchmahals
District of Gujarat state. The agriculture land is rain fed and
Livestock husbandry is one of the important sources of
livelihood of the tribal people. For data collection, four tehsil
from the district, therefore two tehsil (Goghamba and
Jambughoda) represent tribal group remaining two tehsil
(Godhra and Kalol) non tribal were selected for study. Six
village from the each selected tehsil and five cattle and
buffalo rearing families from each village were selected
randomly. Thus the data for study were collected from a total
of 120 household (60 from each group by adopting the
proportionate random sampling method (PRSM)). The
desired information, on calf management practices were
collected to cattle and buffalo rearers by administrating
developed questionnaires and also by direct observation in
the farmers’ flocks. The collected data were subjected to
basic statistical analysis as per Snedecor and Cochran
(1989).
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The finding regarding calf rearing practices indicated that the
all farmers from Tribal and Non-Tribal areas attended
calving and takes care of the calves after parturition. The
farmers practiced legation cutting and disinfection of the
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Table: 1 Calves management practice followed by households (n=120)
Particulars
Tribal Area
Non Tribal Area
To attend calving/Parturition
a. Yes
b. No
60(100)
-
60(100)
-
Time of colostrums feeding
a. With in 2 hours
b. 2-5 hours
c. After removal the placenta
3(5)
5(8.33)
52(86.67)
5(8.33)
8(13.33)
47(78.34)
Quantity of colostrums
a. One Quater
b. Half quater
17(28.33)
43(71.67)
13(21.67)
47(78.33)
Cutting of naval cord
a. Followed
b. Not followed
4(6.67)
56(93.33)
7(1167)
53(88.33)
Quantity of milk left for calf
a. One Quater
b. Some milk in all quaters
14(23.33)
46(76.67)
6(10)
54(90)
System of calf rearing
a. Suckling
b. weaning
60(100)
-
60(100)
-
Regular deworming of calf
a. Practices
b. Not Practices
6(10)
54(90)
16(26.67)
44(73.33)
Use of ectoparasiticides
a. Practices
b. Not Practices
22(36.66)
38(63.33)
34(56.67)
26(43.33)
Dehorning/disbudding practices
a. Yes
b. No
60(100)
60(100)
Identification of calf
a. Practices
b. Not Practices
60(100)
60(100)
Figures in Parenthesis indicate Percentage
In general deworming practices were not followed
in this region, because only 10.00 and 26.67 per cent farmers
adopted this practice in tribal and non tribal areas of
Panchmahals District of Gujarat respectively. These results
are in consonance with the findings reported by Honda and
Gill (1986) in other hand Deoras et al (2004) reported that
none of the farmers in rural areas adopted these practices
while urban areas 12% farmers followed this practice.
Application of ectoparasiticides by the dairy farmers in tribal
and nontribal areas were recorded 36.67% and 56.67%
respectively, mostly farmers in tribal areas used their own
ITK (Tobacco mixed with mustard oil). None of the farmers
in both tribal and non tribal areas of these belts had any
knowledge about dehorning/ disbudding during first few
days of birth, whereas Honda and Gill (1986) reported that
43% of the farmers practices dehorning in Ludhiana District
of Punjab it may be due to lack of knowledge regarding the
importance of dehorning/disbudding among the farmers.
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
REFERENCES
Deoras Rajiv, Nema, R.K and Mishra, U.K 2004.
Management Practices of Calves in Rajnandagaon
District of Chhattisgarh Plain. Indian J. of Animal
Sciences 74(1): 91-93.
Singh and Singh 1999. Effect of Socio economic variable
on Management of milking practices under different
framing system. Indian J. of Animal Production and
Management 15(1):31-32
Dhiman, P.C., Singh Narendra and Yadav, B.L. 1990. a
study of dairy cattle and buffalo management practices
in adopted and non-adopted village of Hisar district.
Indian J. of Animal Production and Management
6(2):84-89
Sinha, R.R.K, Triveni Dutt, Bharat Bhushan Singh, R.R,
Singh, M.and Kumar Sanjay 2010. Comparative
studies of calf rearing and milking management
practices in rural, semi-urban and urban areas of Bareli
district of Uttar Pradesh. Indian J. of Animal Sciences
80(5):483-485
Malik, D.S.and Nagpal, P.K. 1999. Studies on milking and
calf rearing management practices of Murrah buffaloes in
its home tract of Haryana. Indian J. of Animal
Production and Management 15(2):52-54
Snedecor, G.W.and Cochran, W.G 1989. Statistical
methods, 8th edn. IOWA state university press, Ames
IOWA
PP.503
86
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Short Communication
Training needs of dairy farming women and constraints faced by rural women:
A case study of Gujarat
J B KATHIRIYA, M B VIADIYA AND N D POLARA
KVK, Main Dry Farming Research Station, Junagadh Agricultural University, Targhadia, Rajkot-360 003 Gujarat, India.
Dairy farming is one of the important agro based
industries for solving the problems of employment and rural
poverty. Management of Livestock and milk production has
been one of the sectors in India where female work force
participation is high. Rural women perform a large part of the
work relating to maintenance of livestock, milk production and
milk processing. Milk production has been single major activity
to provide the income and employment throughout the year to
rural households. In order to increase the efficiency of Indian
rural women, training in dairy practices is very necessary. It is
the function of helping other to acquire and apply knowledge,
skill abilities and attitudes which they do not possess but which
are needed. It brings continuous improvement in the quality of
work performed by the individuals. It is therefore necessary to
investigate the areas of training needs of rural women in animal
husbandry practices and difficulties faced by them while
performing those activities. The investigation was therefore
carried out with the following objectives.
women expressed training were animal health and disease
control precautions (92.00 per cent), animal milk production
(88.00 per cent), animal hygiene and management (85.33 per
cent), common diseases of milking animals (83.33 per cent)
such as vaccination schedule and preparation of silage. These
training needs were highly technical and scientific. These are
generally looked after by the males, even then, as the
involvement in animal husbandry practices of women folk is
more, they feel these training needs essential to meet the
problems. Similar findings were also reported by Nikhade et al.
(2005).It was found that more than seventy per cent respondents
required training in the areas of feeding of live stock during
pregnancy, treatment of roughages, preparation of silage,
preparation of balanced diet and Importance of record keeping.
Similar findings were also reported by Sheela et al. (1993).
Above forty per cent respondents noted that they needed
training in the areas of preparation of hay, animal breeding and
care, using chaff cutter for cutting fodder, feeding and care of
newly born calves, production of good quality fodder and
feeding and care of improved breed and buffaloes(Singh et al.,
2005).
Objectives:
To study the areas of training needs of dairy practicing women.
Difficulties faced by rural women in performance of animal
husbandry practices
For effective role performance the rural women had to
face many problems. Their main problems are grouped in Table
2. The Table 2 indicates that more than eighty per cent
respondents had the economic problems of high cost of animal
feed, high cost of byre construction, high cost of milch animals
and high rate of labour charges.Above seventy per cent
respondents had difficulties in getting medical aids, getting pure
breed of animals and cost of available cattle is very high. More
than seventy per cent respondents had lack of technical
knowledge about feed fodder and health management, lack of
knowledge about silage preparation, lack of infrastructure
facilities in the village, lack of artificial insemination facilities
at village level and lack of medicinal facilities in the villages.
The data showed that non-availability of quality fodder is very
crucial in livestock production. Most of the time dry fodder, low
in energy and protein, is available for feeding of animals. Poor
quality fodder was reported by 70.00 per cent respondents as a
factor responsible for lower milk, wool and meat production.
Reddy and Subramanium (2002) observed that the deficiency of
protein in ration at village level is the main factor responsible
for lower milk yield.The findings of the study clearly indicate
that the training is essential for less educated women those who
are in the profile of low income, small land holding and less
participation in different social organization.
To study the difficulties faced by the rural women in
performance of animal husbandry practices.
METERIAL AND METHODS
The study was conducted in three tehsils (Padadhari,
Rajkot and Wankaner) of Rajkot district of the Gujarat state.
The tehsils were selected on the basis of maximum milk supply
in liters / day. Out of three tehsils, 15 Villages which supply
milk above 100 litters were purposively selected and from these
selected villages 150 farmers engaged in dairy business were
randomly selected. The house wife of farmer was considered as
respondent for the study. Thus 150 women were selected as
respondents for the study. The responses were obtained on three
point continuum namely most needed, some what needed and
not needed. The score was assigned 3, 2 and 1 respectively. The
data were collected by personal interview method.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Training needs of rural women in animal husbandry
practices
The training needs of rural women in various animal
husbandry practices were categorized in Table-1. Training
needs are arranged as per the rank of the need regarding
practices.It was seen from the Table 1 that the areas where rural
87
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Table 1 : Distribution of the respondents according to their training needs ( n=150 )
Animal husbandry practices
Animal health and disease control precautions
Animal milk production
Animal hygiene and management
Common diseases of milking animals
Feeding of Live stock during pregnancy
Treatment of roughages
Preparation of Silage
Preparation of balanced diet
Importance of record keeping
Preparation of Hay
Animal breeding and care
Using chaff cutter for cutting fodder
Production of good quality fodder
Feeding and care of newly born calves
Feeding and care of improved breed of buffaloes
Animal care and management
Feeding of Animals
Preparation of milk products
Milk selling
Milk marketing
Most needed
138 (92.00)
132 (88.0)
128 (85.33)
125 (83.33)
118 (78.67)
115 (76.67)
112 (74.67)
110 (73.33)
111 (74.00)
102 (68.00)
94 (62.67)
86 (57.33)
75 (50.00)
73 (48.67)
67 (44.67)
59 (39.33)
47 (31.33)
42 (28.00)
33 (22.00)
28 (18.67)
Training needs
Needed
10 (6.67)
15 (10.00)
22 (14.67)
20 (13.33)
25 (16.67)
22 (14.67)
28 (18.67)
30 (20.00)
20 (13.33)
38 (25.33)
40 (26.67)
45 (30.00)
35 (23.33)
42 (28.00)
38 (25.33)
35 (23.33)
39 (26.00)
33 (22.00)
28 (18.67)
22 (14.67)
Not Needed
2 (1.33)
3 (2.00)
0 (0.00)
5 (3.33)
7 (4.67)
13 (8.67)
10 (6.67)
10 (6.67)
19 (12.67)
10 (6.67)
16 (10.67)
19 (12.67)
40 (26.67)
35 (23.33)
45 (30.00)
56 (37.33)
64 (42.67)
75 (50.00)
89 (59.33)
100 (66.67)
Most needed
2.76
2.64
2.56
2.5
2.36
2.30
2.24
2.20
2.22
2.04
1.88
1.72
1.5
1.46
1.34
1.18
0.94
0.84
0.66
0.56
Average
Needed
0.13
0.20
0.29
0.27
0.33
0.29
0.37
0.40
0.27
0.51
0.53
0.60
0.47
0.56
0.51
0.47
0.52
0.44
0.37
0.29
Rank
Not Needed
0.01
0.02
0.00
0.03
0.05
0.09
0.07
0.07
0.13
0.07
0.11
0.13
0.27
0.23
0.30
0.37
0.43
0.50
0.59
0.67
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
XVI
XVII
XVIII
XIX
XX
Table 2 : Distribution of the respondents according to the difficulties faced in role performance
Problems faced by the respondents
A.
Number
Percentage
132
142
125
89
128
88.00
94.67
83.33
59.33
85.33
120
135
105
105
80.00
90.00
70.00
70.00
Cost of preparation of milk products is high
75
69
98
70
50.00
46.00
65.33
46.67
Lack of awareness about scientific knowledge of dairy management
Lack of knowledge about silage preparation
Lack of technical knowledge about feed fodder and health management
Lack of artificial insemination facilities at village level
Lack of medicinal facilities in the village
Lack of infrastructure facilities in the villages
Lack of interest in animal keeping
110
120
139
112
118
120
65
73.33
80.00
92.67
74.67
78.67
80.00
43.33
Economic Problems
High cost of milch animals
High cost of animal feed
High rate of labour charges
High rate of interest on loan
High cost of byre construction
B.
Supply Problems
C.
Difficulty in getting pure breed of animals
Difficulty in getting medical aids
Cost of available cattle is very high
Non-availability of quality fodder
Marketing Problems
Unavailability of cold storage
Lack of transportation facilities from village to
Co-operative
society
Less
price of milk
D.
Other Problems
REFERENCES
Antwal P. N. 1984. A study of the training needs of rural women. M.Sc.
Thesis, M.A.U. Parbhani.
Reddy, R.M. and Subramaniyam, S. 2002. Factors affecting
productivity gaps in dairy farming. Agricultural Situation in India
59: 3-8
Dinesh Kumar and A. K. Singh 1983. Role of women in rural economy.
Kurukshetra, 31(7):13-14
Sheela B. and B. Sundara Swamy 1993. Training needs of dairy
practicing women. Maha. J. of Extn. Edu. 12:345-345
Nikhade D. M. and Patki A. 2005. Training needs of rural women and
difficulties encountered in performance of animal husbandry
practices. International. J. Extn. Edu. 1:77-82
Singh, B., Mondal B.C., Yadav N.D. and Beniwal R.K. 2005.
Technological constraints in mixed farming system in bikaner
district of Rajasthan:A case study. Annals of arid zone 44(1): 105108
88
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
Short Communication
Organic farming – Its relevance to the Thar
P PAGARIA, SHOBHANA GUPTA AND R A PAREEK,
Krishi Vigyan Kendra (SURE), Barmer, Rajasthan, India.
Email: [email protected]
Green revolution technologies involving greater use
of synthetic agrochemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides
with adoption of nutrient responsive, high yielding varieties
of crops have boosted the production output per hectare in
most cases. However, this increase in production has slowed
down and in some cases there are indications of decline in
productivity and production. Moreover, the success of
industrial agriculture and the green revolution in recent
decades has often masked significant externalities, affecting
natural resources and human health as well as agriculture
itself. Increasing consciousness about conservation of
environment as well as of health hazards caused by
agrochemicals has brought a major shift in consumer
pREFERENCESS towards food quality, particularly in the
developed countries. Global consumers are increasingly
looking forward to organic food that is considered safe and
hazard free. The global market for organic agriculture as a
holistic food production management system, which
promotes and enhances agro ecosystem health, including
biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. It
emphasizes the use of management practices in
pREFERENCESS to the use of off farm inputs, taking into
account that regional conditions require locally adapted
systems. This is accomplished by using, where possible,
agronomic, biological and mechanical methods, as opposed
to using synthetic materials, to fulfil any specific function
within the system.
is available in the Barmer district every year, but most of it is
not properly used. This implies a theoretical availability of 5
tonnes of organic manure/hectare arable land/year, which is
equivalent to about 100 kg NPK/ha/Yr (Chhonkar, P. K.,
2003). However, in reality, only a fraction of this is available
for actual field application. There are several alternatives for
supply of soil nutrients from organic sources like
Vermicompost, bio fertilizers etc. Technologies have been
developed to produce large quantities of nutrient rich
manure/compost. There is no doubt that organic agriculture
is in many ways a preferable pattern for developing
agriculture, especially in Thar areas.
Nutrient management in organic agriculture
Organic farming systems rely on the management
of soil organic matter to enhance the chemical, biological
and physical properties of the soil. One of the basic
principles of soil fertility management in organic systems is
that plant nutrition depends on “biologically derived
nutrients” instead of using readily soluble forms of nutrients;
less available forms of nutrients such as those in bulky
organic materials are used. This requires release of nutrients
to the plant via the activity of soil microbes and soil animals.
Improved soil biological activity is also known to play a key
role in suppressing weeds, pests and diseases (Katyal, J. C.
and Tandon, H. L. S.). Animal dung, crop residues, green
manure, bio fertilizers and bio-solids from agro-industries
and food processing wastes are some of the potential sources
of nutrients of organic agriculture. While animal dung has
competitive uses as fuel, it is extensively used in the form of
farm yard manure. Development of several compost
production
technologies
like
vermicomposting,
phosphocomposting, N-enriched phosphocomposting etc.
improves the quality of composts through enrichment with
nutrient bearing minerals and other additives. These manures
have the capacity to fulfill nutrient demand of crops
adequately and promote the activity of beneficial macro-and
micro-flora in the soil (Progress Report, IISS).
Organic agriculture: Its relevance to Thar
Farming Only 11 per cent of Barmer district total
cultivable area is covered with fertilizers where irrigation
facilities are available and in the remaining 89 per cent of arable
land, which is mainly rain fed, negligible amount of fertilizers is
being used. Farmers in these areas often use organic manure as
a source of nutrients that are readily available either in their
own farm or in their locality. The major portion of Barmer
district provides considerable opportunity for organic farming
due to least utilization of chemicals inputs. It is estimated that
1587113 hectare of such land is available for organic
production. The report of Task Force on Organic Farming
appointed by the Government of India also observed that in
major potion, where limited amount of chemicals is used and
have low productivity, could be exploited as potential areas for
organic agriculture. Arresting the decline of soil organic matter
is the most potent weapon in fighting against unabated soil
degradation and imperiled sustainability of agriculture Thar
regions, particularly these under the influence of arid climate.
Application of organic manure is the only option to improve the
soil organic carbon for sustenance of soil quality and future
agricultural productivity (Report on Task Force on Organic
Farming, 2001). It is estimated that mts of agricultural waste
Environmental benefits of organic farming
The impact of organic agriculture on natural
resources favors interactions within the agro ecosystem that
is vital for both agricultural production and nature
conservation. Ecological services derived include soil
forming and conditioning, soil stabilization, waste recycling,
carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling, predation, pollination
and habitats. The environmental costs of conventional
agriculture are substantial and the evidence for significant
environmental amelioration via conversion to organic
agriculture is over whelming (FAO, 2003).
89
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
organic wastes. However, it is not possible to meet the
nutrient requirements of crops entirely from organic sources,
if 100% cultivable land is converted to organic agriculture.
Organic agriculture systems can deliver agronomic and
environmental benefits both through structural changes and
tactical management of farming systems. The benefits of
organic farming are relevant both to developed nations
(environmental protection, biodiversity enhancement,
reduced energy use and CO2 emission) and to developing
countries like India (sustainable resource use, increased crop
yields without over-reliance on costly external inputs,
environment and biodiversity protection etc.). Organic foods
are proved superior in terms of health and safety, but there is
no scientific evidence to prove their superiority in terms of
taste and nutrition, as most of the studies are often
inconclusive. In organic farming systems, pest and disease
management strategies are largely preventive rather than
reactive. In general, pest and disease incidence is less severe
in organic farms compared to conventional farms.
Pest and disease management in organic agriculture
Pest control in organic farming begins by making
sensible choices, such as growing crops that are naturally
resistant to diseases and pests, or choosing sowing times that
prevent pest and disease outbreaks. Careful management in
both time and space of planting not only prevents pests, but
also increases population of natural predators that can
contribute to the control of insects, disease and weeds. Other
methods generally employed for the management of pests
and diseases are: improving soil health to resist soil
pathogens and promote plant growth: rotating crops;
encouraging natural biological agents for control of diseases,
insects and weeds; using physical barriers for protection
from insects, birds and animals; modifying habitat to
encourage pollinators and natural enemies of pests; and
using semi-chemicals such as pheromone attractants and trap
pests (IFOAM and Eximbank report, 2002). Organic manure
is an alternative renewable source of nutrient supply. A large
exists between the available potential and utilization of
REFERENCES
Subba Rao, I. V., Soil and environmental pollution, 1999. A threat to
sustainable agriculture. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 1999, 47, 611-633.
All India Coordinated Research Project on Microbiological
Decomposition and Recycling of Farm and city wastes. Progress
Report, Indian Institute of Soil Science, Bhopal, India, p. 85.
Chhonkar, P. K. Organic farming: Science and belief. R.V. Tamhane,
2005. Memorial lecture delivered at the 68 th Annual Convention
of the Indian Society of Soil Science, CSAU&T, Kanpur, 5
November 2005.
International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements, 2002.
IFOAM Basic standards for Organic Production and processing,
IFOAM.
FAO, Organic Agriculture and the Environment. 2003. Food and
Agricultural Organization, Rome, 2003.
90
Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
DECLARATION
Form IV
(See Rule 8)
Statement about ownership and other particular of Journal of Progressive Agriculture
Place of publication
:
Ajmer, Rajasthan, India
Periodicity of publication
:
Half Yearly
Printer’s Name
:
Gopal Printing Press, Ajmer.
Nationality
:
Indian
Address
:
M/S Gopal Printing Press,
Kesar Ganj, Ajmer (Raj.)
Publisher’s name
:
Address
:
Sh. Ram Singh Bhati
President of Samaj Kalyan Avam Samannvit Vikas Sanstha,
Ajmer (Rajasthan)
316/A, Christian Ganj, Ajmer (Raj.) India
Editor’s name
:
Dr. D.S. Bhati
Secretary of Samaj Kalyan Avam Samannvit Vikas Sanstha,
Ajmer (Rajasthan)
Nationality
:
Indian
Address
:
316/A, Christian Ganj, Ajmer (Raj.) India
Name and address of individual who own
the newspapers/journal partners and
shareholders holding more than 1% of the
total capital
Samaj Kalyan Avam Samannvit Vikas Sanstha, Ajmer
(Rajasthan) India
.
I, Ram Singh Bhati, publisher, printer and owner of this journal hereby declare that particular given are
true to the best of my knowledge and belief.
Sd/Dated: 18th Oct. 2010
(Ram Singh Bhati)
Dddd1
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Journal of Progressive Agriculture, Vol.1, No. 1: October 2010
92