LS~
1 E Lo
DON SCHOOL
o ECONIOMIC AIND
POILI ICAL S(I C
The Role-Set: Problems in Sociological Theory
Author(s): Robert K. Merton
Reviewed work(s):
Source: The British Journal of Sociology, Vol. 8, No. 2 (Jun., 1957), pp. 106-120
Published by: Wiley on behalf of The London School of Economics and Political Science
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/587363 .
Accessed: 25/02/2013 14:13
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].
.
Wiley and The London School of Economics and Political Science are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize,
preserve and extend access to The British Journal of Sociology.
http://www.jstor.org
This content downloaded on Mon, 25 Feb 2013 14:13:58 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
THE ROLE-SET:
ROLE-SET: PROBLEMS
PROBLEMS IN
IN
THE
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY
THEORY
SOCIOLOGICAL
Robert K.
K. Merton
Merton
Robert
journaldevoted
tIle first
first American
Alnericanjournal
devoted
N THE FIRST VOLUME of tlle
sociology, the
the role
role proper
proper to
to the
the sociologist
sociologist
entirely to
to the
the subject
subject of sociology,
entirely
was described
described in these
these forthright
forthright terms:
terms: 'Social
'Social theorists
theorists need
need be
be
zwas
meek men,
men, and
and should
should stand
stand with
with head
head uncovered
uncovered before
before the
the special
special
meek
workingthe
gifts and
and sernces
services of the
the men
men of genius
genius who
who are
are working
the latter-day
latter-day
gifts
A
I895.
and commerce.'l
commerce.' 1 This
This was
was announced
announced in 1895.
miracles of industry
industryand
miracles
few years
years later,
later, ltmile
Emile Durkheim,
Durkheim, who
who by
by all
all accounts
accounts ssas
\vas not
not apt
apt to
to
few
all
least of all
anyone,least
take up
up this
this diffident
diffident and
and admiring
admiring position
position before
before anyone,
take
only
'bornonly
that sociology
was 'born
businessmen, was
was reminding
reminding his
his readers
readers that
sociologywas
businessmen,
possible
waspossible
I900,
yesterday', indeed,
it was
before1900,
yearsbefore
the fifteen
fifteenyears
'in the
that 'in
indeed,that
yesterday',
namesof
the names
properly the
to mention
mention only
ten names
names which
which were
were truly
and properly
trulyand
only ten
to
I
r
sociologists'.
I
soaologists'.2
Since
suppose
cansuppose
etecan
earth,,ve
tlleearth,
inlleritedthe
notinllerited
plainlynot
haveplainly
sociologistshave
Sincesociologists
that
remain
to remain
unableto
been unable
also been
have also
DurkheimIlave
afterDurkheim
came after
who came
thosewho
that those
meek-mannered
men.
ofscanty
conditionofscanty
thecondition
thatthe
is plain
plainthat
event,it is
anyevent,
In any
men.In
meek-mannered
halfspaceof aa halfnumbers
shortspace
theshort
in the
changed,in
greatlychanged,
hasgreatly
of sociologistshas
numbersofsociologists
century.
by
and by
Europeand
in Europe
by hundreds
hundredsin
numberedby
now numbered
areno,,,
Sociologistsare
century.Sociologists
thousands
some
that some
incidentally,that
(I understand,
understand,incidentally,
States.(I
UnitedStates.
in the
the United
thousandsin
have
Englishmen,
sociology,have
professionof sociology,
tlle profession
withoutthe
and without
withinand
bothwithin
Englishmen,both
been
at
may at
Althoughit may
far'.) Although
by far'.)
thousands,by
manythousands,
'too many
say, 'too
to say,
heardto
been heard
ratio,
first
in geometrical
geometricalratio,
growingin
beengrowing
have been
numbershave
thesenumbers
that these
seemthat
firstseem
and
Supplenzellt
continues
Malthusian
urgeMalthusian
to urge
continuesto
Supplentent
Literary
TimesLiterary
the Times
althoughthe
andalthough
of
sociologists,
checks
upon
this
overly-abundant
population
factisis
the fact
population sociologists,the
checksupon this overly-abundant
lshich
that
there
are
cl~arly
far
too
few
to
do
the
numerous
jobs
,vhich
jobs
that there are clearly far too few to do the numerous
sociology,
defaultof
by default
partly by
and partly
commitmentand
by theoretic
theoreiiccommitment
partly by
sociology,partly
other
disciplines,
now
includes
"rithin
its
province.
There
have
been
been
have
There
province.
its
other disciplines,now includesutithin
advances
ofsociological
kno,vledge,
of
course,
but
these
have
been
sparse
sparse
been
have
but
these
course,
advancesof sociologicalknowledge,
the
and
along the
placesalong
few places
at aa fe''''
depth at
relativedepth
in relative
proceedingin
uneven,proceeding
and uneven,
front,
discipline
of ourdiscipline
historianofour
Thehistorian
others.The
manyothers.
at many
thinat
remainingthin
butremaining
front,but
should
indeed
are indeed
There are
comparatively.There
numberscomparatively.
matterof numbers
this matter
see this
shouldsee
about
large
rery large
States,aa very
United States,
the United
in the
sociologistsin
thousandsociologists
four thousand
about four
number,
butaa
ago, but
tuo ago,
or t,vo
generationor
of aa generation
withthose
thoseof
comparedwith
whencompared
number,when
106
I06
This content downloaded on Mon, 25 Feb 2013 14:13:58 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
THE
THE ROLE-SET
ROLE-SET
very small
very
small number
number when
when compared
comparedwith
with the
the 80,000
80,ooo chemists,
chemists,the
the
60,000
physicists, and
the 20,000
psychologists. II do
60,ooophysicists,
and even
even the
20,000 psychologists.
do not
not intend
intendto
to
emphasize
numbers above
but as
been remarked
emphasizenumbers
above all,
all, but
as has
has been
remarkedof other
other
disciplines,
disciplines,it requires
requiresmany
many thousands
thousandsof men
men working
workingmethodically
methodically
with improved
improved methods
methods for
with
for aa lifetime,
lifetime,if knowledge
knowledgein a discipline
disciplineis
is to
to
3
accumulate
accumulate rapidly,
rapidly, rather
rather than
than slowly
slowlyand
and imperceptibly.
imperceptibly.3
As the
the numbers
numbers of sociologists
have increased,
become, in
As
sociologistshave
increased,they
they have
have become,
accordwith
with the
accord
the Spencerian
thesis, more
Spencerianthesis,
moredifferentiated.
differentiated.It is
is now
now pospossible
to identify
thirty to
prime specialization
sible to
identifysome
some thirty
to forty
forty fields
fields of prime
specializationin
in
sociology,
and· it must
must be
be supposed
that this
will
sociology,andsupposedthat
this differentiation
diffierentiation
unll concontinue. Even
Even in the
the unlikely
unlikely circumstance
circumstance that
that self-selection
should
result
tinue.
self-selection
shouldresult
an even
distribution among
these specialities,
in an
even distribution
among these
specialities,there
there would
would still
still be,
be,
even
the large
large number
number of American
American sociologists,
even among
amongthe
sociologists,an
an average
averageof
only one
one hundred
hundred to
to work
work each
teach the
the myriads
only
eachfield-to
field to teach
mpads of students
students
who seek
seek some
some understanding
understanding of the
the social
world they
they never
never made,
to
who
socialworld
made, to
advance
advance knowledge
knowledge through
through disciplined
disciplinedinquiry,
inquiry,to
to relate
relatewhat
what knowknowledge we
we have
have to
to problems
problems ofsocial
policy, and
to withstand
withstand the
ledge
of socialpolicy,
and to
the assaults
assaults
upon
upon sociology
sociology ^srhich
\vhich are
are periodically
periodically mounted
mounted by
by intelligent,
intelligent,anxious
anxious
and
and sometimes
sometimes uninformed
uninformed laymen.
laymen. In the
the aggregate,
aggregate,and
and contrasted
contrasted
with what
what has
has gone
gone before,
before, the
the proliferation
proliferation of sociologists
with
sociologistsand
and sociosociological
logical specialities
specialities may
may seem
relation to
to the
the
seem excessive;
excessive;functionally,
functionally,in relation
work
work that
that needs
needs to
to be
be done,
done, the
the field
fieldof sociology
sociologyis
is still
stillsparsely
sparselysettled
settled
and undermanned.
undermanned.
and
Just
Just as
as sociology
sociology has
has experienced
experienced changes
changes in numbers
numbers of personnel,
personnel,
so it has
has experienced
experienced changes
changes in the
the foci
and the
the methods
methods of inquiry.
so
foci and
inquiry.
These
These changes
changes are
are registered
registered in the
the changing
changing spectrum
spectrumof sociological
sociological
theory.
theory. One
One of the
the principal
principal changes
changes has
has been
been in the
the character
character of the
the
tasks which
which socioloFcal
sociological theorists
theorists set
themselves. With
With aa few
few prominent
prominent
tasks
set themselves.
exceptions,
exceptions, such
such as
as Sorokin
and (though
he might
might disown
disown the
the characterSorokinand
(thoughhe
characterization)
ization) Toynbee,
Toynbee, sociologists
sociologists no
no longer
longer follow
follow in the
the spacious
spacious footsteps
footsteps
Comte, Marx,
Marx, or
or Spencer
Spencer who,
who, each
each in his
his own
own way,
way, tried
tried to
to work
work
of a Comte,
out
out an
an historical
historical sociology
sociology which
which would
would put
put the
the entire
entire course
course of human
human
society into
into single
single perspective.
society
perspective.
For
For better
better or
or for
for worse,
worse, and
and this
this has
has surely
surely meant
meant that
that great
great historical
historical
erudinon
erudition has
has become
become almost
almost vestipal
vestigial among
among sociologists,
sociolopts, sociological
sociological
theory
theory is no
no longer
longer focussed
focussed on
on setting
setting out
out the
the historical
historical panorama
panorama of
human
human society
society in a series
series of cycles,
cycles, phases,
phases, or
or stages.4
stages.'
Durkheim,
Durkheim, who
who must
must share
share uith
with Weber
Weber the
the biologically
biologically improbable
improbable
but
but historically
historically possible
possible responsibility
responsibility of fathering
modem sociology,
fatheringmodern
sociology,
took
took a quite
quite different
different tack
tack and
and adopted
adopted a quite
quite different
different theoretical
theoretical
commitment.
commitment. Rather
Rather than
than trying
trying to
to reconstruct
reconstruct and
and to
to forecast
forecast the
the
historical
human society,
society, he
he developed
developed analyiical
analytical ideas
ideas
historical patterns
patterns of human
designed
designed to provide
provide broad
broad theoretical
theoretical underpinnings
underpinnings for
for the
the discipline
discipline
and
and tried
tried to
to sharpen
sharpen these
these ideas
ideas through
through a series
series of empirical
empirical monomonographs.
graphs. His
His pre-eminent
pre-eminent contribution
contribution was
was to
to clarify
clarify the
the functions
functions of
10
I077
This content downloaded on Mon, 25 Feb 2013 14:13:58 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
ROBERT
ROBERT K. MERTON
MERTON
social norms,
social
norms, and
and their
their relations
relations to
to distinct
distinctkinds
kindsof social
social structure.
structure.
Unlike
Unlike Durkheim,
Durkheim, Weber
Weber drew
drew upon
upon aa breadth
breadth of historical
historicalknowledge
knowledge
almostincomparable
almost
incomparable in his
his day,
day, but
but he
he too
too aimed
aimed to
to develop
widedevelopaa wideranging
analysisof the
ranging systematic
systematic theory
theory centred
centred largely
largely on
on the
the analysis
the relations
relations
of value-systems
value-systems to
to the
the organization
organization of material
material resources
resources and
and other
other
parts
parts of the
the social
social structure.
structure.
Today,
say, the
Today, I think
think it fair
fair to
to say,
the work
work of Talcott
Talcott Parsons
Parsons represents
represents
the
the one
one major
major effort
effort to
to develop
develop a comprehensive
comprehensive sociological
theory.
sociologicaltheory.
This
This aims
aims to
to state
state the
the fundamental
fundamental variables
variables of social
social systems,
rather
systems,rather
than
than to furnish
furnish substantive
substantive solutions,
solutions, all
all proceeding
proceeding from
from the
the head
head of
one
one man,
man, to the
the numerous
numerous problems
problems phrased
phrased in terms
terms of these
these variables.
variables.
A general
general theory,
theory, such
such as
as this
this one,
one, is
is intended
intended to
to locate
locate other
other sociological
sociological
theories
theories as
as special
special cases;
cases; it must
must therefore
therefore include
include vanables
variables of a high
high
order
order of abstractness.
abstractness. As
As an
an avowed
avowed effort
effort to work
work towards
towards a comprecomprehensive
hensive theory,
theory, it is logically
logically akin
akin though
though obviously
obviously not
not substantively
substantively
analogical
analogical to a theory
theory such
such as
as that
that of classical
classical mechanics.
mechanics. It is too
too soon
soon
to say
say what
what the
the outcome
outcome of this
this effort
effort will
will be.
be. It has
has the
the ment,
merit, as
as recent
recent
experience
experience has
has shown,
shown, of prouriding
providing theoretical
theoretical gliidance
guidance for
for diverse
diverse
empirical
empirical inquiry.
inquiry. It has
has the
the practical
practical difficulty,
difficulty, however,
however, of being
being so
so
rapidly
rapidly elaborated
elaborated that
that its
its development
development must
must far
far outrun
outrun the
the pace
pace of
systematic
systematic studies
studies designed
designed to put
put the
the ideas
ideas to empirical
empirical test.
test. This,
This, then,
then,
is one
one direction
direction being
being taken
taken by contemporary
contemporary sociological
sociological theory.
theory.
Apart
Apart from
from such
such general
general theory,
theory, there
there have
have been
been developing
developing theones,
theories,
also
also analytical
analytical and
and systematic,
systematic, offar
offar more
more limited
limited scope,
scope, these
these involving
involving
sets
sets of ideas
ideas which
which can
can be described
described as
as theories
theories of the
the middle
middle rangerangetheories,
theories, for
for example,
example, of reference
reference groups
groups and
and social
social mobility,
mobility, of comcommunication,
munication, role-conflict
role-conflict and
and the
the formation
formation of social
social notms.
norms. These
These
theories
theories also
also involve
involve abstractions,
abstractions, of course,
course, but abstractions
abstractions not
not so far
far
removed
removed om
from the data
data of sociological
sociological observation.
observation.
The principal
principal basis
basis of advancing
advancing sociological
sociological theory
theory today
today consists,
consists,
I believe,
believe, in much
much the
the same
same modest
modest and
and limited
limited development
development of ideas
ideas
which
which occurred
occurred in the
the early
early modeIn
modem period
period of other
other sciences,
sciences, from
from
natural
natural history
history to chemistry
chemistry and
and physics.
physics. Such
Such theories
theories of the
the middle
middle
range
range consist
consist of sets
sets of relatively
relatively simple
simple ideas,
ideas, which
which link
link together
together a
limited
limited number
number of facts
facts about
about the
the structure
structure and
and functions
functions of social
social
formations
formations and
and suggest
suggest further
further observations.
observations. They
They are
are theories
theories interintermediate
mediate to comprehensive
comprehensive analytical
analytical schemes
schemes and
and detailed
detailed workaday
workaday
hypotheses.
conception of this
this type
type of theory
theory is of course
course not new:
new:
hypotheses. The conception
Plato'; Bacon
Bacon made
made much
much of 'intermediate
'intermediate or
there are
are allusions
allusions to it in Plato,
there
middle
middle axioms'
axioms' as didJohn Stuart
Stuart Mill.
Mill. But
But it seems
seems to me particularly
particularly
important
ofsuch
limited theories
theories in
important to emphasize
emphasize the distinctive
distinctive value
value of
suchlimited
a science,
science, such
such as ours,
ours, in which
which concept
concepts and
and classification
classification play
play such
such
a major
major part,
part, whereas
whereas few
few or no quantitadve
quantitative laws
laws have
have yet been
been
discovered. 6
discovered.6
In emphasizing
emphasizing what
what seems
seems to me the distinciive
distinctive importance
importance of
I08
108
This content downloaded on Mon, 25 Feb 2013 14:13:58 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
THE ROLE-SET
ROLE-SET
THE
theories
theonesof the
the middle
middlerange,
range,II would
wouldprefer
prefernot
not to
to be
be misunderstood.
misunderstood.
There
There is,
is, of course,
course,no
no contradiction
contradictionbetween
betweensuch
such theories
theoriesand
and more
more
comprehensive
comprehensivetheory,
theory,such
such as
as that
that advanced
advancedby
by Parsons.
Parsons.Nor
Nor am
am II
suggesting
suggestingthat
that onlY
only theories
theoriesof the
the middle
middlerange
range merit
meritour
our attention.
attention.
After
After all,
all, sociology
sociologyis
is aa large
large house
house of many
many mansions.
mansions.Moreover
Moreoverin
in
intellectual
intellectualwork
workas
as in manual
manualwork,
work,most
mostof us
us have
have aa way
way of finding
finding
certain
certainactivities
activitiescongenial,
congenial,and
and it would
would be
be self-deceiving
self-deceivingto
to assume
assume
that
that our
our tastes
tastesplay
play no
no part
partin
in the
the kind
kindof theoretical
theoreticalwork
workwe
we prefer
preferto
to
do.
do. To
To project
projectour
our 'temperamental'
'temperamental'bents
bents into
into aa general
generalimperative
imperative
may
may be
be tempting
temptingbut
but nonetheless
nonethelessill-considered.
ill-considered.There
Thereis
is no
no substitute
substitute
for
for such
such efforts
effortsas
as Parsons's
Parsons'sto
to develop
developaa wide-ranging
wide-rangingand
and comprecomprehensive
hensivetheory
theoryof the
the social
socialsystem
systemas
as aa whole,
whole,which
whichwill
will incorporate,
incorporate,
with
with successive
successivemodifications,
modifications,more
morehighly
highlydelimited
delimitedtheories.
theories.But,
But, by
by
the
the same
sametoken,
token,there
thereis
is room
roomalso
alsofor
foranother
anotherkind
kindof theorizing
theorizingwhich
which
is, at
at the
the outset,
outset,and
and for
forsome
sometime
time to
to come,
come,limited
limitedto
to more
morerestricted
restricted
is,
rangesof phenomena
phenomenathan
than those
thoseencompassed
encompassedby
by aa system
systemof thought
thought
ranges
like
like that
that of Parsons.
Parsons.The
The two
two kinds
kindsof inquiry
inquirycan
can usefully
usefullyfollow
followtheir
their
own
to
own course,
course,with
with periodic
periodicreconnaissances
reconnaissances
to see
see to
to what
whatextent
extentspecific
specifi
theories
theoriesof aa limited
limited range
range of phenomena
phenomenaare
are found
found to
to be
be consistent
consistent
with
with the
the theory
theory of larger
largerscope.
scope. On
On this
this view,
view, the
the consolidation
consolidationof
delimited
delimitedtheories
theoriesin
in sociology
sociologylargely
largelycomes
comesabout
aboutthrough
throughsuccessive
successive
convergence
of the
convergenceof initially
initiallydisparate
disparateideas,
ideas,convergences
convergences
the kind
kindwhich
which
Parsons
Parsonshimself
himselfworked
workedout
out in
in analysing
analysingthe
the work
workof Weber
Weberand
and DurkDurkheim,
heim, Marshall
Marshalland
and Pareto.
Pareto.
Theories
Theoriesof the
the middle
niiddlerange
rangeare
are theories
theoriesabout
aboutaa delimited
delimitedrange
rangeof
social
socialphenomena.
phenomena.They
Theycan
can be
be recognized,
recognized,in
in part,
part,by
by their
theirvery
verylabels:
labels:
one
one speaks
speaksof aa theory
theoryof reference
referencegroups,
groups,aa theory
theoryof prices,
prices,or
or aa germ
germ
theory
theoryof disease.
disease.The
The basic
basicideas
ideasare
arerelatively
relativelysimple:
simple:consider
considerGilbert
Gilbert
on
on magnetism,
magnetism,Boyle
Boyleon
on atmospheric
atmosphencpressure,
pressure,or
or Darwin
Dansin on
on the
theformaformation
tion of coral
coralatolls.
atolls.Gilbert
Gilbertbegins
beginswith
with the
the relatively
relativelysimple
simpleidea
idea that
that
the
the earth
earthmay
may be
be conceived
conceivedas
as aa magnet;
magnet;Boyle,
Boyle,with
unththe
the simple
simpleidea
idea
that
thatone
one can
can conceive
conceivethe
the atmosphere
atmosphereas
as aa 'sea
'seaof air';
air';Darwin,
Darwin,with
withthe
the
idea
idea that
thatone
one can
can conceive
conceiveof the
the atolls
atollsas
as monuments
monumentsover
overislands
islandslong
long
since
since subsided
subsidedinto
into the
the sea.
sea. Each
Each of these
these cases
casessets
sets out
out aa relatively
relatively
simple
simpleway
way of conceiving
conceivingaa delimited
delimitedrange
rangeof phenomena.
phenomena.
These
These ideas
ideas give
give rise
rise to
to aa limited
limited number
numberof inferences
inferencesabout
about the
the
phenomena
phenomenain
in question.
question.To
To take
take but
but one
one case:
case: if the
the atmosphere
atmosphereis
is
conceived
conceivedas
as aa sea
sea of air,
air, then,
then, as
as Pascal
Pascalinferred,
inferred,there
thereshould
shouldbe
be less
less
air
air pressure
pressureon
on aa mountain-top
mountain-topthan
than at
at its
its base.
base.The
The initial
initialidea
idea is,
is, in
in
some
some measure,
measure,put
put to
to the
the test
test of obseIVation
observationby
by seeing
seeingwhether
whetherthese
these
inferences
inferencesturn
turnout
out to
to be
be empirically
empiricallyso,
so, and
and whether
whetherthe
the idea
idea suggests
suggests
of magnetism,
other,
other,newly
ilewlyobserved,
observed,characteristics
characteristics
magnetism,or
or of atmosphere
atmosphere
pressure,
pressure,as
as the
the case
case may
may be.
be. As
As more
moreof these
theseimplications
implicationsare
are drawn
drawn
from
fromthe
the original
originalfairly
fairlyuncomplicated
uncomplicatedidea,
idea, and
and are
are empirically
empiricallyconconfirmed,
firmed, there
there emerges
emergeswhat
what may
may fairly
fairly be
be called
called aa 'theory
'theory of the
the
H
log
IO9
This content downloaded on Mon, 25 Feb 2013 14:13:58 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
ROBERT K. MERTON
MERTON
ROBERT
magnetism
magnetismof the
theearth'
earth'or
or 'a
'a theory
theoryof atmospheric
atmosphencpressure'.
pressure'.These
Theseare
are
theories
the middle
theoriesof
ofthe
middlerange:
range:adequate
adequateto
to account
accountfor
forselected
selectedaspects
aspectsof
aa delimited
delimitedrange
range of phenomena,
phenomena,and
arldsubject
subjectto
to being
being consolidated
consolidated
with
set
with others
othersof like
like kind
kindinto
into aa more
morecomprehensive
comprehensive
set of ideas.
ideas.
Once
from
Oncementioned,
mentioned,these
theseillustrations
illustrations
fromoutside
outsidethe
thefield
fieldofsociology
of sociology
can
can be
be dropped
droppedfrom
fromview.
view.For
Forthese
thesesimple
simpleideas
ideasdrawn
drawnfrom
fromthe
theearly
early
days
daysof physical
physicalscience
sciencein
in the
theseventeenth
seventeenthcentury
centuryand
andof earth
earthscience
science
in
in the
the nineteenth,
nineteenth,are
are not,
not, of course,
course,being
being presented
presentedas
as substantive
substantive
analogies
analogiesto
to current
currentsociological
sociologicalideas
ideaso~
of,say,
say,attractions
attractionsand
andrepulsions
repulsions
between
betweengroups,
groups,or
or of differing
differingdegrees
degreesof social
socialpressure.
pressure.It
It isis the
the relarelatively
tivelysimple
simplelogical
logicalstructure
structurewhich
whichthey
they exhibit
exhibitthat
thatisis pertinent,
pertinent,not
not
their
sociological
theirspecific
specificcontent.
content.'Contemporary
Contemporary
sociologicaltheories
theoriesof the
the middle
middle
range
rangemay
may not
not uniformly
uniformlyhave
have the
the cogency
cogencyor
or power
powerof such
such earlier
earlier
examples
examplesof physical
physicaland
and natural
naturalscience,
science,but
but they
theydo
do exhibit
exhibitthe
the same
same
uncomplicated
uncomplicatedlogical
logical structure.
structure.Rather
Rather than
than consider
considersociological
sociological
theories
theoriesof the
the middle
middle range
range in
in general,
general,II shall
shall examine
examineone
one small
sma]l
example
examplein
in the
the hope
hope that
that it
it will
will exhibit
exhibit the
the design
designof
of one
one kind
kind of
of
structural
structuraland
and functional
functionalanalysis.
analysis.
THE PROBLEMATICS
PROBLEMATICS OF
OF THE ROLE-SET
ROLE-SET
However
However much
much they
they may
may differ
differ in
in other
other respects,
respects,contemporary
contemporary
sociological
sociologicaltheorists
theoristsare
are largely
largelyat
at one
one in
in adopting
adoptingthe
the premise
premisethat
that
social
socialstatuses
statusesand
and social
socialroles
rolescomprise
comprisemajor
majorbuilding
buildingblocks
blocksof social
social
structure.
structure.This
Thishas
hasbeen
beenthe
the case,
case,since
sincethe
theinfluential
influentialwritings
writingsof Ralph
Ralph
Linton
Lintonon
on the
the subject,
subject,aa generation
generationago.
ago.By
Bystatus,
status,and
andT.
T. H.
H. Marshall
Marshall
has
hasindicated
indicatedthe
thegreat
greatdiversity
diversityof mearlings
mealiingsattached
attachedto
to this
thisterm
termsince
since
6 Linton meant a position in a social system involving
the
the time
timeof Maine.
Maine.6
Lintonmeanta positionin a socialsysteminvolving
designated
designatedrights
rightsand
and obligations;
obligations;by
by role,
role, the
the behaviour
behaviouroriented
orientedto
to
these
thesepatterned
patternedexpectations
expectationsof others.
others.In
In these
theseterms,
terms,status
statusand
and roles
roles
become
become concepts
conceptsserving
servingto
to connect
connect culturally
culturallydefined
definedexpectations
expectations
with
with the
the patterned
patternedconduct
conductand
and relationships
relationshipswhich
whichmake
makeup
up aa social
social
structure.
structure.Linton
Lintonwent
went on
on to
to state
state the
the long
long recognized
recognizedand
and basic
basicfact
fact
that
occupies
that each
each person
personin
in society
societyinevitably
inevitablwr
occupiesmultiple
multiplestatuses
statusesand
and
that
that each
each of these
thesestatuses
statuseshas
has an
an associated
associatedrole.
role.
It
It -isis at
at this
this point
point that
that II find
find itit useful
usefulto
to depart
departfrom
fromLinton's
Linton'sconconception.
ception.The
The difference
differenceisis initially
iniiiallyaa small
smallone,
one,some
somemight
mightsay
sayso
so small
small
as
as not
not to
to deserve
deservenotice,
notice, but
but it
it involves
involvesaa shift
shiftin
in the
the angle
angle of vision
vision
which
of aa fundawhich leads,
leads, II believe,
believe,to
to successively
successivelygreater
greaterdifferences
diffierences
fundamental
mentalkind.
kind.Unlike
UnlikeLinton,
Linton,II begin
begin,vith
^viththe
the premise
premisethat
that each
eachsocial
social
status
statusinvolves·
involvesnot
not aa single
singleassociated
associatedrole,
role, but
but an
an array
arrayof roles.
roles.This
This
basic
basicfeature
featureof social
socialstructure
structurecan
can be
be registered
registeredby
by the
the distinctive
disiinctivebut
but
not
not formidable
formidableterm,
term,role-set.
role-set.To
To repeat,
repeat,then,
then, by
by role-set
role-setII mean
meanthat
that
complement
in
complementof role-relationslups
role-relaiionships
in which
which persons
personsare
are involved
involved by
by
virtue
virtue of occupying
occupyingaa particular
particularsocial
social status.
status.Thus,
Thus, in
ill our
our current
current
110
I IO
This content downloaded on Mon, 25 Feb 2013 14:13:58 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
THE ROLE-SET
THE
ROLE-SET
studiesof medical
studies
medicalschools,7
schools,7we
we have
have begun
begun with
with the
the view
view that
that the
the
statusof medical
status
medicalstudent
studententails
entailsnot
not only
only the
the role
role of aa student
studentvis-a-vis
vzs-a-vzs
his teachers,
teachers,but
but also
also an
an array
arrayof other
otherroles
his
rolesrelating
relatinghim
him diversely
diverselyto
to
otherstudents,
students,physicians,
other
physicians,nurses,
nurses,social
socialworkers,
workers,medical
medicaltechnicians,
technicians,
and the
the like.
like.Again,
Again,the
the status
statusofschool
of schoolteacher
and
teacherin
in the
the United
UnitedStates
Stateshas
has
its distinctive
distinctiverole-set,
role-set,in
in which
whichare
arefound
foundpupils,
pupils,colleagues,
its
colleagues,the
the school
school
principaland
and superintendent,
superintendent,the
the Board
principal
Board of Education,
Education,professional
professional
associations,and,
and, on
on occasion,
occasion,local
associations,
local patriotic
patrioticorganizations.
organizations.
It should
be made
shouldbe
madeplain
plainthat
thatthe
the role-set
role-setdiffers
differsfrom
fromwhat
whatsociologists
sociologists
have long
long described
describedas
as 'multiple
have
'muliipleroles'.
roles'.By
By established
establishedusage,
usage,the
the term
term
multiple
to the
the complex
complexof roles
multiple role
role refers
refers not
not to
rolesassociated
associatedwith
with aa single
single
socialstatus,
social
but with
with the
various social
statuses (often,
institustatus,but
thevarious
socialstatuses
(often,in
in differing
differinginstituiional
tional spheres)
which people
people find
themselves-for
spheres)in
in which
find themselves
for illustration,
illustration,the
the
statusesof physician,
statuses
physician, husband,
husband, father,
professor, church
father, professor,
church elder,
elder, ConConservative
servative Party
Party member
member and
and army
army captain.
captain. (This
(This complement
complemcntof disdistinct statuses
statuses of a
a person,
person, each
these in
turn having
having its
role-set,
tinct
each of these
in turn
its own
own role-set,
would designate
designate as
as a
a status-set.
concept gives
rise to
to its
I would
status-set.This
This cencept
gives rise
its own
own
range
range of analytical
analytical problems
problems which
which cannot
cannot be
be considered
considered here.)
here.)
The notion
notion of the
the role-set
role-set reminds
reminds us,
us, in the
the unlikely
unlikely event
event that
that we
we
The
need
need to
to be
be reminded
reminded of this
this obstinate
obstinate fact,
fact, that
that even
even the
the seemingly
seemingly
simple
simple social
social structure
structure is
is fairly
fairly complex.
complex. All
All societies
societies face
face the
the functional
functional
problem
problem of articulating
articulating the
the components
components of numerous
numerous role-sets,
role-sets, the
the
functional
functional problem
problem of managing
managing somehow
somehow to
to organize
organize these
these so
so that
that an
an
appreciable
appreciable degree
degree of social
social regularity
regularity obtains,
obtains, sufficient
sufficient to
to enable
enable most
most
people
the time
time to go about
about their
their business
business of social
social life,
life, without
without
people most
most of the
encountering extreme
extreme conflict
conflict in their
their role-sets
role-sets as
as the
the normal,
normal, rather
rather
encountering
than
than the
the exceptional,
exceptional, state
state of-affairs.
of -affairs.
this relatively
relatively simple
simple idea
idea of role-set
role-set has
has any
any theoretical
theoretical worth,
worth, it
If this
should
should at the
the least
least generate
generate distinctive
distinctive problems
problems for
for sociolopcal
sociological theory,
theory,
which
which come
come to our
our attention
attention only
only from
from the
the perspective
perspective afforded
afforded by this
this
idea,
idea, or by one
one like
like it. This
This the
the notion
notion of role-set
role-set does.
does. It raises
raises thc
the
general
general problem
problem of identifying
identifying the
the social
social mechanisms
mechanisms which
which serve
serve to
articulate
articulate the
the expectations
expectations of those
those in the
the role-set
role-set so
so that
that the
the occupant
occupant
of a status
status is confronted
confronted with
with less
less conflict
conflict than
than would
would obtain
obtain if thesc
these
mechanisms were
were not
not at work.
work. It is to these
these social
social mechanisms
mechanisms that
that I
mechanisms
would
would devote
devote the
the rest
rest of this
this discussion.
discussion.
Before
Before doing
doing so,
so, I should
should like
like to recapitulate
recapitulate the
the argument
argument thus
thus far.
far.
that which
which has
has been
been rather
rather
\Ve depart
depart from
from the
the simple
simple idea,
idea, unlike
unlike that
\Ve
widely
widely assumed,
assumed, that
that a single
single status
status in society
society involves,
involves, not
not a single
single role,
role,
but an array
array of associated
associated roles,
roles, relating
relating the
the status-occupant
status-occupant to diverse
diverse
but
others.
that this
this structural
structural fact,
fact, expressed
expressed in the
the
others. Secondly,
Secondly, we note
note that
term
and to correcorreterm role-set,
role-set, gives
gives rise
rise to distinctive
distinctive analytical
analytical problems
problems and
sponding questions
questions for
for empirical
empirical inquiry.
inquiry. The basic
basic problem,
problem, which
which I
sponding
deal
deal with
with here,
here, is that
that of identifying
identifying social
social mechanisms,
mechanisms, that
that is, proprocesses having
having designated
designated effects
effects for
for designated
designated parts
parts of the social
social
cesses
II II II
This content downloaded on Mon, 25 Feb 2013 14:13:58 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
ROBERT
ROBERT K.
K. MERTON
MERTON
structure,which
whichserve
serveto
to articulate
articulatethe
therole-set
structure,
role-setmore
morenearly
nearlythan
thanwould
would
be
the
case,
if
these
mechanismsdid
did not
be the case,
these mechanisms
not operate.
operate.Third,
Third,unlike
unlikethe
the
problemscentred
centredupon
upon the
the notion
notion of 'multiple
'multipleroles',
problems
roles',this
thisone
one isis conconcernedwith
withsocial
socialarrangements
arrangements
cerned
integrating
of
integratingthe
theexpectations
expectations
ofthose
thosein
in
the
role-set;
it isis not
not primarily
primarilyconcerned
concernedwith
the role-set; it
withthe
the familiar
familiarproblem
problemof
howthe
theoccupant
occupantofa
of a status
statusmanages
managesto
to cope
copewith
how
withthe
themany,
many,and
andsomesometimes
conflicting,
demands
made
him. It
It isis thus
times conflicting, demands made of him.
thusaa problem
problemof
of social
social
structure,not
not an
an exercise
exercisein
in the
the no
no doubt
structure,
doubt important
importantbut
but different
different
problemof how
howindividuals
individualshappen
happento
to deal
dealwith
withthe
problem
thecomplex
complexstructures
structures
of relations
relationsin
in which
which they
they find
find themselves.
themselves.Finally,
Finally,by
by way
way of setting
setting
the analytical
analyticalproblem,
problem,the
the logic
logic of analysis
the
analysisexhibited
exhibitedin
in this
this case
case isis
developedwholly
whollyin
in terms
termsofthe
ofthe elements
developed
elementsofsocial
of socialstructure,
structure,rather
ratherthan
than
in
terms
of
providing
concrete
historicaldescription
in terms providing concrete historical
descriptionof aa social
socialsystem.
system.
All this
this presupposes,
presupposes,of course,
course,that
that there
there is
All
is always
alwaysaa potential for
for
diffiering
and
sometimes
conflicting
differing and sometimes conflicting expectations
expectationsof the
the conduct
conductapproappropriate to
to aa status-occupant
status-occupantamong
among those
those in
in the
the role-set.
priate
role-set.The
The basic
basic
sourceof this
thispotential
potentialfor
forconflict,
conflict,II suggest-and
source
suggest and here
herewe
we are
are at
at one
one
with
as disparate
disparateas
as Marx
andSpencer,
with theorists
theorists as
Marx and
Spencer,Simmel
Simmeland
and Parsonsis
are, to
is that
that the
the members
members of aa role-set
role-set are,
to some
somedegree,
degree,apt
apt to
to hold
holdsocial
social
positions
diffieringfrom
positions differing
from that
that of the
the occupant
of
the
status
in
occupant the statusin question.
question.
To the
the extent
extent that
that they
they are
are diversely
diversely located
located in the
the social
social structure,
structure, they
they
are
are apt
apt to
to have
have interests
interests and
and sentiments,
sentiments, values
values and
and moral
moral expectations
expectations
differing
differing from
from those
those of the
the status-occupant
status-occupant himself.
himself: This,
This, after
after all,
all, is
is
one
one of the
the principal
principal assumptions
assumptions of Matxist
Marxist theory,
theory, as
as it is
is of all
all
sociological
sociological theory:
theory: social
social diffierentiation
differentiation generates
generates distinct
distinct interests
interests
among
among those
those variously
variously located
located in the
the structure
structure of the
the society.
society. To concontinue
tinue with
with one
one of our
our examples:
examples: the
the members
members of a school
school board
board are
are often
often
in social
social and
and economic
economic strata
strata which
which differ
differ greatly
greatly from
from that
that of the
the
school
school teacher;
teacher; and
and their
their interests,
interests, values
values and
and expectations
expectations are
are conseconsequently
quently apt
apt to diffier,
differ, to some
some extent,
extent, from
from those
those of the
the teacher.
teacher. The
The
teacher
teacher may
may thus
thus become
become subject
subject to confliciing
conflicting role-expectations
role-expectations among
among
such
such members
members of his
his role-set
role-set as
as professional
professional colleagues,
colleagues, influential
influential
members
school board,
board, and,
and, say,
say, the
the Americanism
Americanism Committee
Committee of
members of the school
theAmerican
the American Legion.
Legion. What
What is an educationalessential
educational essential fortheonemaybe
for the one maybe
judged
judged as an education
education frill,
frill, or as downright
downright subversion,
subversion, by the
the other.
other.
These
These disparate
disparate and
and contradictory
contradictory evaluations
evaluations by members
members of the
the roleroleset greatly
ofcoping
with them
them all.
all. The familiar
familiar case
case
greatly complicate
complicate the task
task of
copingwith
of
of the
the teacher
teacher may
may be
be taken
taken as paradigmaiic.
paradigmatic. What
What holds
holds conspicuously
conspicuously
for
for this
this one
one status
status holds,
holds, in varying
varying degree,
degree, for
for the occupants
occupants of aU
all
other
other statuses
statuses who
who are
are structurally
structurally related,
related, through
through their
their role-set,
role-set, to
others
others who
who themselves
themselves occupy
occupy diverse
diverse positions
positions in
in society.
society.
This,
This, then,
then, is
is the
the basic
basic structural
structural basis
basis for
for potential
potential disturbance
disturbance of
of aa
role-set.
role-set. And
And it
it Fives
gives rise,
rise, in
in turn,
turn, to
to aa double
double question:
question: which
which social
social
mechanisms,
mechanisms, if
if any,
any, operate
operate to
to counteract
counteract such
such instability
instability of
of role-sets
role-sets
and,
and, correlatively,
correlatively, under
under which
which circumstances
circumstances do
do these
these social
social mechanmechanI112
I2
This content downloaded on Mon, 25 Feb 2013 14:13:58 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
THE ROLE-SET
ROLE-SET
THE
ismsfail
fail to
to operate,
operate,with
with resulting
resultingconfusion
confusionand
and conflict.
isms
conflict.This
This isis not
not
to say,
say, of course,
course,that
that role-sets
to
role-setsdo
do invariably
invariablyoperate
operatewith
with substantial
substantial
efficiency.
efficiency.We
We are
areconcerned
concernedhere,
here,not
not with
withaa broad
broadhistorical
histoncalgeneralgeneralizationto
to the
the effect
effectthat
ization
that social
socialorder
orderprevails,
prevails,but
but with
with an
an analytical
analytical
problemof identifying
identifyingsocial
social mechanisms
problem
mechanismswhich
which produce
produceaa greater
greater
degreeof order
orderthan
thanwould
degree
wouldobtain,
obtain,if these
thesemechanisms
mechanismswere
werenot
not called
called
into play.
play. Othenvise
Otherwiseput,
put, it
it isis theoretical
theoreticalsociology,
into
sociology,not
not history,
history,which
which
is of interest
interesthere.
here.
is
SOCIAL
ROLE-SETS
SOCIAL MECHANISMS
MECHANISMS ARTICULATING
ARTICULATING
ROLE-SETS
I. Relative
Relative
importance
I.
importance
of various
statuses.
The
various
statuses.
The first
firstof these
thesemechanisms
mechanisms
derives
derivesfrom
fromthe
the oft-noticed
oft-noticedsociological
sociologicalcircumstance
circumstancethat
thatsocial
socialstrucstructures
tures designate
designatecertain
certain statuses
statusesas
as having
having greater
greaterimportance
importancethan
than
others.
others.Family
Familyand
andjob
job obligations,
obligations,for
for example,
example,are
aredefined
definedin
in AmeriAmerican
can society
societyas
as having
havingpriority
priorityover
over membership
membershipin
in voluntary
voluntaryassociaassocia8 As
tions.
may
tions.8
As aa result,
result,aa particular
particularrole-relationship
role-relationship
may be
be of peripheral
peripheral
concern
concernfor
forsome;
some;for
forothers
othersit may
maybe
be central.
central.Our
Ourhypothetical
hypotheticalteacher,
teacher,
for
for whom
whom this
this status
statusholds
holds primary
primarysignificance,
significance,may
may by
by this
this circumcircumstance
stancebe
be better
betterable
ableto
to withstand
withstandthe
the demands
demandsfor
forconformity
conformitywith
with the
the
differing
differingexpectations
expectationsof those
thosecomprising
comprisinghis
his role-set.
role-set.For
Forat
at least
leastsome
some
of these
these others,
others,the
the relationship
relationshiphas
has only
only peripheral
penpheralsignificance.
significance.This
This
does
does not
not mean,
mean,of course,
course,that
that teachers
teachersare
are not
not vulnerable
vulnerableto
to demands
demands
which
which are
are at
at odds
oddswith
with their
theirown
own professional
professionalcommitments.
commitments.It means
means
only
powerful members
only that
that when
when powerful
membersof their
theirrole-set
rote-setare
are only
only little
little conconcerned
with this
this particular
particular relationship,
vulnerable than
cernedwith
relationship,teachers
teachersare
areless
lessvulnerable
than
they would
would otherwise
be (or
they
otherwisebe
(orsometimes
sometimesare).
are). Were
Wereall
all those
thoseinvolved
involvedin
the role-set
role-set equally
with this
the
equallyconcerned
concernedwith
this relationship,
relationship,the
the plight
plight of the
the
teacher would
would be
be considerably
more sorrowful
than it often
teacher
considerablymore
sorrowfulthan
often is.
is. What
What
holds for
the particular
particular case
the teacher
teacher presumably
presumably holds
holds
for the
case of the
holds for
for the
the
occupants of other
other statuses:
statuses: the
the impact
impact upon
upon them
them of diverse
diverse expectaoccupants
expectations among
among those
those in their
their role-set
role-set is
is mitigated
mitigated by the
the basic
basic structural
tions
stuctural
fact of differentials
differentials of
ofinvolvement
the relationship
relationship among
among those
those comfact
involvementin the
comprising their
their role-set.
role-set.
prising
2. Diffierences
Differences ofpower
power of those
those in
the role-set.
role-set. A second
potential mechanmechan2.
in the
secondpotential
ism for
stabilizing the
the role-set
role-set is
is found
the distribution
distribution of power
power and
and
ism
forstabilizing
foundin the
authority. By
By power,
power, in this
this connection,
connection, is meant
meant the
the observed
observed and
and
authority.
predictable capacity
capacity to
to impose
impose one's
one's will
will in a social
social action,
action, even
even against
against
predictable
the opposition
opposition of others
others taking
taking part
part in that
that action;
action; by authority,
authority, the
the
the
culturally legltimized
legitimized organization
organization of power.
power.
culturally
As a consequence
consequence of social
social stratification,
stratification, the
the members
members of a role-set
role-set
As
are not
not apt
apt to be equally
equally powerful
powerful in shaping
shaping the
the behaviour
behaviour of statusstatusare
does not
not follow
follow that
that the
the individuals,
individuals, group,
group, or
occupants. However,
However, it does
occupants.
stratum in the
the role-set
role-set which
which are
are separately
separately most
most powerful
powerful uniformly
uniformly
stratum
succeed in imposing
imposing their
their demands
demands upon
upon the
the status-occupant,
status-occupant, say,
say, the
the
succeed
I113
I3
This content downloaded on Mon, 25 Feb 2013 14:13:58 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
ROBERT K. MERTON
ROBERT
MERTON
teacher.This
Thiswould
wouldbe
beso
soonly
teacher.
that
onlyin
in the
thecircumstance
circumstance
thatthe
theone
onemember
member
the role-set
role-sethas
has either
eitheraa monopoly
of the
in
the
situation
monopolyof power
powerin the situationor
or outoutweighsthe
the combined
combinedpower
powerof the
weighs
Failing
this
special
the others.
others.Failingthis specialbut,
but, of
course,not
not infrequent,
infrequent,situation,
course,
of power
situation,there
theremay
may develop
developcoalitions
coalitions
power
amongsome
somemembers
membersof the
the role-set
role-setwhich
among
status-occupants
whichenable
enablethe
the status-occupants
to go
go their
theirown
to
own way.
way. The
The familiar
familiarpattern
patternof aa balance
balanceof power
poweris
is of
coursenot
not confined
confinedto
course
political
realm.
to the
the conventionally-defined
conventionally-defined
politicalrealm.In
In
less easily
easily visible
visibleform,
form, it can
can be
be found
less
found in
in the
the workings
workingsof role-sets
role-sets
generally,as
as the
the boy
boy who
generally,
whosucceeds
succeedsin
in having
havinghis
his father's
father'sdecision
decisionoffset
offset
his mother's
mother'sopposed
opposeddecision
his
occasion
to
know.
decisionhas
has ample
ample occasionto know. To
To the
the
extentthat
that conflicting
conflictingpowers
extent
powersin
in his
hisrole-set
role-setneutralize
neutralizeone
one another,
another,the
the
status-occupant
has relative
status-occupant
has
relativefreedom
freedomto
to proceed
proceedas
as he
he intended
intendedin
in the
the
first
place.
first place.
Thus, even
even in
in those
those potentially
Thus,
potentiallyunstable
unstablestructures
structuresin
in which
which the
the
membersof aa role-set
role-sethold
hold contrasting
members
the
contrastingexpectations
expectationsof what
what the statusstatusoccupant
shoulddo,
do, the
occupant should
the latter
latteris
is not
not wholly
whollyat
at the
the mercy
mercyof the
the most
most
powerful
powerful among
among them.
them. Moreover,
Moreover, the
the structural
variations
of
structuralvariations engageengagement
ment in the
the role-structure,
role-structure, which
which II have
have mentioned,
mentioned, can
to reincan serve
serveto
reinforce
force the
the relative
relative power
power of the
the status-occupant.
For
to
the
extent
status-occupant.
For to the extentthat
that
powerful
powerful members
melnbers of his
his role-set
role-set are
are not
not centrally
centrally concerned
with this
this
concernedwith
particular
particular relationship,
relationship, they
they will
will be
be the
the less
less motivated
motivated to
to exercise
exercise their
their
potential
potential power
power to
to the
the full.
full. Within
Within varying
varying margins
margins of his
his activity,
activity, the
the
status-occupant
status-occupant will
will then
then be
be free
to act
act as
as he
he would.
would.
freeto
Once
Once again,
again, to
to reiterate
reiterate that
that which
which lends
lends itself
itself to
to misunderstanding,
misunderstanding,
I do
do not
not say
say that
that the
the status-occupant
status-occupant subject
subject to
to conflicting
conflicting expectations
expectations
among
among members
members of his
his role-set
role-set is in fact
fact immune
immune to control
control by
by them.
them.
I suggest
suggest only
only that
that the
the power
power and
and authority-structure
authority-structure of role-sets
role-sets is
is
often
often such
such that
that he has
has a larger
larger measure
measure of autonomy
autonomy than
than he
he would
would
have
have had
had if this
this structure
structure of competing
competing power
power did
did not
not obtain.
obtain.
3. Insulation
-3.
Insulation of role-activities
role-activities from
from observability
observability by
by members
members of the
the role-set.
role-set.
People
People do not
not engage
engage in continuous
continuous interaction
interaction with
with all
all those
those in their
their
role-sets.
role-sets. This
This is not
not an incidental
incidental fact,
fact, to be ignored
ignored because
because familiar,
familiar,
but one
one integral
integral to the
the operation
operation of social
social structure.
structure. Interaction
Interaction with
with
each
each member
member of a role-set
role-set tends
tends to be variously
variously interttent.
intermittent. This
This fundafundamental
mental fact
fact allows
allows for
for role-behaviour
role-behaviour which
which is at odds
odds with
with the
the expectaexpectations
tions of some
some in the
the role-set
role-set to proceed
proceed without
without undue
undue stress.
stress. For,
For, as
as I
elsewhere
elsewhere suggest
suggest at some
some length,9
length, 9 effective
effective social
social control
control presupposes
presupposes
social
social arrangements
arrangements making
making for
for the observability
observability of behaviour.
behaviour. (By
(By
observability, a conception
conception which
which I have
have borrowed
borrowed fFom
from Simmel
Simmel and
and
observability,
tried
tried to develop,
develop, I mean
mean the
the extent
extent to which
which social
social norms
norms and
and roleroleperformances
performances can readily
readily become
become known
known to others
others in the
the social
social system.
system.
This
believe, a variable
variable crucial
crucial to structural
structural analysis,
analysis, a belief
beliefwhich
which
This is, I believe,
I cannot,
cannot, unhappily,
unhappily, undertake
undertake to defend
defend here.)
here.)
To the extent
extent that
that the social
social structure
structure insulates
insulates the individual
individual from
from
having
his role-set,
role-set, he is the
the less
less
having his
his activities
activities known
known to members
members of his
I114
I4
This content downloaded on Mon, 25 Feb 2013 14:13:58 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
THE ROLE-SET
ROLE-SET
THE
subject
subjectto
to competing
competingpressures.
pressures.It should
shouldbe
be emphasized
emphasizedthat
that we
we are
are
dealing
for
dealinghere
herewith
withstructural
structuralarrangements
atTangements
forsuch
suchinsulation,
insulation,not
notwith
with
the
to
the fact
fact that
that this
this or
or that
that person
personhappens
happens
to conceal
concealpart
part of his
his rolerolebehaviour
behaviourfrom
fromothers.
others.The
The structural
structuralfact
fact isis that
that social
socialstatuses
statusesdiffer
differ
in
in the
the extent
extent to
to which
which the
the conduct
conductof those
those in
in them
them are
are regularly
regularly
insulated
insulatedfrom
fromobservability
observabilityby
by members
membersof the
the role-set.
role-set.Some
Somehave
have aa
functionally
functionallysignificant
sigtiificantinsulation
insulationof this
thiskind,
kind,as
asfor
forexample,
example,the
thestatus
status
of the
the university
universityteacher,
teacher,insofar
insofaras
as norms
normshold
holdthat
that what
whatisis said
saidin
in the
the
classroom
classroomis
is privileged.
privileged.In
In this
this familiar
familiartype
type of case,
case, the
the norm
normclearly
clearly
has
has the
the function
functionof maintaining
maintainingsome
some degree
degree of autonomy
autonomyfor
for the
the
teacher.
teacher.For
Forif they
they were
wereforever
foreversubject
subjectto
to observation
observationby
by all
all those
thosein
in
the
the role-set,
role-set,with
with their
theiroften
oftendiffering
differingexpectations,
expectations,teachers
teachersmight
mightbe
be
driven
drivento
to teach
teach not
not what
what they
they know
knowor
or what
what the
the evidence
evidenceleads
leadsthem
them
to
to believe,
believe,but
but to
to teach
teach what
what will
will placate
placatethe
the numerous
numerousand
and diverse
diverse
people
people who
who are
are ostensibly
ostensiblyconcerned
concernedwith
with 'the
'the education
educationof youth'.
youth'.
That
That this
this sometimes
sometimesoccurs
occursis
is evident.
evident.But
But it
it would
would presumably
presumablybe
be
more
morefrequent,
frequent,were
wereit
it not
not for
forthe
therelative
relativeexemption
exemptionfrom
fromobservability
observability
by
by all
all and
andsundry
sundrywho
whomay
maywish
wishto
to impose
imposetheir
theirwill
willupon
uponthe
theinstructor.
instructor.
More
Morebroadly,
broadly,the
the concept
conceptof privileged
privilegedinformation
informationand
andconfidential
confidential
communication
communicationin
in the
the professions
professionshas
has this
this same
samefunction
functionof insulating
insulating
clients
clientsfrom
fromobservability
observabilityof their
their behaviour
behaviourand
and beliefs
beliefsby
by others
othersin
in
their
their role-set.
role-set.Were
Were physicians
physiciansor
or priests
priestsfree
free to
to tell
tell all
all they
they have
have
learned
learnedabout
aboutthe
the private
privatelives
livesof their
theirclients,
clients,the
the needed
neededinformation
information
would
would not
not be
be forthcoming
forthcorningand
and they
they could
could not
not adequately
adequatelydischarge
discharge
their
their functions.
functions.More
More generally,
generally,if all
all the
the facts
factsof one's
one's conducts
conductsand
and
beliefs
beliefs were
were freely
freely available
availableto
to anyone,
anyone, social
social structures
structurescould
could not
not
operate.
operate.What
What is
is often
often described
describedas
as 'the
'the need
need for
for privacy'-that
privacy' that is,
is,
insulation
insulationof actions
actionsand
and beliefs
beliefsfrom
from surveillance
surveillanceby
by others-is
others- is the
the
individual
individualcounterpart
counterpartto
to the
the functional
functionalrequirement
requirementof social
socialstructure
structure
that
that some
some measure
measureof exemption
exempiionfrom
fromfull
full observability
observabilitybe
be provided.
provided.
'Privacy'
'Privacy'is
is not
not only
only aa personal
personalpredilection,
predilection,though
thoughit may
may be
be tha~,
that,
too.
too. It is
is also
also aa requirement
requirementof social
socialsystems
systemswhich
which must
must provide
providefor
for
aa measure,
measure,as
asthey
theysay
sayin
in France,
France,of quant-d-soi,
quant-a-soi, a portion
portionofthe
ofthe selfwhich
selfwhich
is
is kept
kept apart,
apart,immune
immunefrom
fromobservation
observationby
by others.
others.
Like
Likeother
othersocial
socialmechanisms,
mechanisms,this
thisone
one of insulation
insulationfrom
fromfull
fullobservaobservability
bility can,
can, of course,
course,miscarry.
miscarry.Were
Werethe
the activities
activitiesof the
the politician
politicianor,
or,
if one
one prefers,
prefers,the
the statesman,
statesman,fully
fully removed
removedfrom
fromthe
the public
publicspotlight,
spotlight,
social
reduced.
socialcontrol
controlof his
his behaviour-would
behaviourwouldbe
be correspondingly
correspondingly
reduced.And
And
as
power anonymously
as we
we all
all know,
know, anonymous
anonymouspower
anonymouslyexercised
extrciseddoes
does not
not
make
makefor
for aa stable
stablesocial
socialstructure
structuremeeting
meetingthe
the values
valuesof aa society.
society.So,
So,
too,
too, the
the teacher
teacheror
or physician
physicianwho
whois
is largely
largelyinsulated
insulatedfrom
fromobservability
observability
may
of his
may fail
fail to
to live
live up
up to
to the
the minimum
minimumrequirements
reqviirements
his status.
status.All
All this
this
means
by
meansonly
only that
that some
somemeasure
measureof observability
observabilityof role-performance
role-performance
by
members of the
members
the role-set
role-setis
is required,
required,if the
the indispensable
indispensablesocial
socialrequirerequirement of accountability
ment
accountabilityis
is to
to be
be met.
met. This
This statement
statementdoes
does not
not contradict
contradict
I I5
115
This content downloaded on Mon, 25 Feb 2013 14:13:58 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
ROBERT
ROBERT K. MERTON
MERTON
an earlier
earlierstatement
statementto
to the
the effect
effectthat
thatsome
somemeasure
an
measureof insulation
insulationfrom
from
observabilityis
is also
alsorequired
requiredfor
for the
the effective
effectiveoperation
observability
operationof social
socialstrucstructures. Instead,
Instead,the
the two
two statements,
statements,taken
takenin
in conjunction,
tures.
conjunction,imply
imply that
that
thereisis an
an optimum
optimumzone
zoneof observability,
observability,
difficultto
there
difficult
to identify
identifyin
in precise
precise
terms and
and doubtless
doubtlessvarying
varyingfor
for different
differentsocial
social statuses,
terms
statuses,which
which will
will
simultaneouslymake
make both
both for
for accountability
simultaneously
and
accountabilitry
and for
for substantial
substantial
autonomy,rather
ratherthan
thanfor
foraa frightened
frightenedacquiescence
autonomy,
acquiescencewith
withthe
the distribudistribution of power
powerwhich
whichhappens,
happens,at
at aa particular
particularmoment,
tion
moment,to
to obtain
obtainin
in the
the
role-set.
role-set.
Observability
conpZicting
4. Ohservahiliry
of conflicting
demands
hy
of a role-set.
demands
by memhers
members
tole-set.This
This
mechatiism
is implied
impliedby
by what
has been
beensaid
mechanism is
what has
said and
and therefore
thereforeneeds
needsonly
only
passing
commenthere.
here.As
long as
as members
membersof the
passing comment
As long
the role-set
role-setare
are happily
happily
ignorant
ignorant that
that their
their demands
demands upon
upon the
the occupants
occupantsof aa status
statusare
areincomincompatible,
eachmember
hisown
owncase.
patible, each
member may
may press
press his
pattern is
case.The
The pattern
is then
thenmany
many
against
becomesplain
against one.
one. But
But when
when it becomes
plain that
that the
the demands
are
demandsof some
some are
in full
full contradiction
contradiction with
with the
the demands
demands of others,
others, it becomes,
in part,
part,
becomes,in
the
the task
task of members
members of the
the role-set,
role-set, rather
rather than
than that
that of the
the statusstatusoccupant,
occupant, to resolve
resolve these
these contradictions,
contradictions, either
either by
by a struggle
struggle for
for overoverriding
riding power
power or
or by some
some degree
degree of compromlse.
compromise.
In such
such circumstances,
circumstances, the
the status-occupant
status-occupant subjected
subjected to
to conflicting
conflicting
demands
demands often
often becomes
becomes cast
cast in the
the role
role of the
the tedius
tertius gaudens,
gaudens, the
the third
third
(or
(or more
more often,
often, the
the nth)
nth) party
party who
who draws
draws advantage
advantage from
from the
the conflict
conflict
of the
the others.
others. Originally
Originally at the
the focus
focus of the
the conflict,
conflict, he
he can
can virtually
virtually
become
become a bystander
bystander whose
whose function
function it is to highlight
highlight the
the conflicting
conflicting
demands
demands being
being made
made by members
members of his
his role-set.
role-set. It becomes
becomes a problem
problem
for
for them,
them, rather
rather than
than for
for him,
him, to resolve
resolve their
their contradictory
contradictory demands.
demands.
At the
the least,
least, this
this serves
serves to make
make evident
evident that
that it is not
not wilful
wilful misfesance
misfesance
on his
his part
part which
which keeps
keeps him
him from
from conforming
conforming to all the
the contradictory
contradictory
expectations
expectations imposed
imposed upon
upon him.l°
him. 10 When
When most
most effective,
effective, this
this serves
serves to
articulate
articulate the
the expectations
expectations of those
those in the
the role-set
role-set beyond
beyond a degree
degree
which
which would
would occur,
occur, if this
this mechanism
mechanism of making
making contradictory
contradictory expectaexpectations
tions manifest
manifest were
were not
not at work.
work.
5. Mutual
Mutual social
social suppod
support among
among status-occupants.
status-occupants. Whatever
Whatever he may
may believe
believe
to the contrary,
contrary, the occupant
occupant of a social
social status
status is not
not alone.
alone. The very
very
fact
fact that
that he is placed
placed in a social
social position
position means
means that
that there
there are
are others
others
more
more or
or less
less like-circumstanced.
like-circumstanced. To this
this extent,
extent, the actual
actual or potential
potential
experience
experience of
of facing
facing aa conflict
conflict of expectations
expectations among
among members
members of the
role-set
role-set is
is variously
variously common
common to
to all
all occupants
occupants of the
the status.
status. The particuparticular
persons
subject
to
these
conflicts
lar persons subject to these conflicts need
need not,
not, therefore,
therefore, meet
meet them
them as
as
wholly
wholly private
private problems
problems which
which must
must be
be coped
coped with
with in
in wholly
wholly private
private
fashion.
fashion.
It
It is
is this
this familiar
familiar and
and fundamental
fundamental fact
fact of
of social
social structure,
structure, of
of course,
course,
which
which is
is the
the basis
basis for
for those
those in
in the
the same
same social
social status
status forming
forming the
the
associations
and the
the larger
larger society
society in
in aa
associations interrnediate
intermediate to
to the
the individual
individual and
pluralistic
pluralistic system.
system. These
These orgaIiizations
organizations constitute
constitute aa structural
structural response
response
6
I116
I
This content downloaded on Mon, 25 Feb 2013 14:13:58 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
THE ROLE-SET
THE
ROLE-SET
to
copingwith
with the
the (potentially
(potentiallyor
or actually)
actually)conflicting
conflicting
to the
the problems
problems of coping
demands
in the
demands by
by those
those in
the role-sets
role-sets of the
the status.
I I Whatever
Whatever the
status.ll
the intent,
intent,
these
socialformations
servingto
these constitute
constitute social
formations serving
to counter
counterthe
the power
powerof the
the
role-set;
amenableto
its demands,
demands,but
helping
role-set; of being,
being, not
not merely
merely amenable
to its
but of helping
to
Such organizations
so familiar
familiaraa part
to shape
shape them.
them. Such
organizations-so
part of the
the social
social
landscape
societies-also develop
systems
landscape of differentiated
differentiated societies-also
develop normative
normative systems
which
anticipateand
such conconwhich are
are designed
designed to
to anticipate
and thereby
thereby to
to mitigate
mitigate such
flicting
flicting expectations
expectatioDSli They
They provide
provide social
social support
support to
to the
the individuals
individuals in
the
the status
status under
under attack.
attack. They
They minimize
minimize the
the need
need for
for their
their improurising
improvising
personal
personal adjustments
adjustments to
to patterned
patt.erned types
types of conflicting
conflicting expectations.
expectations.
Emerging
Emerging codes
codes which
which· state
state in advance
advance what
what the
the socially-supported
socially-supported
conduct
conduct of the
the status-occupant
status-occupant should
should be,
be, also
also serve
serve this
this social
social function.
function.
This
This function
function becomes
becomes all
all the
the more
more significant
significant in the
the structural
structural circumcircumstances
stances when
when status-occupants
status-occupants are
are highly
highly vulnerable
vulnerable to
to pressures
pressures from
from
their
their role-set
role-set because
because they
they are
are relatively
relatively isolated
isolated from
from one
one another.
another.
Thus,
Thus, thousands
thousands of librarians
librarians sparsely
sparsely distributed
distributed among
among the
the towns
towns and
and
villages
villages of America
America and
and not
not infrequently
infrequently subject
subject to
to censorial
censorial pressures
pressures
received
received strong
strong support
support from
from the
the code
code on censorship
censorship developed
developed by
by the
the
American
American Library
Library Association.l2
Association. 12 This
This only
only illustrates
illustrates the
the general
general
mechanisms
mechanisms whereby
whereby status-peers
status-peers curb
curb the
the pressures
pressures exerted
exerted upon
upon them
them
individually
individually by drawing
drawing upon
upon the
the organizational
organizational and
and normative
normative support
support
of their
their peers.
peers.
6. Abridging
Abridging the
the role-set.
role-set. There
There is,
is, of course,
course, a limiting
limiting case
case in the
the modes
modes
of coping
coping with
with incompatible
incompatible demands
demands by the
the role-set.
role-set. Role-relations
Role-relations are
are
broken
broken off,
off, leaving
leaving a greater
greater consensus
consensus of
ofrole-expectations
among those
those
role-expectations
among
who
who remain.
remain. But
But this
this mode
mode of adaptation
adaptation by amputating
amputating the
the role-set
role-set is
possible
possible only
only under
under special
special and
and limited
limited conditions.
conditions. It can
can be effectively
effectively
utilized
utilized only
only in those
those circumstances
circumstances where
where it is still
still possible
possible for
for statusstatusoccupants
occupants to perform
perform their
their other
other roles,
roles, without
without the
the support
support of those
those
with
with whom
whom they
they have
have discontinued
discontinued relations.
relations. It presupposes
presupposes that
that the
the
social structure
structure provides
provides this
this option.
option. By
By and
and large,
large, however,
however, this
this option
option
social
is infrequent
infrequent and
and lited,
limited, since
since the
the composition
composition of the
the role-set
role-set is
ordinarily
ordinarily not
not a matter
matter of personal
personal choice
choice but a matter
matter of the
the social
social
organization
organization in which
which the
the status
status is embedded.
embedded. More
More typically,
typically, the
the
individual
individual goes,
goes, and
and the
the social
social structure
structure remains.
remains.
RESIDUAL
RESIDUAL CONFLICT
CONFLICT IN THE ROLE-SET
Doubtless, these
these are
are only
only some
some of the
the mechanisms
mechanisms which
which serve
serve to
Doubtless,
articulate
articulate the
the expectations
expectations of those
those in the
the role-set.
role-set. Further
Further inquiry
inquiry will
will
uncover
uncover others,
others, just as
as it will
will probably
probably modify
modify the
the preceding
preceding account
account
of those
those we have
have provisionally
provisionally identified.
identified. But,
But, however
however much
much the
the subsubstance
stance may
may change,
change, I believe
believe that
that the logic
logic of the
the analysis
analysis will
will remain
remain
largely
largely intact.
intact. This
This can be briefly
briefly recapitulated.
recapitulated.
First,
First, it is assumed
assumed that
that each
each social
social status
status has
has its organized
organized complecomplement
ment of role-relationships
role-relationships which
which can
can be thought
thought of as
as comprising
comprising a
I117
I7
This content downloaded on Mon, 25 Feb 2013 14:13:58 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Ix8
118
ROBERT
ROBERT K. MERTON
MERTON
role-set.
role-set.Second,
Second,relationships
relationshipshold
hold not
not only
only the
the between
betweenoccupant
occupantof
the
particular status
the particular
status and
and each
each member
memberof the
the role-set,
role-set,but
but always
always
potentially and
potentially
and often
often actually,
actually,between
betweenmembers
membersof the
the role-set
role-setitself.
itself.
Third,
Third,to
to the
the extent
extentthat
that members
membersof the
the role-set
role-setthemselves
themselveshold
hold subsubstantially
stantially differing
differingstatuses,
statuses,they
they will
will tend
tend to.
to have
have some
some differing
differing
expectations
expectations(moral
(moraland
and actuarial)
actuarial)of the
the conduct
conductappropriate
appropriatefor
for the
the
status-occupant.
status-occupant.Fourth,
Fourth,this
this gives
gives rise
rise to
to the
the sociological
sociologocalproblem
problemof
how
become sufficiently
how their
their diverse
diverseexpectations
expectationsbecome
sufficientlyarticulated
arficulatedfor
for the
the
status-structure
and
to
status-structure
and the
the role-structure
role-structure
to operate
operatewith
with aa modicum
modicumof
effectiveness.
effectiveness.Fifth,
Fifth, inadequate
inadequatearticulation
articulationof these
these role-expectations
role-expectations
tends
tendsto
to call
call one
one or
or more
moresocial
socialmechanisms
mechanismsinto
into play,
play, which
whichserve
serveto
to
patterned conflict
reduce
reducethe
the extent
extentof patterned
conflictbelow
belowthe
the level
level which
whichwould
wouldbe
be
involved
involvedif these
thesemechanisms
mechanismswere
werenot
not at
at work.
work.
And
And now,
now, sixth,
sixth, finally
finally and
and importantly,
importandy,even
even when
when these
these (and
(and
probably other)
are
probably
other)mechanisms
mechatiisms
areoperating,
operating,they
they may
may not,
not, in particular
pariicular
cases,
prove sufficient
cases,prove
sufficientto
to reduce
reducethe
the conflict
conflictof expectations
expectationsbelow
belowthe
the
level
level required
requiredfor
for the
the social
social structure
structureto
to operate
operate with
with substantial
substantial
effectiveness.
effectiveness.This
This residual
residualconflict
conflictwithin
withinthe
the role-set
role-setmay
may be
be enough
enough
to
to interfere
interferematerially
materiallywith
with the
the effective
effectiveperformance
performanceof roles
roles by
by the
the
occupant
occupantof the
the status
statusin
in question.
question.Indeed,
Indeed,it may
may well
weIl tum
turn out
out that
that
this condition
operating
this
conditionis
is the
the most
mostfrequent
frequentone-role-systems
one role-systems
operatingat
at conconsiderably
siderablyless
less than
than full
full efficiency.
efficiency.Without
Without trying
trying to
to draw
draw tempting
tempting
analogies
analogieswith
with other
other types
types of systems,
systems,II suggest
suggestonly
only that
that this
this is
is not
not
unlike
unlikethe
the case
caseof engines
engineswhich
whichcannot
cannotfully
fullyutilize
utilizeheat
heat energy.
energy.If the
the
analogy
analogylacks
lacksforce,
force, it may
may nevertheless
neverthelesshave
have the
the merit
merit of excluding
excluding
the
utopian figmeilt
the utopian
figmentof aa perfectly
perfectlyeffective
effectivesocial
socialsystem.
system.
for
We
We do
do not
not yet
yet know
knowsome
someof the
the requirements
reqliirements
forfuller
fullerarticulation
ardculation
of the
the relations
between the
relationsbetween
the occupant
occupantof aa status
statusand
and members
membersof his
his
role-set,
role-set,on
on the
the one
one hand,
hand, and
and for
for fuller
fullerarticulation
articuladonof the
the values
valuesand
and
expectations
expectationsamong
amongthose
thosecomprising
comprisingthe
the role-set,
role-set,on
on the
the other.
other.As
As we
we
have
have seen,
seen, even
even those
those requirements
requirementswhich
which can
can now
now be
be identified
identifiedare
are
not
not readily
readilysatisfied,
satisfied,without
withoutfault,
fault,in
in social
socialsystems.
systems.To
To the
the extent
extentthat
that
they
they are
are not,
not, social
socialsystems
systemsare
are forced
forcedto
to limp
limp alone
alonewith
with that
that measure
measure
of ineffectiveness
ineffectivenessand
and inefficiency
inefficiencywhich
whichis
is often
often accepted
acceptedbecause
becausethe
the
realistic
realisticprospect
prospectof decided
decidedimprovement
improvementseems
seemsso
so remote
remoteas
assometimes
sometimes
not
not to
to be
be visible
visibleat
at all.
all.
NOTES
NOTES
11 The
Ihe author
author was
was C.
C. R. Henderson,
Henderson,
the
the social
social meliorist
meliorist and
and professor
professorof
sociology
sociologyin the
the University
Universityof Chicago:
Chicago:
'Business
'Business men
men and
and social
social theorists',
theorists',
American Journal
1I89S--g6,
Arrcan
iournalof Sociology,
Sociology,
895-96,
x, 38.5-97,
3857, at
at 389.
389
I,
S
' Emile
E:mileDurkheim,
Durkheim,'La
'La sociologie
sociologieet
et
son
son domaine
domainescientifique',
scientifique',first
firstpublished
published
in
di
1900,
in Rivista
Rivistaltaliana
Italauta
di Sociologia,
Sociologsa,
I900, ~
i,
127
I27 if.,
ff., but
but coming
comingto
to my
my attention
attentiononly
only
after
as
afterit was
was reprinted
repnnted
as an
an appendix
appendixto
to
t
Armand
Ou
Armand Cuvillers
Cuvillers'
Ou va
va la
la sociologie.
soaologsc.
franfaise? (Paris:
fransisc?
(Paris: Librairie
Librairie Marcel
Marcel
RiviEreet
et Qie,
(:ie, 1953),
I953), 178-208.
I78-208.
Riviere
a3 L.
L. J. Henderson
Hendersonmade
made these
thesemattermatterof-fact
of-factobservations
obsetvationssome
some time
time ago,
ago, but,
but,
This content downloaded on Mon, 25 Feb 2013 14:13:58 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
ROLE-SET
THE ROLE-SET
119
I x9
evident
bridge, Mass.:
Mass.: Harvard
Harvard University
University
evidentas
as they
theyare,
are, they
they often
oftendrop
dropfrom
from bridge,
view.
Press,1957).
I957).
view. See
See his
his comparison
comparisonbetween
between the
the Press,
8 Bernard
character
BernardBarber
Barberhas
has drawn
drawn out
out the
the
characterof organic
orgaxiicchemistry
chemistryand
and of
implicationsof this
this structural
structuralfact
fact in
in his
his
sociology,
Pareto's General
sociology, in Parcto's
GcntralSociology
Socwlogy implications
(Cambridge,
study of voluntary
voluntaryassociations;
associations;see
see his
his
(Cambridge,Mass.:
Mass.:Harvard
HarvardUniversity
University study
'Participation
Press,1935),
I 935), 107-8.
I o78.
'Participation and
and mass
mass apathy
apathy in
Press,
,' On
associations',in
in A.
A. W.
W. Gouldner,
Gouldner,ed.,
ed.,
On the
the general
generalissue,
issue,see
see the
the obserobser- associations',
vations
Nagel. 'Despite
in
Leadership (New
vations of Ernest
Ernest Nagel.
'Despite the
the Studies
Studzes
in Lcadership
(New York:
York:Harper
Harper
variability
0 ), 477-504,
variability and
and instability
instability of social
social &
& Brothers,
Brothers,195
x950),
477-504, especially
especially
be at
phenomena, they
phenomena,
they may
may nevertheless
neverthelessbe
at 486
486 if.
ff.
subsumable
subsumableunder
underaa common
commontheory
theory.••
...
RobertK.
K. Merton,
Merton,Social
SocialTheory
Ncoy and
and
•' Robert
though
SocialStructure
Stmsturc(Glencoe,
(Glencoe, Illinois:
Illinois: The
The
thoughwhether
whetherthis
thisis
is more
morethan
thanaa fancy
fancy Social
is
present any
is at
at present
any man's
man'sguess.
guess.But
But some
some Free
Free Press,
Press,rev.
rev. ed.,
ed., in
in press),
press), 336-56.
336-56.
things are
things
are fairly
fairly clear.
clear. If aa comprehencomprehen- This
This discussion
discussionof role-set
role-setdraws
draws upon
upon
sive
one part
partof Chapter
ChapterIX, 'Continuities
'Continuitiesin
in
sive social
socialtheory
theoryis
is ever
everachieved,
achieved,it will
will one
not be
be aa theory
not
theoryofhistorical
of historicaldevelopment,
development, the
the Theory
Theory of Reference
Reference Groups
Groups and
and
according
accordingto
to which
which societies
societiesand
and instituinstitu- Social
SocialStructures',
Structures',368-84.
368 84.
10
tions succeed
10See
See the
the observations
observationsby
by William
WilliamG.
G.
tions
succeedone
one another
anotherin
in aa series
seriesof
inevitable
inevitablechanges.
changes.Those
Thosewho
who are
are seekseek- Carr,
Carr, the
the executive
executive secretary
secretary of the
the
ing
ing aa comprehensive
comprehensivesocial
social theory
theory by
by National
NationalEducation
EducationAssociation,
Association,who
who has
has
charting
summarized some
some of the
the conflicting
conflicting
chartingthe
the rise
rise and
and decline
declineof civilizaciviliza- summarized
tions,
pressuresexerted
exertedupon
upon school
school curricula
curricula
tions, are
are looking
looking for
for it in
in the
the wrong
wrong pressures
place. The
undoubtedly have
place.
The theory
theorywill
will undoubtedly
have by
by voluntary
voluntaryorganizations,
organizations,such
such as
as the
the
be highly
to
to be
highlyabstract,
abstract,if it
it is
is to
to cut
cut across
across American
AmericanLegion,
Legion,the
the Association
Associationfor
forthe
the
the
the actual
actualcultural
culturaldifferences
differencesin
in human
human United
United Nations,
Nations, the
the National
National Safety
Safety
behaviour. Its
Council,the
the Better'
BetterBusiness
BusinessBureau,
Bureau,the
the
behaviour.
Its concept
concept will
will have
have to
to be
be Council,
apparently
AmericanFederation
Federationof Labour,
Labour,and
and the
the
apparently remote
remote from
from the
the familiar
familiar American
and
Daughtersof the
the American
AmericanRevolution.
Revolution.
and obvious
obvious traits
traits found
found in
in anyone
any one Daughters
society;
society; its
its articulation
articulationwill
will involve
involve the
the His
His summary
summarymay
may serve
serve through
throughconconuse
crete example
example to
to indicate
indicatethe
the extent
extent of
use of novel
novelalgorithmic
algorithmictechniques;
techniques;and
and crete
its
its application
applicationto
to concrete
concretematerials
materialswill
will competing
competingexpectations
expectationsamong
among those
those in
in
require special
require
special training
training of high
high order.
order. the
the complex
complex role-set
role-set of school
school supersuperbe aa theory
But
But above
aboveall,
all, it will
will have
have to
to be
theory intendents
intendentsand
and local
local school
schoolboards
boardsin
in as
as
for
differentiatedaa society
society as
as our
our own.
own.
for which
which aa method
method of evaluating
evaluatingevievi- differentiated
dence
be available
which does
dence must
mut be
availablewhich
does not
not Sometimes,
Sometimes, Mr.
Mr. Carr
Carr reports,
reports, these
these
depend
dependon
on the
the vagaries
vagariesofspecial
of specialinsights
insights voluntary
voluntary organizations
organizations 'speak
'speak their
their
and
private intuitions.
and private
intuitions.It will
will have
have to
to be
be collective
collective opinions
opixiionstemperately,
temperately,somesomeaa theory
theory which,
which, in its
timesscurrilously,
scurrilously,but
but always
alwaysinsistently.
insistently.
its method
methodof articuarticu- times
lating its
lating
its concepts
concepts and
and evaluating
evaluating its
its They
They organize
organize contests,
contests, drives,
drives, colleccollecbe continuous
evidence,
will be
tions, exhibits,
exhibits, special
special days,
days, special
special
evidence, will
continuow with
with the
the tions,
theories of the
weeks, and
and anniversaries
anniversariesthat
that run
run all
all
theories
the natural
naturalsciences.'
sciences.''Prob'Prob- weeks,
lems
theory formation
le of concept
concept and
and theory
formation year
year long.
long.
'They
in
the social
Science, Languagc,
Language,
'They demand
demandthat
that the
the public
publicschools
schools
in the
socialsciences',
sciences',in
in Sci4nsc,
and
Human Rights.
Rights. Proceedings
Proceedings of the
give more
more attention
attention to
to Little
Little League
League
and Human
the give
American Philosophical
Philosophical Association,
baseball, first
first aid,
aid, mental
mental hygiene,
hygiene,
American
Association, baseball,
Eastern Division,
Division, Volume
Volume II (Philaspeech correction,
correction,Spanish
Spanish in
in the
the first
first
Eastern
(Phila- speech
delphia:
grade, military
military preparedness,
preparedness, interinterdelphia: University
University of Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania grade,
national
2 ), 4343,
national understanding,
understanding,modern
modernmusic,
music,
Press,
I952),
at 63.
63.
43-63, at
Press, 195
i6 In writing
writing of Keyncs's
Keynes's theories,
theories, world
world history,
history, American
American history,
history, and
and
F. Harrod
Harrod characterizes
local history,
history, geography
geography and
and homehomeR. F.
characterizeseconomics
economicsin
in local
much these
these terms.
Lift of John
John making,
much
terms. The
Nc Life
malcing,Canada
Canadaand
and South
SouthAmerica,
America,the
the
Maynard MCgtncs
Keynes (Macmillan,
Maynard
(Macrrlillan,London,
London, Arabs
Arabsand
and the
thc Israeli,
Israeli,the
the Turks
Turksand
and the
the
Greeks,
Greeks,Christopher
ChristopherColumbus
Columbusand
and Leif
Leif
I95I),1), 462-3462-3.
195
Marshall, 'A
'A note
note on
on Ericsson,
Ericsson,Robert
Robert E.
E. Lee
Lee and
and Woodrow
Woodrow
•' T. H. Marshall,
"status"
M. Kapadia
"status""', in K. M.
Kapadia (editor),
(editor), Wilson,
Wilson,nutrition,
nutrition,care
care of the
the teeth,
teeth, free
frec
Professor Ghurye
Felicitation Volume
(Bomenterprise,labour
labour relations,
relations,cancer
cancerprepreProfessor
Ghuryc
Fclstation
Volurnc
(Bom- enterprise,
vention,
bay: Popular
Popular Book
Depot, n.d.),
n.d.), 11-19.
vention, human
human relationships,
relationships,atomic
atomic
bay:
BookDepot,
I I-I9.
7 R. K. Merton,
L. Kendall,
Merton, P.
P. L.
Kendall, and
and energy,
energy, the
the use
use of firearms,
firearms,the
the ConConG.
Reader, editors,
G. G.
G. Reader,
editors, The
Nc StudentStudunt- stitution,
stitution,tobacco,
tobacco,temperance,
temperance,kindness
kindness
Physician: Introductory
Introductory Studies
Physician:
Studies in
in the
tfw to
to animals,
animals, Esperanto,
Esperanto,the
the 33 R's,
R's, the
the
Sociology of Medical
Medical Edacation
Education (CamSociology
(Cam- 3 C's
C'sand
and the
the 4 F's,
F's, use
use of the
the typewriter
typewriter
This content downloaded on Mon, 25 Feb 2013 14:13:58 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
120
I20
ROBERT K. MERTON
ROBERT
MERTON
and legible
legible penmanship,
and
penmanship, moral
moral values,
values,
physical
fitness, ethical
ethical concepts,
concepts, civil
civil
physical fitness,
defence, religious
literacy, thrift,
law
defence,
religious literacy,
thrift, law
observance,
observance, consumer
consumer education,
education, narnarcotics,
cotics, mathematics,
mathematics, dramatics,
dramatics, physics,
physics,
and (that
(that latest
latest of all
all educaeducaceramics, and
ceramics,
tional
tional discoveries)
discoveries) phonics.
phonics.
'Each
is anxious
'Each of these
these groups
groups is
anxious to
to
avoid
avoid overloading
overloading the
the curriculum.
curriculum. All
any
any of them
them ask
ask is that
that the
the non-essentials
non-essentials
be dropped
dropped in order
order to get
get their
their material
material
in. Most
insistthat
Most of them
them insist
that they
they do
do not
not
want
want a special
special coursthey
course-they just
just want
want
their
their ideas
ideas to permeate
permeate the
the entire
entire daily
daily
programme.
programme. Every
Every one
one of them
them proproclaims
claims a firm
firm belief
belief in local
local control
control of
education
education and
and an apprehensive
apprehensive hatred
hatred of
national
national control.
control.
'Nevertheless,
'Nevertheless,if their
their national
national ororgaxiizationprogramme
ganization
programme in
in education
educationis
is
not
not adopted
adoptedforthwith,
forthwith,many
manyof them
themuse
use
the pressure
the press,
the
pressure of the
press, the
the radiance
radianceof
the
props of propapropathe radio,
radio, and
and all
all the
the props
ganda to
to bypass
ganda
bypass their
their elected
elected school
school
board.' An
An address
board.'
addressat
at the
the inauguration
inauguration
of Hollis
Hollis Leland
Leland Caswell,
Caswell, Teachers
Teachers
College,
College, Columbia
ColumbiaUniversity,
University,NovemNovember
I955, 10.
IO.
ber 2I-2,
21-2, 1955,
11
this context,
11In
In this
context, see
see the
the acute
acute
analysis
analysisof the
the formation
formationof the
the National
National
Union
Union of Teachers
Teachersby Asher
AsherTropp,
Tropp, The
Nc
School
School Teachers
Teachers(London:
(London: Heinemann,
Heinemann,
1957)·
I 957).
11
P. McKeon,
McKeon, R. K. Merton
Merton
19See
See R. P.
and
and W.
Freedom to
W. Gellhom,
Gellhorn, Freedom
to Read
Rcad
(1957)·
(I957).
This content downloaded on Mon, 25 Feb 2013 14:13:58 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions