Ventilation Requirement for ‘Electric’
Underground Hard Rock Mines – A
Conceptual Study
A Halim1 and M Kerai2
ABSTRACT
The electric power price in mining countries such as Australia and South Africa has increased
significantly in the past five years and is likely to continue to increase in the foreseeable future.
This can make a mine uneconomic to operate. Replacing diesel vehicles with electric ones can
reduce ventilation power consumption, which can comprise up to 40 per cent of total mine power
consumption. However, no such airflow requirement for electric vehicles is stated in any mining
regulations in the world.
In this paper, the authors investigate the ventilation requirement of an electric vehicle operating
in an underground hard rock mine. Quantification of atmospheric contaminant emitted by an
electric vehicle was done at Rio Tinto’s Northparkes mine, followed by thermodynamic and
ventilation network simulations using Ventsim Visual software.
INTRODUCTION
The electric power required for the ventilation system for
a mine is one of the major components of the total electric
power consumption, which can be up to 40 per cent (Mining
Magazine, 2010). To reduce ventilation power consumption,
ventilation requirement must be reduced. One option to
achieve this is to replace diesel vehicles with electric ones.
An electric motor produces zero emissions (ie no gases and
diesel particulate matter – DPM) and only emits one-third the
heat of an equivalent diesel engine. Airflow specification can
therefore be less (Marks, 2012; McPherson, 2009).
Currently ventilation requirement in underground hard
rock mines is determined by multiplying the rated diesel
engine power of all vehicles with the regulatory airflow
requirement. Some examples are:
•
0.05 m3/s per kW rated engine power is the requirement in
Western Australia Mines Safety and Inspection Regulation
(WAMSIR) 1995, regulation 10.52 (6) (WA Government,
1995)
• 0.06 m3/s per kW is the requirement in New South Wales
(NSW) Mining Design Guideline (MDG) 29 – Guidelines
for the management of diesel engine pollutants in
underground environments (NSW Government, 2008)
• 0.063 m3/s per kW is the requirement in Ontario, Canada
(Kocsis, 2003)
• 0.067 m3/s per kW is the requirement in Indonesian mines
(Brake, 2010).
Currently, there is no such requirement for electric vehicles
in any mine regulations in the world. To the authors’
knowledge, the only regulation concerning ventilation for
electric vehicles is WAMSIR 1995 regulation 9.34 which states
that a minimum air velocity of 0.25 m/s is maintained in all
underground areas in the mine where vehicles or locomotives
powered by electricity is used. However, this means that the
airflow quantity will be different depending on the dimension
of the area where they work. For example, a 14 tonne loadhaul-dump (LHD) unit with motor power of 178 kW will have
airflow quantity of 4 m3/s in a 4 × 4 m heading and 6.25 m3/s
in a 5 × 5 m heading. This means that the smaller heading will
have higher temperature than the larger one. This is not the
right approach as the amount of heat produced by an electric
vehicle depends on the output of all electric motors in that
vehicle, not on the dimension of the heading. The airflow
quantity should therefore be governed by the output of the
motors.
METHODOLOGY
The first step of this study was to quantify the contaminant
produced by an electric heavy vehicle, which is heat.
The measurement to quantify heat produced by an electric
heavy vehicle was done at Rio Tinto’s Northparkes coppergold mine in New South Wales. This mine was selected as it
exclusively uses electric vehicles, which are electric LHD units,
as its main production equipment. The LHD unit is Sandvik
LH514E. Data collected were dry bulb (DB) temperature, wet
bulb (WB) temperature, Barometric pressure, airflow quantity
(air velocity and airway dimension). By using psychometric
equations, the amount of heat produced by an electric LHD
can be calculated. In addition to this, power consumed by
the unit was also determined by measuring current, voltage
and power factor. This is to validate a popular assumption
1. MAusIMM, Lecturer, Department of Mining Engineering, Western Australian School of Mines, Curtin University, Locked Bag 30 Kalgoorlie WA 6433. Email: [email protected]
2. Graduate Mining Engineer, Barrick Australia Pacific. Formerly undergraduate student, Department of Mining Engineering, Western Australian School of Mines, Curtin University, Locked Bag 30
Kalgoorlie WA 6433.
THE AUSTRALIAN MINE VENTILATION CONFERENCE / ADELAIDE, SA, 1 - 3 JULY 2013
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A HALIM AND M KERAI
that heat produced by an electric vehicle is equal to the power
consumed by it if the vehicle does not do any work against
gravity. The literature review found that this assumption had
never been validated prior to this research.
Thermodynamic and ventilation network simulations were
done as the next step. The software Ventsim Visual was used.
The aim of these simulations was to determine the total airflow
quantity that is required in order to have WB temperature at
the deepest part of the mine less than or equal to 30°C (design
reject temperature). Although the common design limit used
is 28°C, with the extensive utilisation of air conditioned cabin
vehicles in modern mines the design limit can be increased
to 30°C. These vehicles assist heat stress management by
providing microclimate cooling, ie the vehicles’ operator
spend most of his/her time in cool environment, personnel
working outside air conditioned cabin can take regular breaks
inside the vehicle. A similar limit is used in Callie underground
gold mine in Northern Territory, which is 30.5°C (Howes and
Clarke, 2007).
Model of two currently operating hard rock underground
mines in Western Australia were used with their known fleet
of machinery. The first is a deep mine which extends to over
a kilometre deep and the second is a shallow mine which
extends to 600 m deep. The models were generated using
two distinct thermal conditions found in Australian mining
regions, namely Kalgoorlie (cool strata) and Mount Isa (hot
strata). Their thermal parameters can be altered in Ventsim
Visual. One input of a thermodynamic simulation using
Ventsim Visual is the heat emitted by an electric vehicle. For
this purpose, it was essential to determine the ratio between
the heat emitted and total electric motor output of the
LH514E. The heat emitted was measured as 145 kW and the
total motor output of this LHD is 178.7 kW. This results in a
ratio of 81 per cent. However, since this ratio varies in every
electrical equipment, a conservative approach was taken in
the simulation. Therefore, it was assumed that the amount of
heat emitted from every conceptual electric vehicle is equal
to its motor output. This approach also takes into account
potential energy and braking heat dissipated by the vehicle
when it travels downhill in decline.
will be inputted as a point source of sensible heat. Although
an electric vehicle can have fuel cell as its power source, fuel
cell produces moisture and therefore emits sensible and latent
heat. The main reason for using this assumption is that the
quantification of heat emitted by a mining electric heavy
vehicle was done on a cable trailed LHD, which does not
produces moisture and hence the heat emitted by this vehicle
should be equal to that emitted by a battery powered vehicle.
QUANTIFYING HEAT EMITTED BY A MINING
ELECTRIC HEAVY VEHICLE
As described before, the quantification of heat emitted
by a mining electric heavy vehicle was done at Rio Tinto’s
Northparkes Copper-Gold mine in New South Wales, which
exclusively uses Sandvik LH514E LHD units as its main
production equipment. The unit operates on a delivered
voltage of about 1000 V. It is equipped with three electric
motors, one drive motor (132 kW), one pump motor (45 kW),
and one fan motor (1.5 kW). The LH514E carries an arrow
head design bucket with a capacity of 7 m3.
To determine heat emitted by an LH514E, the following
parameters were measured upstream and downstream of the
LHD operating in a production drive (refer to Figure 1):
•
•
•
DB temperature
WB temperature
Barometric pressure.
In addition to these, airflow quantity that flows in the
production drive was measured by measuring air velocity
and drive cross sectional area. Using these measurement
results and psychometric equations, the amount of heat that
was emitted by the unit could be calculated.
The measurements were taken while the LHD unit had
come to a halt. Unlike diesel vehicles, there is no difference
between idling and full throttle as the electric motor always
runs at constant speed. This is because when accelerator pedal
is pressed, the motor is engaged to the drive wheel and when
the pedal is released, the motor is disengaged from the drive
wheel.
It was then necessary to determine the motor output of
every conceptual electric vehicle. The only way to do this is to
compare the power output of an electric vehicle and a diesel
vehicle that have same workload. The only large vehicle that
is manufactured as a diesel and as an electric is Sandvik’s
LH514 LHD unit. The motor output of the LH514 electric is
70 per cent of its diesel equivalent (Sandvik Mining, 2012).
Therefore, it was assumed that every conceptual electric
vehicle in the fleet has motor power of 70 per cent of its
diesel equivalent. With this assumption, the existing mining
diesel fleet was converted into a conceptual electric fleet by
multiplying their engine power with 70 per cent.
The final step was running Ventsim Visual simulations.
After mine thermal parameters and heat emitted from
conceptual electric vehicles were set, the primary fan was
adjusted with various values of fixed quantity that is sufficient
enough to have the WB temperature less than or equal to
30°C at the deepest part of the mine. This fixed quantity was
then subtracted with leakage and fixed facilities (fuel bay/
workshop and magazine) quantities, and then divided by the
total fleet output power to obtain unit requirement as m3/s
per kW output. Refrigeration plant was included in the
simulation if required.
It was assumed that these vehicles are battery powered,
which do not produce moisture. Therefore, all the machinery
216
FIG 1 - Locations of LH514E heat quantification measurements.
THE AUSTRALIAN MINE VENTILATION CONFERENCE / ADELAIDE, SA, 1 - 3 JULY 2013
VENTILATION REQUIREMENT FOR ‘ELECTRIC’ UNDERGROUND HARD ROCK MINES – A CONCEPTUAL STUDY
Various instruments were required in order to complete the
measurements. They were supplied by the Western Australian
School of Mines (WASM). The Kestrel 4000 pocket weather
meter was used to measure the DB and WB temperatures, the
Druck DPI 740 digital barometer was used to measure the
barometric pressures, Alnor RVA501 digital anemometer was
used to measure air velocity, and the Leica Disto was used to
measure dimension of the airway.
The main aim of the measurements is to have sufficient and
reliable data regarding the heat emitted by the LHD unit.
Therefore, the measurements were undertaken as close as
possible to the LHD unit in order to prevent the data being
interfered from other heat sources present in an underground
hard rock mine such as ground, the concrete pavement, the
caved ore in drawpoints, and water in the production drive.
However, it was also understood that there is a high safety
risk for personnel to get close to a running electric LHD unit.
Therefore, a risk assessment (RA) and a job safety analysis
(JSA) were conducted before the measurements were taken.
There is a popular assumption that heat emitted by an
electric vehicle is equal to the power consumed by the vehicle.
In order to validate this assumption, the current, voltage and
power factor were also measured.
VENTSIM VISUAL SIMULATIONS
Simulation of the deep mine
The mine fleet (existing diesel and conceptual electric) of the
deep mine is listed in Table 3. The mine employs parallel
circuit except at the deepest block which employs series
circuit.
TABLE 1
Data collected at Northparkes Mine.
Trial
1
2
3
4
5
Average
Front of load-haul-dump
Barometric
DB
WB
pressure
(°C)
(°C)
(Pa)
End of load-haul-dump
Barometric
DB
WB
pressure
(°C)
(°C)
(Pa)
21.00
21.50
21.30
21.20
21.50
18.90
18.90
18.90
19.00
18.90
16.20
16.30
16.00
16.20
16.20
106 197.00
106 189.00
106 117.00
106 181.00
106 209.00
13.40
13.60
13.60
14.00
13.80
21.30 16.18 106 178.60 18.92 13.68 106 207.20
TABLE 2
Heat emitted by LH514E.
Power consumption by the unit was calculated using the
following equations:
Trial
1
161.8
E = (√3 × V × I × cosθ)/1000
2
156.6
3
138.8
(1)
where:
106 205.00
106 201.00
106 202.00
106 211.00
106 217.00
Heat (kW)
4
128.3
E
= power consumption (kW)
5
139.2
V
= voltage (V)
Average
145.0
I
= current (A)
cosθ
= power factor
TABLE 3
Deep mine fleet.
Once these calculations were done, comparison between
power consumed by the LHD unit and heat emitted by it
could be done and the assumption could be validated.
Diesel
engine
power
(kW)
Electric
motor
output
(kW)
Fleet
size
Total
electric
output
(kW)
Measurements were done across five points at the front and
rear of the LHD unit to minimise the errors. Results of these
measurements are shown in Table 1.
Unit
Light vehicle
98
68.6
12
823.2
As shown in Table 1, the variations between the values
of each point do not deviate by a huge amount. The air
quantity in the drive was measured as 17.2 m3/s (21.6 kg/s).
Using these results, heat emitted by the electric LHD was
determined using psychometric equations included in an
excel spreadsheet. Table 2 shows the heat emitted by the LHD
for different trials.
Light truck (stores) – long
221
154.7
1
154.7
Light truck (stores) – short
176
123.2
1
123.2
The average heat generated from Table 2 was then compared
with the power consumed by the LHD. Power consumption
was calculated as 147 kW. The voltage, current, and power
factor for the LHD were measured as 1000 V, 100 A, and 0.85
respectively.
The heat generated (145 kW) and power consumption
(147 kW) is very similar and the variation between these
values is due to the measurement errors. This finding validates
assumption that heat generated by an electric vehicle equals
to its power consumption.
Charge up rig
104
72.8
1
72.8
IT
152
106.4
2
212.8
Jumbo
110
77
2
154
Production drill
104
72.8
2
145.6
Medium LHD
231
161.7
2
323.4
Large LHD
321
224.7
5
1123.5
Small truck
485
339.5
6
2037
Large truck
548
383.6
5
1918
Grader
152
106.4
2
212.8
Water cart
152
106.4
2
212.8
Shotcrete rig
82
57.4
1
57.4
Concrete agitator
170
119
THE AUSTRALIAN MINE VENTILATION CONFERENCE / ADELAIDE, SA, 1 - 3 JULY 2013
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238
TOTAL
7809.2
217
A HALIM AND M KERAI
Not all vehicles listed in Table 3 are present inside the mine
at the same time. The simulation was run with the vehicles
listed in Table 4 operating in the mine at the same time. This
is the typical operational situation in this mine. Jumbos and
longhole drills were not included as they run with their small
electric motor while drilling. Their motor output is so small
and therefore can be negligible.
block of the mine. This fleet was based on the actual diesel
fleet used in this mining block. The electric motor output was
estimated based on the 70 per cent diesel power assumption
described before. The fixed quantity of the booster fan was
adjusted along with that of the primary fan in order to find
total quantity that will cause WB temperature less than or
equal to 30°C in the deepest part of the mine.
TABLE 4
Vehicles operating in the deep mine at the same time.
TABLE 7
Electric vehicle fleet in the deepest block of the deep mine.
Equipment
Unit
Fleet size
IT
1
Large truck
4
Grader
1
Water cart
1
Large LHD
3
Small truck
3
Light vehicle
7
Light vehicle
As described before, two distinct thermal conditions were
included in this simulation, namely Kalgoorlie (cool strata)
and Mount Isa (hot strata). Tables 5 and 6 list the thermal
parameters for cool and hot strata respectively. These
values were obtained from measurements in mines around
Kalgoorlie and Mount Isa (Derrington, 2009; Nixon, Gillies
and Howes, 1992; H W Wu, pers. comm., 16 August 2012).
The average airway age of this mine is nine years.
Values
Rock thermal conductivity
Rock thermal diffusivity
Rock temperature at surface/portal
Geothermal gradient
Airway wetness factor
Average surface barometric pressure
Average surface summer temperatures
1.75 W/m°C
0.75 × 10-6 m2/s
23°C
8.5°C/km vertical metres
10%
Rock thermal conductivity
Rock thermal diffusivity
Rock temperature at surface/portal
23°C WB, 35°C DB
343
Charge up rig
72.8
1
72.8
IT
106.4
1
106.4
Jumbo
77
1
77
Production drill
72.8
2
145.6
Large LHD
224.7
2
449.4
Small truck
339.5
1
339.5
Large truck
383.6
5
1918
Grader
106.4
1
106.4
Water cart
106.4
1
106.4
Shorcrete rig
57.4
1
57.4
Concrete agitator
119
1
119
TOTAL
3840.9
Quantity without leakage = 900/1.25 = 720 m3/s
3.67 W/m°C
Quantity for vehicle fleet (less quantity for fixed facilities) =
720 - 20 = 700 m3/s.
2.07 x 10-6 m2/s
28°C
Airway wetness factor
10%
98.5 kPa
25°C WB, 35°C DB
In order to address the shortage of airflow in its deepest
block, this mine utilises a booster fan. Table 7 shows the
conceptual electric vehicle fleet that is used in the deepest
218
5
Total quantity = 900 m3/s
Values
19.92°C/km vertical metres
Average surface summer temperatures
68.6
The fixed quantity in the primary fans takes into account the
20 m3/s requirement for fixed facilities and the leakage factor
of 25 per cent. Therefore, the quantity required for the fleet
had to be adjusted accordingly as shown:
Geothermal gradient
Average surface barometric pressure
Total output
(kW)
It was found that if a refrigeration plant is not employed,
the mine located in cool strata requires a total quantity of
900 m3/s in its primary fans and 415 m3/s in its booster fan.
98 kPa
TABLE 6
Mount Isa (hot strata) thermal parameters.
Parameters
Fleet size
As with the fixed quantity in the primary fan, this fixed
quantity was then adjusted to exclude leakage quantity and
then divided by the total motor output shown in Table 7 to
obtain unit ventilation requirement in m3/s per kW. No fixed
facilities quantity was subtracted from this fixed quantity as
the fixed facilities are located above this block. This value was
then compared with that obtained from the fixed quantity
in the primary fan. Both fixed quantities were then varied in
the model, until a WB temperature of 30°C was reached in
the deepest part of the mine and both produced similar unit
ventilation requirement.
TABLE 5
Kalgoorlie (cool strata) thermal parameters.
Parameters
Motor output
(kW)
The total output power of the conceptual electric vehicles
is noted to be 7809.2 kW. By simply dividing the required
quantity of 700 m3/s with the total power output of 7809.2 kW,
the unit requirement was calculated as 0.09 m3/s per kW
electric motor output.
For the fleet used in the deepest block, the quantity that
was allocated for the fleet was calculated by excluding 20 per
cent leakage factor from the booster fan fixed quantity. It was
found that the fleet quantity is 415/1.2 = 350 m3/s. The unit
requirement was calculated by dividing this quantity by the
THE AUSTRALIAN MINE VENTILATION CONFERENCE / ADELAIDE, SA, 1 - 3 JULY 2013
VENTILATION REQUIREMENT FOR ‘ELECTRIC’ UNDERGROUND HARD ROCK MINES – A CONCEPTUAL STUDY
total output power of the conceptual electric vehicles used in
this block (3840.9 kW). The requirement is 0.09 m3/s per kW,
which is same with that calculated from the fixed quantity in
the primary fan.
However, this requirement causes air velocity greater than
5 m/s in many parts of decline, which causes visibility issues
due to dust pick up. Therefore, another simulation was done
in which a refrigeration plant is employed in order to reduce
airflow requirement and air velocity in decline. In order to
reduce air velocity to be less than 5 m/s, the total quantity
in the primary fans and booster fan have to be reduced to
420 m3/s and 185 m3/s. A 1.5 MW of refrigeration capacity
(R) surface refrigeration plant has to be employed. These
correspond to a unit requirement of 0.04 m3/s per kW electric
motor output, which is less than the current world regulatory
requirements for the diesel fleet which are 0.05 to 0.067 m3/s
per rated kW diesel engine power.
For the mine that is located in hot strata, it was found that
to achieve same requirement, a 5 MW(R) surface refrigeration
plant has to be employed.
Simulation of the shallow mine
The mine fleet at this mine is listed below in Table 8 with the
vehicles operating in a mine at the same time listed in Table 9.
The shallow mine is a series ventilation circuit in which each
level (ore drive) is ventilated by auxiliary fan and lay flat duct.
In addition to heat from the vehicles listed on Table 9, ten
TABLE 8
Shallow mine fleet.
Unit
The shallow mine located in hot strata requires a total quantity
of 200 m3/s at its primary fan without any refrigeration plant.
The higher requirement reflects the additional heat load from
warmer strata. The ventilation requirement was calculated
as 0.068 m3/s per kW. This requirement causes air velocity
greater than 5 m/s in many parts of decline. Therefore,
another simulation was done in which a refrigeration plant
is employed in order to reduce airflow requirement and air
velocity in decline. With a 1 MW(R) surface plant installed,
the primary fan quantity is reduced to 120 m3/s, which
corresponds to unit requirement of 0.037 m3/s per kW. This
is less than the current world regulatory requirements for the
diesel fleet which are 0.05 to 0.067 m3/s per rated kW diesel
engine power.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Table 10 summarises the estimated unit ventilation
requirement for electric vehicles with the size of refrigeration
plant installed if required.
5
343
2
92.4
TABLE 10
Summary of estimated unit ventilation requirement for electric vehicles.
86.1
2
172.2
99.4
2
198.8
208.6
2
417.2
Electric
motor
output
(kW)
Fleet size
Light vehicle
98
68.6
Charge up rig
66
46.2
Small LHD type 1
123
Small LHD type 2
142
Large LHD
298
Large truck
600
420
1
420
Medium truck
392
274.4
1
274.4
IT
82
57.4
2
114.8
Shotcrete rig
82
57.4
1
57.4
Concrete agitator
100
70
1
70
TOTAL
2160.2
TABLE 9
Vehicles operating in the shallow mine at the same time.
Large truck
The shallow mine located in cool strata requires a
total quantity of 90 m3/s at its primary fan without any
refrigeration plant. This quantity includes 20 per cent leakage
factor. Therefore, the ventilation requirement was obtained
by adjusted this quantity to exclude leakage and fixed
facilities, and then dividing the adjusted quantity by the
total output power of 2160.2 kW. This resulted in required
quantity of 0.025 m3/s per kW electric motor output, which is
less than the current world regulatory requirements of 0.05 to
0.067 m3/s per rated kW diesel engine power.
Total
electric
output
(kW)
Diesel
engine
power
(kW)
Unit
90 kW ore drive auxiliary fans were turned on in the model
to simulate heat emitted by them. This reflects the typical
condition in this mine where ten ore drives are active at a
time. The average airway age in this mine is three years. The
mine has a magazine and a fuel bay.
Fleet size
1
Medium truck
1
IT
1
Light vehicle
3
Small LHD type 1
1
Small LHD type 2
1
Large LHD
1
Mine
Note
Thermal
Airflow
condition requirement
(m3/s /kW)
Deep mine
Cool
0.04
A 1.5 MW(R) surface refrigeration
plant is required
Deep mine
Hot
0.04
A 5 MW(R) surface refrigeration
plant is required
Shallow
mine
Cool
0.025
No refrigeration plant is required
Shallow
mine
Hot
0.037
A 1 MW(R) surface refrigeration
plant is required
It can be seen from Table 10 that for shallow mine located in
cool strata, there is an indication that utilising electric vehicles
will require less ventilation than utilising diesel vehicles,
and therefore will save primary fan power cost. In deep
mines located in cool strata and mines located in hot strata,
a refrigeration plant is required to achieve this condition.
Increasing refrigeration plant size will reduce ventilation
requirement. However, the caveat is that the mine will incur
additional cost to install, operate and maintain the plant. An
optimisation study to gain an understanding of the balance
between ventilation requirement and refrigeration plant size
should be carried out in the future.
THE AUSTRALIAN MINE VENTILATION CONFERENCE / ADELAIDE, SA, 1 - 3 JULY 2013
219
A HALIM AND M KERAI
The popular assumption that heat emitted by electric vehicle
equals to its power consumption was validated in this study.
The simulations done in this study were only based on two
mines. As each mine is unique and has its specific ventilation
circuit, vehicle fleet, and geothermal parameters, a similar
simulation of other mines might produce different results. It
is recommended that similar simulation is done in different
mines in order to support the indication found in this study.
This study was done with an assumption that all electric
vehicles are powered by battery due to the inability to
quantifying heat emitted by a fuel cell powered mining vehicle
since such a vehicle is yet to be commercially available. It is
recommended that when fuel cell powered mining vehicles
are available, the heat emitted by these vehicles is quantified
and therefore a similar study could be carried out on fuel cell
powered vehicles.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study required visiting Rio Tinto’s Northparkes Mines,
which was made possible through the funding from Mining
Education Australia (MEA). The authors would like to thank
Professor Peter Knight, Executive Director of MEA, and
Paulette Schmidt, Finance Officer and Executive Assistant
of MEA for arranging the visit to Northparkes Mines, Eddy
Samosir, Claudia Vejrazka, and Mat Allan from Northparkes
Mines for their assistance during the visit.
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