Published online May 7, 2007
Dissolved Organic Carbon in Runoff and Tile-Drain Water under Corn and
Forage Fertilized with Hog Manure
Isabelle Royer,* Denis A. Angers, Martin H. Chantigny, Régis R. Simard, and Daniel Cluis
collected with lysimeters (McDowell et al., 1998; Qualls
et al., 2000) or piezometers (Glatzel et al., 2003). Although DOC concentration can also be measured directly in the solution of agricultural soils (Simard, 1987),
it is most often measured as water-extractable organic C
(Chantigny, 2003; Zsolnay, 2003). Many studies have
shown that the application of crop residues (McCarty
and Bremner, 1992; Campbell et al., 1999a, b; Franchini
et al., 2001) and animal manure (Zsolnay and Görlitz,
1994; Rochette and Gregorich, 1998; Chantigny et al.,
2002) to agricultural soils can cause an increase in waterextractable organic C.
The study of the molecular size distribution of soluble
organic matter can be useful to better understand its
physicochemical behavior in soils (Kuiters and Mulder,
1992). Buffle et al. (1978) and many others have used
tangential ultrafiltration for the separation and fractionation of organic molecules in fresh and natural waters.
Fractionation of DOC by molecular weight is performed
using membranes of different pore sizes. It was also reported that there is a link between the molecular weight
and the relative biodegradability of DOC, with smaller
compounds being more easily degradable than larger
ones (Qualls and Haines, 1991). Meyer et al. (1987) reported that DOC , 10 kDa supported a greater amount of
bacterial growth than larger molecules (.10 kDa). Also,
organic compounds of distinct molecular weights may have
different binding capacities to metal ions, which may have
an important influence on their mobility and transport
(Kuiters and Mulder, 1992; Eyrolle and Benaim, 1999).
Many studies have investigated the role of manure
and/or organic residues on the chemical, biological, and
physical properties of soils including the dynamics of
DOC or water-extractable organic C, but little information is available on the concentrations of DOC in surface
runoff and in tile-drain water under various cropping
systems. Also, even less is known about the characterization of DOC in waters following corn residues and
liquid hog manure (LHM) application. The objective of
this study was to evaluate the effects of LHM applications on the concentration and molecular size of DOC
released in runoff and tile-drain water under corn and
forage cropping systems.
Reproduced from Journal of Environmental Quality. Published by ASA, CSSA, and SSSA. All copyrights reserved.
ABSTRACT
Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) export from soils can play a
significant role in soil C cycling and in nutrient and pollutant transport.
However, information about DOC losses from agricultural soils as
influenced by management practices is scarce. We compared the effects of mineral fertilizer (MF) and liquid hog manure (LHM) applications on the concentration and molecular size of DOC released in
runoff and tile-drain water under corn (Zea mays L.) and forage
cropping systems. Runoff and tile-drain water samples were collected
during a 2-mo period (October to December 1998) and DOC concentration was measured. Characterization of DOC was performed by
tangential ultrafiltration with nominal cut-offs at 3 and 100 kDa. Mean
concentration of DOC in runoff water (12.7 mg DOC L21) was higher
than in tile-drain water (6.5 mg DOC L21). Incorporation of corn
residues increased the DOC concentration by 6- to 17-fold in surface
runoff, but this effect was short-lived. In runoff water, the relative size
of the DOC molecules increased when corn residues and LHM were
applied probably due to partial microbial breakdown of these organic
materials and to a faster decomposition or preferential adsorption
of the small molecules. The DOC concentration in tile-drain water
was slightly higher under forage (7.5 mg DOC L21) than under corn
(5.4 mg DOC L21) even though the application rates of LHM were
higher in corn plots. We suggest that preferential flow facilitated the
migration of DOC to tile drains in forage plots. In conclusion, incorporation of corn residues and LHM increased the concentration of
DOC and the relative size of the molecules in surface runoff water,
whereas DOC in tile-drain water was mostly influenced by the cropping system with relatively more DOC and larger molecules under
forage than corn.
D
ISSOLVED organic carbon (DOC) is a common constituent of both soil and surface water consisting
primarily of organic substances derived from various
biological processes. The dissolved fraction represents
only a small proportion of total soil organic C (usually
,1%) but is the most mobile and therefore plays an important role in many soil processes (Qualls and Haines,
1991; Zsolnay, 2003). Dissolved organic C is defined operationally as a continuum of organic molecules of different size and structure that pass through a filter pore size
of 0.45 mm (Kalbitz et al., 2000). The concentrations of
DOC in groundwater and in streams usually range from
2 to 50 mg L21 (Spiteller, 1987; Moore and Dalva, 2001).
The dynamics of DOC has been extensively studied
in forest soils (Kalbitz et al., 2000), where it is usually
MATERIALS AND METHODS
I. Royer, D.A. Angers, M.H. Chantigny, and R.R. Simard (deceased),
Soils and Crops Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and
Agri-Food Canada, 2560 Hochelaga Blvd., Québec, Québec, G1V 2J3
Canada. D. Cluis, INRS-ETE, Université du Québec, 490 de la
Couronne, Québec, QC, G1K 9A9 Canada. Received 6 Sept. 2006.
*Corresponding author ([email protected]).
Site Characteristics
This study was performed during the fall of 1998 and is part
of a larger project that was initiated in 1989 at the Agriculture
and Agri-Food Canada Research Centre in Lennoxville,
Published in J. Environ. Qual. 36:855–863 (2007).
Technical Reports: Surface Water Quality
doi:10.2134/jeq2006.0355
ª ASA, CSSA, SSSA
677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, WI 53711 USA
Abbreviations: DOC, dissolved organic carbon; MF, mineral fertilizer;
LHM-S, LHM-F, liquid hog manure applied in the spring and in the
fall, respectively; SM, small-sized molecules; MM, medium-sized
molecules; LM, large-sized molecules.
855
856
J. ENVIRON. QUAL., VOL. 36, MAY–JUNE 2007
Table 1. Chemical and physical characteristics of the Coaticook silt loam before the beginning of the experiment (1989).†
Depth
Bulk density (g cm23)
pH(CaCl2)
21
Org. C (g kg )§
Sand (g kg21)
Silt (g kg21)
Clay (g kg21)
1.43 6 0.10‡
4.83 6 0.01
73.1 6 2.3
183 6 40
629 6 62
188 6 22
20–40
40–60
60–80
80–100
1.59 6 0.05
4.95 6 0.03
35.3 6 4.3
167 6 42
651 6 90
182 6 48
cm
1.76 6 0.04
5.21 6 0.12
17.6 6 5.1
98 6 54
715 6 75
187 6 35
1.73 6 0.01
5.30 6 0.14
15.7 6 1.7
52 6 38
753 6 65
195 6 43
1.55 6 0.05
5.37 6 0.13
7.02 6 0.07
123 6 45
691 6 71
185 6 40
† From Royer et al. (2003).
‡ Mean 6 standard errors reported.
§ Org. C., organic carbon content.
Québec, Canada (45j21¶ N, 71j51¶ W), on a Coaticook silt
loam (loamy, mixed, frigid, Aquic Haplorthod) with a 6%
slope. This soil was developed on lacustrine materials and has
high crop productivity potential if drainage is improved (Cann
and Lajoie, 1943). Mean annual air temperature in the area is
6.2jC, with a mean annual precipitation of 1017 mm. Before
the experiment, the site was a meadow composed of timothy
(Phleum pratense L.) and red clover (Trifolium pratense L.).
Selected chemical and physical properties of the soil profile
at the beginning of the experiment are given in Table 1. In this
soil, the silt fraction (50–2 mm) is mainly composed of quartz,
illite, chlorite, and feldspath; whereas for clay (,2 mm), illite,
chlorite, vermiculite, and interstratified minerals are the main
components (Simard et al., 1990). Particle-size analysis was
performed using the hydrometer method (Sheldrick and Wang,
1993). Soil pH was measured in 0.01 M CaCl2 with a soil/
solution ratio of 1:2. Organic C content was determined by wet
oxidation (Tiessen and Moir, 1993).
Field Experiment
The completely randomized experiment design included six
treatments and two replicates for a total of 12 plots. The six
treatments were combinations of crops and fertilizer types. The
crops were either continuous corn or a mixture of timothy,
red clover, and white clover (Trifolium repens L.). The fertilization treatments were: (i) mineral fertilizer (MF) applied in
the spring, (ii) MF1LHM applied in the spring (LHM-S), and
(iii) MF (spring)1LHM applied in the fall (LHM-F). Each
spring, MF was applied to all plots at the recommended rates
of 180 kg N ha21 for corn and 55 kg N ha21 for forage (AFEQ,
1987). The LHM application rate was based on the manure N
content and calculated to provide twice the recommended N
rate for the particular crop. This resulted in LHM application
rates that were on average (since 1989) 98 m3 ha21 yr21 for corn
and 30 m3 ha21 yr21 for forage. The LHM was obtained from a
commercial farm, and the chemical and physical characteristics
of the manure varied among years. The composition of the
manure used in our experiment (1998) is presented in Table 2.
The LHM was surface-applied according to two different
Table 2. Selected characteristics of the liquid hog manure (LHM)
used in the present study
Properties
DOC†
LHM
pH(H20)
Dry
matter
7.3
%
5.2
Total
DOC
Total C
7691
Water Sampling
Water sampling was performed from 15 Oct. to 12 Dec.
1998. The precipitation pattern during this period is illustrated
in Fig. 1. The samples were collected as grab samples during
or immediately after every rainfall to minimize DOC degradation. Water samples were collected using a 250-mL low density polyethylene bottles and no preservative was added to
the samples. The frequency of water sampling was a function
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
,3
kDa
3–100
kDa
.100
kDa
70
%
16
14
21
g kg
410
schedules: all in the spring (LHM-S) (20 May) or all in the fall
(LHM-F) (26 October). The MF and LHM applied in the spring
were broadcast 12 to 48 h before corn seeding. In corn plots,
LHM was incorporated in the top 10 cm of soil by rototilling
within 1 h in the spring and within a day for fall application. The
LHM was left on the surface in forage plots. Grain corn was
harvested on 17 October. Corn residues were chopped, returned to the soil, and incorporated at 10 cm with a rototiller.
Each experimental plot (3 m wide by 15 m long) was
equipped to collect runoff and tile-drain water separately. At
the soil surface, plots were separated from each other by a
sodded dike (50 cm wide by 25 cm high) along both sides and
at the top, and a trough was installed at the bottom of each plot
to collect runoff water. Each plot was also isolated by a 1.2 m
high black polyethylene plastic sheet installed on both sides
and top. A perforated plastic drain was installed at 0.90-m
depth (normal drain depth for .6% slope) at the center of
each plot to capture tile-drain water. This system isolates plots
from each other and prevents runoff and leaching contamination from other sources. Both the runoff and drainage systems
were connected with pipes to individual collection barrels permitting separate water volume measurement and sampling.
Precipitation (mm)
Reproduced from Journal of Environmental Quality. Published by ASA, CSSA, and SSSA. All copyrights reserved.
0–20
† DOC, dissolved organic carbon; percentages based on the sum of all
fractions.
0
1 Oct
15 Oct
1 Nov
15 Nov
1 Dec
15 Dec
Day of year 1998
Fig. 1. Precipitation pattern during the fall of 1998 (from 15 October
to 12 December).
857
Analysis and Characterization of
Dissolved Organic Carbon
Samples of surface water were first filtered through a 3.0-mm
pore size filter (Filter MF-Millipore, mixed cellulose esters)
before being filtered at 0.45 mm (Standard MF-Millipore membranes, mixed cellulose esters). All tile-drain water samples
were filtered at 0.45 mm. Blank samples were included to correct for possible background release of DOC from cellulose
filters. All water samples were filtered on the day of sampling
and the samples were refrigerated at 4jC and analyzed for
DOC content within 2 d. Dissolved organic C was quantified
by UV-persulfate oxidation using an automated C analyzer
(Model DC-180, Dohrmann Co., Santa Clara, CA).
The characterization of DOC was performed by molecular size fractionation using tangential ultrafiltration (Amicon
TCF10) with nomical cut-offs at 3 kDa and 100 kDa using
Ultracel Amicon YM3 and YM100 regenerated cellulose ultrafiltration membranes. This fractionation was performed only
at sampling dates for which enough water was available. The
hydrophilic tight microstructure of the membranes ensures
the highest possible retention with the lowest possible adsorption of macromolecules. They also exhibit sharp cut-off
characteristics and are resistant to most common solvents. For
each ultrafiltration step, approximately 90% of the samples
were allowed to pass the membrane; the remaining retentate
was discarded to prevent clogging of the membrane pores
(Hartlieb et al., 2001). The ultrafiltration technique of tangential flow fractionation using spiral wound filters limits the
problem of concentration polarization and results in faster filtration times (Buffle et al., 1978). The three molecular weight
fractions obtained were defined as: small-sized , 3 kDa (SM),
medium-sized 3–100 kDa (MM), and large-sized . 100 kDa
(LM) molecules. Blank samples were included to correct for possible background release of DOC from cellulose membranes.
Statistical Analysis
The normality of data distribution was first checked for
each variable. An analysis of variance with repeated measures
was performed to test differences between treatments over
sampling dates. The MIXED procedure with the repeated
statement on dates was used (SAS Institute, Inc., 1999). The
treatments were tested for significant differences using least
squares means (LSM). A probability level of # 0.10 was considered significant because of limited degrees of freedom (only
two replications per treatment). The data were analyzed
separately for each cropping system since the application rates
of LHM and fertilizer, as well as agronomic practices, were
different. The data for surface and tile-drain waters were also
analyzed separately.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Runoff Water
The concentration of DOC in runoff water under corn
varied between 2.4 and 205.4 mg L21 (Fig. 2a). This is in
300
a
250 incorporation
200
150
DOC (mg L-1)
of the precipitation pattern. Overall, surface runoff water was
collected on 12 occasions, whereas tile-drain water was collected on 32 and 33 occasions under forage and corn, respectively. Because of the large quantity of rainfall, more than one
sampling was performed on 15 October and 2, 11, 27, and
30 November. Some drains in the plots under corn with LHM
and those under forage with MF were clogged at the beginning
of experiment, and water samples were not collected from
those drains during the first few days of the study.
of corn
residue
(17 Oct.)
LHM application
(26 Oct.)
MF
LHM-S
LHM-F
100
40
20
0
1 Oct
15 Oct
1 Nov
15 Nov
1 Dec
50
40
DOC (mg L-1)
Reproduced from Journal of Environmental Quality. Published by ASA, CSSA, and SSSA. All copyrights reserved.
ROYER ET AL.: DISSOLVED ORGANIC CARBON IN RUNOFF AND TILE-DRAIN WATER
15 Dec
b
LHM application
(26 Oct.)
MF
LHM-S
LHM-F
30
20
10
0
1 Oct
15 Oct
1 Nov
15 Nov
1 Dec
15 Dec
Fig. 2. Concentrations of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in runoff
water (a) under corn and (b) under forage. Vertical bars represent
standard errors (MF, mineral fertilizer; LHM-S, liquid hog manure
applied in the spring; LHM-F, liquid hog manure applied in the fall).
the range of values reported by McDowell et al. (1998)
and Raastad and Mulder, (1999) for DOC concentrations in surface soil solution. Cronan et al. (1999) reported lower DOC concentrations for surface water
in agricultural watersheds (3.6–7.9 mg L21). However,
their samples were taken in stream water, and therefore
were likely diluted as compared with runoff waters.
On average, the DOC concentration of runoff water
under corn was similar (P 5 0.96) among the MF, LHMS, and LHM-F treatments. There were no interactions
(P 5 0.99) between sampling dates and treatments.
However, runoff DOC concentrations varied significantly
(P , 0.001) among sampling dates (Fig. 2a). Runoff
DOC concentrations increased by 6- to 17-fold (average
of 176 6 64 mg L21) 5 d after the corn residues were
chopped and returned to the soil. As observed by Moore
and Dalva (2001), DOC can be released through leaching of soluble organic matter from crop residues decomposing in the soil. McCarty and Bremner (1992) also
showed that the application of corn residues to the soil
surface released water-extractable organic C very rapidly, and noted that this effect was short-lived and could
not be detected after a few days. The same phenomenon
was observed in our case as DOC concentrations came
back to background levels just a few days after residue
incorporation (Fig. 2a). Temporary flushing of DOC in
J. ENVIRON. QUAL., VOL. 36, MAY–JUNE 2007
move below 2-cm depth. Consequently, we assume that
the peak in DOC concentration measured on 2 November for all plots were not related to the LHM application, but mainly caused by wet–dry cycles and rainfall
before sampling as discussed above.
It is noteworthy that the average DOC concentration
in runoff water under forage for all sampling dates
(12.8 mg DOC L21) was similar to the value under
corn when disregarding the high value on 22 October
(12.5 mg DOC L21). Thus, even if LHM was applied at
lower rates under forage than under corn, DOC concentrations in surface water were overall similar under
the two cropping systems. We hypothesize that this is
due to the fact that mechanical incorporation of LHM
in corn plots is likely to decrease the proportion of
manure-soluble C (Angers et al., 2006) susceptible to
runoff, whereas the LHM left at the surface of the soil
under forage could be more prone to runoff.
Tile-Drain Water
Concentrations of DOC in tile-drain water under
corn varied from 3.1 to 10.0 mg L21 for MF, from 2.2 to
7.4 mg L21 for LHM-S, and from 3.0 to 20.7 mg L21 for
LHM-F (Fig. 3a). These results are in the same range
than values reported by Beauchemin et al. (2003) who
25
20
DOC (mg L-1)
runoff water could be also attributed to soil rototilling to
incorporate corn residues. Temporary increases in soil
dissolved organic matter concentration following soil tillage has been reported by others (Bhogal et al., 2000;
Gregorich et al., 2000) and could be attributed to the
breakdown of soil aggregates with either the direct release of soluble organic matter or increased microbial
activity and production rate of DOC.
The concentration of DOC in runoff water under
forage varied with time (P , 0.001) (Fig. 2b). The treatment effects and the interaction between sampling dates
and treatments were not significant (P 5 0.95 and P 5
0.25, respectively), even though DOC concentration
tended to be higher for LHM-F than LHM-S and MF on
2 November (7 d after LHM application). A separate
ANOVA on data measured on 2 November showed that
this difference was significant at P 5 0.059. The DOC
concentrations in runoff water under forage varied from
2 to 31.7 mg L21.
The DOC concentration increased under forage on
22 October as seen also under corn, even though no
residues were returned to the soil (Fig. 2b). However,
this increase was about an order of magnitude lower
than under corn. The other significant peaks measured
in DOC concentration on 2 and 15 November were also
found under both corn and forage, and were of the same
magnitude. Those peaks in DOC concentration were
all noticed following a rainfall close or above 10 mm
(Fig. 1), which occurred after 1 or 2 wk without precipitation. We thus suggest that, in addition to residue
incorporation in the corn plots, rainfall intensity and
wet–dry cycles had a detectable effect on DOC concentration in runoff water from the corn and forage systems.
Zsolnay and Görlitz (1994) also noticed that wet–dry
cycles had a significant effect on DOC concentration in
agricultural soils. After 2 November, DOC concentrations decreased in runoff waters and remained relatively
low even after significant rainfalls (Fig. 2). This is possibly because at that time of year (i) colder soil temperatures reduced DOC production rate, (ii) the soil
remained relatively wet (data not shown), (iii) soluble
materials coming from organic amendments (crop residues or manure) were mostly decomposed, and soil
DOC concentrations returned to background levels
(McCarty and Bremner, 1992; Jensen et al., 1997).
Application of LHM on 26 October had no significant
effect on DOC concentrations in runoff water under
corn (Fig. 2a). The peak observed on 2 November was
probably not related to LHM application since it was
observed in all treatments. Those results are in disagreement with many studies where concentrations of
water-extractable organic C were found to be greater
when animal manure was applied to the soil (Gregorich
et al., 1998; Chantigny et al., 2002). By contrast, Angers
et al. (2006) reported a low increase in soil DOC concentration after liquid dairy cattle manure was applied.
They argued that rototilling for incorporation favored
the adsorption of manure-soluble C to the mineral particles. In addition, Chantigny et al. (2004) observed that
volatile fatty acids coming from LHM contributed to
soil DOC, but were metabolized within 5 d and did not
a
incorporation of
corn residue
(17 Oct.)
MF
LHM-S
LHM-F
LHM appl.
(26 Oct.)
15
10
5
0
1 Oct
15 Oct
1 Nov
15 Nov
1 Dec
25
15
15 Dec
b
MF
LHM-S
LHM-F
20
DOC (mg L-1)
Reproduced from Journal of Environmental Quality. Published by ASA, CSSA, and SSSA. All copyrights reserved.
858
LHM application
(26 Oct.)
10
5
0
1 Oct
15 Oct
1 Nov
15 Nov
1 Dec
15 Dec
Fig. 3. Concentrations of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in tile-drain
water (a) under corn and (b) under forage. Vertical bars represent
standard errors (MF, mineral fertilizer; LHM-S, liquid hog manure
applied in the spring; LHM-F, liquid hog manure applied in the fall).
859
activity may have promoted the decomposition of cornand LHM-derived DOC in the soil solution thereby
reducing its concentration in tile-drain water (McCarty
and Bremner, 1992; Siemens et al., 2003). Alternatively,
DOC in surface runoff was in contact only with the A
horizon which has little affinity for DOC retention,
whereas drainage water has to pass through the B and
part of the C horizons which have a greater affinity for
DOC adsorption (Kalbitz et al., 2000) thereby reducing
the amounts of DOC susceptible to reach tile drains.
Dissolved Organic Carbon Characterization in
Runoff Water
The molecular size distribution of DOC in runoff
water at the first sampling date (15 October) showed a
dominance of SM (,3 kDa) for both cropping systems
and all treatments (Fig. 4). The proportions of SM varied
from 55 to 63% of total DOC under corn and from 44
to 54% under forage, whereas the proportions of MM
(3–100 kDa) and LM (.100 kDa) varied between 6 and
36% of total DOC under corn and between 11 and 35%
under forage. Other studies have found that small molecules (approximately 1 kDa) were dominant in DOC
from surface runoff (Haygarth et al., 1997) and stream
waters (Cronan et al., 1999) in agricultural areas. The
20
a
Corn
16
DOC (mg L-1)
found that concentrations of DOC from tile-drain water
varied from 1.6 to 6.0 mg L21 in 43 soils located in the
province of Québec, Canada, under a corn–soybean rotation. In Germany, Siemens et al. (2003) found average
concentrations of 9 mg DOC L21 at 90 cm below the soil
surface from fine sandy to loamy sand soils cropped to a
rotation of maize and cereals, and fertilized with manure.
On the contrary, McCarty and Bremner (1992) reported
that in Iowa, samples of water from tile drains installed
at a depth of 120 cm under continuous corn contained
only trace amounts of DOC (,0.3 to 2.9 mg L21).
There was a significant (P , 0.001) treatment 3 date
interaction for DOC concentrations in tile-drain water
under corn. Significantly (P # 0.10) higher DOC values
were found for LHM-F than LHM-S on 10 out of 19 sampling dates (Fig. 3a). Values of DOC were also higher for
LHM-F than MF on six sampling dates after 9 November.
A high DOC concentration was measured on 11 November
for LHM-F. We suggest that this additional DOC was
mainly derived from the recently applied LHM, and
reached the tile drains (90-cm depth) 15 d after LHM
application. Part of the increase in DOC could also be
due to the incorporation of corn residues 3 wk earlier.
The DOC concentrations in tile-drain water under forage varied from 2.6 to 12.5 mg L21 (Fig. 3b). Our values
are in the lower range of those presented by Brye et al.
(2001) who reported DOC concentrations from 5 to
20 mg L21 in lysimeters (1.4-m depth) under prairie cropping systems. There was a significant treatment 3 date
interaction (P , 0.001) for DOC concentrations in tiledrain water under forage. Significantly (P # 0.10) higher
DOC concentrations were found for LHM-F than
LHM-S and MF on 17 out of 19 sampling dates after
9 November (Fig. 3b), likely reflecting the influence of
LHM application on 26 October. The increase in DOC
concentration was smaller on 11 November, but lasted
over a longer period under forage than corn (Fig. 3).
There is no simple explanation for this difference, but it
is suggested that the biological, chemical, and physical
characteristics of the soil matrix were different between
the two cropping systems, which influenced the temporal
pattern of DOC release to tile-drain water.
The average DOC concentration in tile-drain water
under forage (7.5 mg DOC L21) was similar to that
under corn (5.4 mg DOC L21). In our study, the forage
system received about one-third of the LHM applied to
the corn system. Moreover LHM was left on the surface
of forage plots, whereas it was incorporated in corn
plots. Soils under perennial forage production usually
present a network of vertical macropores, originating
from soil cracks, fissures, root channels, and earthworms
burrows (Ehlers, 1975; Simard et al., 2000), which may
enhance preferential water flow to drains and, thereby,
could increase the proportion of DOC reaching the
tile drains.
For both crops, the concentration in DOC observed in
tile-drain water was lower (average of 6.5 mg DOC L21)
than in runoff water (average of 12.7 mg DOC L21).
Several studies have shown the DOC concentration to
decrease with depth in mineral soils (Meyer and Tate,
1983; Jardine et al., 1989; Kalbitz et al., 2000). Microbial
SM (<3 kDa)
MM (3-100 kDa)
LM (>100 kDa)
12
8
4
0
MF
LHM-S
LHM-F
20
Forage
16
DOC (mg L-1)
Reproduced from Journal of Environmental Quality. Published by ASA, CSSA, and SSSA. All copyrights reserved.
ROYER ET AL.: DISSOLVED ORGANIC CARBON IN RUNOFF AND TILE-DRAIN WATER
b
SM (<3 kDa)
MM (3-100 kDa)
LM (>100 kDa)
12
8
4
0
MF
LHM-S
LHM-F
Fig. 4. Size fractions of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), obtained by
tangential ultrafiltration, in runoff water (a) under corn and (b)
under forage at the first sampling date (15 October). Vertical bars
represent standard errors (SM, small molecules; MM, medium
molecules; LM, large molecules; MF, mineral fertilizer; LHM-S,
liquid hog manure applied in the spring; LHM-F, liquid hog manure
applied in the fall).
J. ENVIRON. QUAL., VOL. 36, MAY–JUNE 2007
20
a
Corn
SM (<3 kDa)
MM (3-100 kDa)
LM (>100 kDa)
DOC (mg L-1)
16
12
8
4
0
MF
LHM-S
LHM-F
20
b
Forage
SM (<3 kDa)
MM (3-100 kDa)
LM (>100 kDa)
16
DOC (mg L-1)
SM fraction is comprised of fulvic acids and small molecules such as fatty acids, amino acids, carbohydrates,
and hydrophilic acids (Thurman, 1985). These small molecules are believed to be more biodegradable than larger
ones (Qualls and Haines, 1991).
The incorporation of corn residues strongly increased
the concentrations of SM and MM in surface runoff
water (Fig. 5a). In addition, the size distribution of DOC
was modified and MM became dominant representing
about 60% of total DOC for all treatments. Delprat
et al. (1997) reported that maize cultivation promoted
the decomposition of native soil organic matter leading
to an increase in DOC mostly in the MM fraction. In the
present study, DOC was characterized on water samples collected only 5 d after corn residues incorporation. Therefore, the increase in medium- and small-sized
DOC may be attributed to (i) the direct release of soluble materials from the freshly incorporated residues, (ii)
partial microbial decomposition of corn residue with
the release of soluble by-products, (iii) the release of
soluble organic matter caused by rototilling.
The MM fraction of DOC in runoff was increased
in both cropping systems 3 d after LHM application
(Fig. 6). The LHM-derived DOC was mainly composed
of SM (Table 2). The very low DOC concentrations in
SM in runoff water a few days after LHM addition could
12
8
4
0
MF
250
Corn
200
DOC (mg L-1)
150
SM (<3 kDa)
MM (3-100 kDa)
LM (>100 kDa)
a
100
50
20
16
12
8
4
0
MF
LHM-S
LHM-F
20
Forage
16
DOC (mg L-1)
Reproduced from Journal of Environmental Quality. Published by ASA, CSSA, and SSSA. All copyrights reserved.
860
b
SM (<3 kDa)
MM (3-100 kDa)
LM (>100 kDa)
12
8
4
0
MF
LHM-S
LHM-F
Fig. 5. Size fractions of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), obtained by
tangential ultrafiltration, in runoff water (a) under corn and (b)
under forage 5 d after crop residue incorporation (22 October).
Vertical bars represent standard errors (SM, small molecules; MM,
medium molecules; LM, large molecules; MF, mineral fertilizer;
LHM-S, liquid hog manure applied in the spring; LHM-F, liquid
hog manure applied in the fall).
LHM-S
LHM-F
Fig. 6. Size fractions of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), obtained by
tangential ultrafiltration, in runoff water (a) under corn and (b)
under forage 3 d after liquid hog manure (LHM) application
(26 October). Vertical bars represent standard errors (SM, small molecules; MM, medium molecules; LM, large molecules; MF, mineral
fertilizer; LHM-S, liquid hog manure applied in the spring; LHM-F,
liquid hog manure applied in the fall).
be due to the preferential adsorption of LHM-derived
SM compared with MM, but also to the more rapid decomposition of SM. Chantigny et al. (2004) reported that
small molecules such as volatile fatty acids were completely degraded only 5 d after LHM application.
The increase in SM and MM concentration after
LHM application was very small (Fig. 6) as compared
with the increase measured following the incorporation
of corn residues (Fig. 5a). Angers et al. (2006) reported a
larger increase in soil DOC following corn harvest than
after LHM application. This difference could be explained by either the large amount of soluble C present
in fresh corn residues (Recous et al., 1995), which was
rapidly released in soil, or a faster decomposition or
greater adsorption of LHM- than corn-derived DOC.
Indeed, a large proportion of soluble C in LHM is
present as volatile fatty acids which are rapidly degraded
in soil (Chantigny et al., 2004). At this stage, however,
we cannot rule out the possibility that LHM-derived
DOC has a greater affinity to adsorb onto soil mineral
particles than corn-derived DOC.
Dissolved Organic Carbon Characterization in
Tile-Drain Water
In tile-drain water, DOC molecular size fractions
were measured on samples collected 16 and 30 d after
861
10
a
0
8
DOC (mg L-1)
a
0
24
DOC (mg L-1)
8
SM (<3 kDa)
MM (3-100 kDa)
LM (>100 kDa)
6
4
2
0
MF
LHM-S LHM-F
MF
LHM-S LHM-F
10
b
0
24
8
6
4
2
0
MF
24
LHM-S LHM-F
MF
LHM-S LHM-F
Fig. 8. Size fractions of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), obtained by
tangential ultrafiltration, in tile-drain water under forage at the (a)
11 November event and at the (b) 26 November event. Vertical bars
represent standard errors (SM, small molecules; MM, medium
molecules; LM, large molecules; MF, mineral fertilizer; LHM-S,
liquid hog manure applied in the spring; LHM-F, liquid hog manure
applied in the fall; 0, beginning of rainfall; 24, 24 h after beginning
of rainfall).
SM (<3 kDa)
MM (3-100 kDa)
LM (>100 kDa)
6
10
DOC (mg L-1)
LHM application (11 and 26 November). On these
occasions, water samples were obtained at the beginning
of the rainfall and 24 h later. For all treatments under
corn, SM was the dominant size fraction with an average
of 53% of total DOC, followed by MM at 36% (Fig. 7).
By contrast, up to 73% of the total DOC was present in
the MM fraction under forage (Fig. 8). The proportion
of total DOC accounted for by LM was small in both
cases. This difference in the molecular size of DOC
reflected the influence of cropping systems on the nature
of DOC released to tile drains with relatively smaller
molecules under corn than under forage. In general for
both cropping systems, the concentration in SM and
MM decreased from the beginning to 24 h after the onset
of rainfall on 11 November (Fig. 7a and 8a), whereas the
contrary was observed on 26 November (Fig. 7b and 8b).
Those findings indicate that there was an interaction
between the influence of cropping system on the nature
of DOC and the effect of rainfall distribution on the
temporal pattern of release in DOC in tile-drain water.
The results obtained for both rainfalls also showed that
despite higher application rates under corn, the concentration of SM and MM in tile-drain water was similar or
higher under forage than under corn. It is hypothesized
that the presence of macropores in the grassland soil
4
2
(Ehlers, 1975) facilitated the transport of SM and MM
to tile drains. Clearly, more studies are required to elucidate the origin, the nature, and transport mechanisms
of DOC to drainage water.
0
MF
LHM-S LHM-F
MF
LHM-S LHM-F
10
b
0
24
8
DOC (mg L-1)
Reproduced from Journal of Environmental Quality. Published by ASA, CSSA, and SSSA. All copyrights reserved.
ROYER ET AL.: DISSOLVED ORGANIC CARBON IN RUNOFF AND TILE-DRAIN WATER
6
4
2
0
MF
LHM-S LHM-F
MF
LHM-S LHM-F
Fig. 7. Size fractions of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), obtained by
tangential ultrafiltration, in tile-drain water under corn at the (a)
11 November event and at the (b) 26 November event. Vertical bars
represent standard errors (SM, small molecules; MM, medium
molecules; LM, large molecules; MF, mineral fertilizer; LHM-S,
liquid hog manure applied in the spring; LHM-F, liquid hog manure
applied in the fall; 0, beginning of rainfall; 24, 24 h after beginning
of rainfall).
CONCLUSIONS
The incorporation of corn residues greatly increased
DOC concentrations in surface runoff water, but this
effect was short-lived. In addition, the application of
LHM had little detectable effects on DOC concentration in surface water. A possible explanation for these
findings is that the DOC derived from corn residues and
LHM was adsorbed or rapidly biodegraded following
application to the soil.
In tile-drain water under forage, the DOC concentrations increased after LHM application in the fall, but
little change was observed under corn. Also, the average
DOC concentrations in tile-drain water under forage
were equal or slightly higher than those measured under
corn despite smaller manure application rate. These findings were attributed to preferential flow under forage.
This study showed that both the DOC concentration
and the molecular-size fractions vary in runoff and
tile-drain water according to management practices and
Reproduced from Journal of Environmental Quality. Published by ASA, CSSA, and SSSA. All copyrights reserved.
862
J. ENVIRON. QUAL., VOL. 36, MAY–JUNE 2007
cropping systems, and to the temporal pattern of precipitation. Overall, the incorporation of corn residues
and LHM increased the concentration and molecular
size of DOC present in surface runoff water, whereas
the cropping system (corn vs. forage) had a determinant
influence on the amounts and nature of DOC in tiledrain water. More studies are required to understand
the impact of agricultural management practices on the
amounts and nature of soil DOC exported to water bodies and their consequences on environmental quality.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank Dr. Gordon M. Barnett of the Dairy and
Swine Research and Development Centre of Lennoxville, QC
for providing access to the field plots. The authors are also
grateful to Laurence Delprat for her assistance in the field and
technical support. We deeply regret that Dr. Régis Simard will
never see the final result of this work.
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