Cognition and Language
Chapter 7
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Building Blocks of Thought

Language
A flexible system of symbols that enables us
to communicate our ideas, thoughts, and
feelings
 Nonhumans communicate primarily though
signs
 Human language is semantic, or meaningful
 It is also characterized by displacement in
that it is not limited to the here-and-now

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Structure of Language

Phonemes


Morphemes


Phrases of sentence
Deep structure


smallest meaning unit (words, prefixes)
Surface structure


Basic sounds (ph, t)
Underlying meaning of a sentence
Grammar

Rules of how sounds combine
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Building Blocks of Thought

Images


Nonverval mental representations of sensory
experiences
Concepts
Mental categories for classifying people,
objects, or experiences
 Prototype

 Mental
model containing the most typical features
of a concept
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Language, Thought, and
Culture
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Language and Cognition

Linguistic determinism
Idea that patterns of thinking are determined
by the specific language one speaks
 Research only mildly supports the idea

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Culture and Cognition
All known cultures use categories to form
concepts
 Culture has an effect on

What information is included in a category
 How categories are shaped by experience

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Nonhuman Thought and Language

Animal cognition
Animals can form concepts
 Apes have demonstrated sophisticated
problem-solving skills
 Chimpanzees and orangutans show signs of
self-awareness

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Nonhuman Thought and Language

The question of language
Chimpanzees have been taught to use
American Sign Language
 Chimpanzees have been observed using
telegraphic speech (two-word combinations)
 Some chimps have learned to use keyboard
symbols to communicate even without formal
training

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Problem Solving Steps

Problem representation

Interpreting or defining the problem
Deciding what category a problem belongs
to
 Selecting a solution strategy
 Evaluating progress toward goal

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Possible Solution Strategies

Trial and error


Information retrieval


Retrieve from memory information about how such a
problem has been solved in the past
Algorithms



Works best with limited number of choices
Step-by-step methods that guarantees a solution
Math problems are an example of the type best
solved using an algorithm
Heuristics

Rules of thumb that may help simplify a problem, but
do not guarantee a solution
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Heuristic Methods

Hill climbing



Move progressively
closer to goal without
moving backward
Means-end analysis

Subgoals

Break large problem
into smaller, more
manageable ones,
each of which is easier
to solve than the
whole problem

Aims to reduce the
discrepancy between
the current situation
and the desired goal at
a number of
intermediate points
Working backward

Work backward from
the desired goal to the
existing condition
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Obstacles to Solving Problems

Motivation


Mental sets


Desire to solve a problem
Tendency to perceive and approach problems
in certain ways
Functional fixedness

Tendency to see only a limited number of
uses for an object
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Creative Problem Solving

Brainstorming
Produces many ideas
 Very popular in business
 Ideas are not judged when generated


The creative process

People often become more creative when
exposed to creative peers
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Becoming a More Skillful Problem
Solver
Eliminate poor choices
 Visualize a solution
 Develop expertise
 Think flexibly

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Decision Making
Decision making is a special case of
problem solving in which possible
solutions or choices are already known
 Logical decision making


Compensatory model
 Rational
decision-making model in which choices
are systematically evaluated on various criteria
 Example: buying a car

Good when issues are well-defined
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Decision-Making Heuristics


Heuristic processes are used when decisions
involve a high degree of ambiguity
Representativeness heuristic


Availability heuristic


New information is compared to our model of the
typical member of a category (prototype)
Decision is based on information that is most easily
retrieved from memory, even if incomplete
Confirmation bias

Tendency to notice evidence that supports our beliefs
and to ignore evidence that contradicts them
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Framing
How information is presented (or framed)
can have an effect on the outcome of
decision-making
 Research has demonstrated that framing
can have very dramatic effects on
decision-making

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Decisions Under Pressure
When decisions are required quickly,
experience plays a key role
 With increased pressure in an emergency
situation, decision making often
deteriorates and can end in panic

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Explaining Our Decisions

Hindsight bias


Tendency to view the outcomes of decisions
as inevitable and predictable after we know
the outcome
Counterfactual thinking
Thinking about alternative realities and things
that never happened
 Often takes the form of “If only…”
constructions dealing with causes and
consequences

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall