Discourse and Pragmatics
Speech Acts
Lecture 4:
Paltridge, pp. 52-58
Objectives
Students should be able to:
1. Show understanding of the basic notion behind speech
acts as ‘doing things’ through language.
2. Identify the different types of acts: locutionary,
illocutionary, and perlocutionary.
3. Define the different categories of speech acts.
4. Identify the illocutionary acts of utterances when
provided with sufficient context.
5. Demonstrate understanding of the behavior of speech
acts in discourse.

Speech Acts
Austain: How to Do Things with Words
 Searle: Speech Acts
 The basic notion:
We use language to ‘do things’, not just to refer to the truth
or falsity of particular statements.

?
What kinds of things?
We make requests
We ask questions
We give orders
We make promises
We give warnings
We give advice
We make threats
Austin refers to three types of acts:
1. Locutionary acts: literal meaning of the actual words
2. Illocutionary acts: intention of the speaker when
uttering the words
3. Perlocutionary acts: the effect the utterance has upon
the thoughts or actions of recipients.

Example:
Bus driver to boys on the bus:
“This bus won’t move until you boys move in out of the doorway”
1. Locutionary acts: ?
2. Illocutionary acts: ?
3. Perlocutionary acts: ?
Categories of Speech Acts
Source: Parker, F & Riley, K. (1994). Linguistics for Non-Linguists. Boston: Allyn
and Bacon.
1. Representatives:
Utterances which are used to describe some state
of affairs.
Examples: stating, informing, predicting, notifying.

2. Directives:
Utterance which are used to get the hearer to do
something (or not to something).
Examples: requesting, ordering, forbidding, advising,
suggesting, insisting, recommending.

3. Questions:
Utterances which are used to get the hearer to provide
information.
Examples: asking, inquiring.

4. Commissives:
Utterances which are used to commit the hearer to do
some act.
Examples: promising, volunteering, offering,
guaranteeing.

5. Expressives:
Utterances which are used to express the emotional state of the
speaker.
Examples: apologizing, thanking, congratulating, condoling,
welcoming.

6. Declarations:
Utterances which are used to change the status of some entity:
the status of some entity changes by the mere uttering of the
words.
Examples: naming (naming a ship, an institution), appointing,
resigning, firing, marrying, divorcing (in the Islamic culture).
General Observations
A. It is not always easy to identify the illocutionary
force/act of what is being said:
-It may depend on the stage of the discourse, where in the
discourse the utterance occurs.
Example: -OK
-It may depend on the social and situational context of the
utterance.

B. One illocutionary act may spread over several utterances.
Example: p. 56.
C. One utterance may have more than illocutionary force/
may express more than one illocutionary act.
Example: Chair of a committee to members:We have a
meeting tomorrow at 9 in my office.
Illocutionary acts:
1. Informing them
2. Requesting them to be there

Direct/ Indirect Speech Acts
Most of our illocutionary acts are expressed indirectly.
Waiter: Can I take your order now?
Illoc. Act: Offer / Syntactic Form: Interrogative=> Indirect
Customer: Can I have one hamburger with fries?
Illoc. Act: Request / Syntactic Form: Interrogative=>
Indirect
The room needs to be cleaned
Act: Request / Syntactic Form: Declarative=> Indirect