Increasing Opportunities for
Learning in Small Classes
Maurice Galton
Faculty of Education, University of
Cambridge
Teaching in Small Classes
• There is a perception gap: Teachers claim
individuals given more attention but research
shows more use of class instruction
• There is a relatively small increase in
interactions known to improve performance
(open questions, sustained dialogue, increased
feedback etc.)
• No marked increase in pupil-pupil
conversations
“A persistent stubborn continuity in the
character of instruction” (Cuban 1984)
Teaching is not only a rational activity it is
also an emotional one.
Unclear terminology: active learning,
experiential learning, meaningful learning
etc.
Theory not internalized so abandoned in the
face of expediency
Too many external constraints
Pre and Post Literacy Hour
Questions (KS2)
80
70
60
50
closed
open
40
30
20
10
0
1976
1996
2001
2002
Teaching & Learning as
Emotional Work
Both teaching and learning involves the heart as
well as the head. Pupils can worry about what the
teacher or their peers might think of them if the
fail to get the ‘right’ answer.
Teachers also want the respect of colleagues,
parents, pupils etc by maintaining an orderly
classroom with ‘good’ results.
Sometimes pupils bargain their good behaviour for
easier work or for considerable guidance.
Three Views about Learning
As an outcome: enduring change in knowledge, skill
etc. resulting from exposure to some experience. Short term
gains in knowledge as opposed to development leading to
understanding
As a process: transformation of information in solving
cognitive problems
As an apprenticeship: doing in the community as a
way of becoming a full member of that community
Teachers’ Perceptions of Learning
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Internalizing knowledge, skill
working with rules and patterns
concrete v abstract representations
Understanding and organizing ideas
|Reasoning
understanding casual relationships
Planned systematic enquiry
Problem solving
Creativity
Value grounded thinking
Moseley et al’s (2003) Classification of
thinking
4 Families identified from 55 approaches:
1 Integrated models (7): Sternberg’s model of
developing expertise; Demetriou’s model of mind,
personality and self
2 Instructional models (24): Bloom’s revised
taxonomy; Biggs & Collis’ Solo Taxonomy
3 Critical thinking models (11): Halpern’s thinking
criteria and dispositions
4 Cognitive Structure models (13): Guilford, Piaget,
Gardner etc.
Cognitive Skills for Learning
(Moseley et al. 2003)
Strategic &
Reflective Thinking
Information skills
Accessing stored
& recorded knowledge
Basic Understanding
forming concepts
Orgainizing ideas
Adding to meaning
Productive thinking
Reasoning
Problem-solving
Creative thinking
Watkins’ Three Ways of Learning
1 Learning as being taught (LBT): a process of
knowledge acquisition
2 Learning as Individual Sense Making (LIS):
making sense of experience (as in the
accumulation of wealth, property etc.)
3 Learning as building knowledge with others
(LBKO): meaning constructed through social
activity, especially talk.
Failure to Learn
LBT
LIS
Lack of ability
Lack of suitable
experience
Lack of correct
disposition
Inappropriate
thinking
Lack of well planned
No reflection on
lesson structure
previous experience
No application to
other contexts
LBKO
Constructed
knowledge not linked
to accepted norms,
standards etc.
Some Principles for Learning
and Teaching
• We need working theories as with science
where particle or wave theory of matter is
applied to specific situations. It is not a
question of teaching for transmission vs.
understanding but of using both as appropriate.
• The main determining factor will be the
knowledge demands of the instructional task:
whether procedural, conceptual or
metacognitive.
Ideas About Learning
Learning
Information processing
'mind as computer'
Constructivism
'shared understanding
of our world and those in it'
'talk drives learning'
Expertise
'Automaticity'
'Executive Control'
Ways of Knowing I
Procedural knowledge
information processing
knowing this or
that about something
knowing rules
for use of
information
teaching as
instruction
knowing how
to use
information
Teaching as Instruction
 Provide an Advanced Organizer
 Check what pupils know with quick, snappy
question & answer session
 Present new knowledge
 Provide for practice which emphasises application
 Extend practice by homework
 Give feedback which is informative
 Review new learning
Learning by Direct Instruction I
The findings are most relevant when the
object is to teach explicit procedures,
concepts or a body of knowledge
The findings are less relevant where
skills to be taught cannot be broken down
into explicit steps
(Rosenshine 1987)
Uses of Direct Instruction
• Mathematical
procedures
• English grammar
• Scientific information
• Historical facts
• Using maps
• Practical skills
• Mathematical problem
solving
• Extended writing
• Scientific
investigations
• Discussing
controversial social
science topics
Ways of Knowing II
conceptual knowledge
constructivism
knowledge of
ideas
understanding and
application of
principles
teaching as
enquiry
recognition of
classes
'belonging'
'not belonging'
Teaching as Enquiry
Engaging in complex cognitive processes requires
thoughtful discourse. Pupils are invited to make
predictions, debate alternatives, etc. This can take
place during interactive whole class teaching or
during peer interaction in pairs or groups and
should involve:
 Placing the topic in the wider, meaningful context
(big picture)
 Using ‘open ended’ questions
 Allowing suitable ‘wait times’
 Encouraging explanations or elaboration of
answers.
Ways of Knowing III
Metacognitive knowledge
Developing Expert performance
knowledge of
one's cognitive
processes
application of
appropriate
thinking
strategies
teaching as
scaffolding
Monitoring
processes and
identifying
errors
Teaching as Scaffolding
Helping pupils to learn how to ‘think for
themselves’ requires temporary frameworks. They
reduce ‘the degrees of freedom a child must
manage in the task to prevent error rather than
induce it’. (Bruner)
Several scaffolds have been identified from the
teacher effectiveness literature
Providing models of appropriate response (e.g.
model answers, demonstrations etc.)
Providing prompts and feedback as in guided
discovery
Identifying potential problems from the outset
Teaching as Scaffolding
As identified in the cognitive strategy research these
latter scaffolds appear more effective in teaching
higher cognitive skills.
Rehearsing an argument (pupils explain to
class/group in words their reasoning e.g.their
answer to a maths problem)
 Cue Cards ( as in writing frames )
Self-evaluation checklists (requires pupils to check
through the process by which they reached a
conclusion and to indicate how it might be improved
8 Key Characteristics of an
effective small class
1 Pupil Exploration usually preceded formal
presentation.
2 Initially, tasks were structured to limit the
range of alternatives pupils could explore.
3 There was a high proportion of pupil talk,
much of it occurring between pupils.
4 The metaphors “teacher as a listener” and
teacher as “guide on the side rather than
sage on the stage” were characteristic.
8 Key Characteristics of an
effective small class
5 Pupils used a variety of means and media to
communicate their ideas
6 pupils’ questions and comments often
determined the focus of classroom discourse
7 the ethos encouraged pupils to offer
speculative answers to challenging
questions.
8 lessons often required pupils to reflect
critically on the procedures and methods
used
A Poem as a Final Thought
Sent as a present from Annam
A red Cockatoo
Coloured like the peach blossom
Speaking with the speech of men
And they did what they always do to the
learned
and the eloquent
They took a cage with stout bars
And they shut it up inside
(8th Century Chinese Poem)
Some Key References
Wood, D. (1998) How Children Think and
Learn,Oxford: Blackwells
Moseley, D et al.(2003)Thinking Skill Frameworks
for Post 16 Learners, An Evaluation Report to
Learning Skills Development Council: University of
Newcastle Upon Tyne.
Watkins, C (2003) Learning: A sense-makers guide,
London: Association of Teachers and Lecturers
(ATL).