Chapter–1
1.
Introduction
Introduction: Plant Jatropha curcas Linn. was named first by greatest
botanist Carlvon Linnaeus. The term derived from Greek word "Jatros" meaning a
"Doctor", Trophe meaning "Nutrition". Linneus realized the potential of this plant for
medicinal purposes. Jatropha curcas belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae, is a
medium, soft wooded, deciduous multipurpose tree of 4-7 meter in height and grows
in tropical and sub-tropical climates across the developing world. Plant displays
vigorous growth in early periods. Jatropha curcas is a morphologically diverse genus
that comprises of 470 species (Paramathma et al., 2004).
Detailed information on Jatropha curcas Linn. with common vernacular names
in India and abroad are given below:
Hindi
-
(Jangli arandi, Safed arand, Bagbhenrenda)
Sanskrit
-
(Kananaeranda, Parvatandra)
Marathi
-
(Moagaleranda, Chandrajot, Chandri)
Gujrathi
-
(Ratanjyot, Jamalgota, Kalaeranda)
Tamil
-
(Kadalamanakku, Kattamanakku)
English
-
(Physicnut, Purgingnut, Jatropha curcas)
Oriya
-
(Jahazigaba)
Punjabi
-
(Jamalgota, Kalaerenda)
Bengali
-
(Baghbehenda, Erandagaehh)
Italy
-
(Fagiolad, India)
China
-
(Yu-lu-tzu)
Peru
-
(Pinol)
1.1
Botanical Classification:
Kingdom
-
Planae
Order
-
Malpighiales
Family
-
Euphorbiaceae
Sub Family
-
Crotonoideae
Tribe
-
Jatropheae
Genus
-
Jatropha curcas Linn.
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1.2
Introduction
Other species of Jatropha: Jatropha curcas, J. gossypifolia (elegans), J.
glandulifera, J. multifida, J. tanjorensis, J. integerrima, J. pandurifolia, J. villosa, J.
nana, J. heynei and J. maheswari are the common species.
Jatropha curcas Linn. is a large shrub occurring almost throughout India.
Leaves are alternately arranged, 10-15cm×7.5-12.5cm, broadly ovate, conate, acute
usually palmately 3 or 5 lobed, glabrous; flowers in loose panicles of the cymes,
yellowish green, fruits are 2.5cm, long ovoid. Seeds are ovoid-oblong, dull brownish
black in color. Seeds are used for the extraction of oil. The seeds morphologically
resemble with castor seed in shape but arc smaller in size and dark in color.
Jatropha curcas of family Euphorbiaceae is a large multipurpose oil yielding
shrub, introduced in India by Portuguese as an oil yielding plant. Jatropha curcas
yielded the highest energy in terms of the liquid fuel/acre/year/inch of water (Calvin,
1987). The seed of Jatropha curcas contains about 35 to 40% of non-edible oil
(Keith, 2000).
Jatropha curcas is a drought resistant, perennial, growing well in marginal
and poor soil. It establishes itself earlier, grows quickly, producing seeds for 50 years.
The root is reported to contain yellow oil with antihelminitic action (Shrivastava,
1999; Patil et al., 2003).
The most common type bio-fuel which is being developed and used at present
is bio-ethanol and bio-diesel. Among the different plant species, Jatropha curcas is
the main commodity for bio-diesel and has immense potential for producing oil which
finds large scale industrial use.
The mature Jatropha curcas trees bear male and female inflorescence, and can
grow to a height of three to four meters. Each inflorescence bears 10 to 15 large fruits.
Jatropha curcas generally blooms twice a year under normal conditions. Plant is
Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour Central University, Sagar (M.P.)
2
Chapter–1
Introduction
desirable as a source of bio-fuels as its seeds produce up to 40% oil. The species in
general is highly resistant to drought and pests. Processed oil from crushed mature
seeds can be used in existing standard diesel engines while the residue can also be
processed into biomass to power electricity plants. The seed cake a by-product of oil
production can be used as a natural organic fertilizer rich in organic matter. Research
is underway to remove the toxic element prevalent in the seed cake to render it useful
as an animal feed.
1.3
Botanical Features: Jatropha curcas or physic nut, has thick glabrous
branchlets. The branches contain translucent, whitish latex, which causes brown stains
which is very difficult to remove. The tree has a straight trunk and gray or reddish
bark, masked by large white patches. Jatropha curcas is a deciduous soft-wooded
small multipurpose small tree or shrub, with smooth grey bark which exudes whitish
colored watery latex when cut. It usually attain the height of 3-5 m, however, it can
grow even up to 8-10 m in favourable conditions. It is monoecious and protandrous.
Young shoots are glandular, tomentose, base is grey and green. Trunk is straight,
branched from the ground. Bark is thin and yellowish in color. In plate 1.1 fully
grown Jatropha curcas Linn plant with fruits and leaves.
Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour Central University, Sagar (M.P.)
3
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ntroduction
n
Plate 1.11 Fully grow
wn Jatrophaa curcas Lin
nn. plant witth fruits and
d leaves.
1.3.1 Leavees: Leaf is smooth,
s
hearrt shaped, 4--6 lobed andd 10-15 cm in length annd
w
width,
initiallly light viollet later on yyellowish grreen and at m
maturity it becomes
b
darrk
grreen. Leaf faall occurs inn the winter sseason leavinng entire plaant naked. Laarge 6-15 cm
m,
grreen to palee-green leavves with 3-77 shallow lo
obes are arrranged alternnately to subbop
pposite, withh a spiral phyyllotaxi.
1.3.2 Floweers: Infloreescence is formed
f
term
minally on branches. The plant is
m
monoecious
and
a flowers are unisexuual. More female
fe
floweers give more number of
o
seeeds. Pollinaation is by insects. Thee petiole lenngth ranges between 6--23 mm. Thhe
innflorescencee is formedd in the leeaf axil. Thhe flowers are formed
d terminallyy,
inndividually, with femalee flowers, ussually slightlly larger. Floowering occcurs in the hoot
seeasons. In coonditions whhere continuuous growth,, occurs, an unbalance of
o pistillate or
o
sttaminate flower producttion results in a higher number of female flow
wers. Ratio of
o
D
Department
o Botany, Dr.
of
D H.S. Gour Central Un
niversity, Sa
agar (M.P.)
4
Chapter–1
Introduction
male and female flower is 25:1. Female flowers are bigger than male, lesser in
number, open 2-3 days after male flower within a plant and these ensure a
selfincompatible system. Lesser number of female flowers and inadequate pollination
are major causes of low yields. More number of female flowers is produced by the
plant if bee keeping is done along with.
1.3.3 Fruits: After pollination, a tri-locular, ellipsoidal, fruit is formed. Normally,
fruits are produced in winter, or it may produce several crops during the year if soil
moisture is good and temperatures are sufficiently high. The exocarp remains fleshy
until the seeds are mature. Inflorescence yields a bunch of approximately 10 or more
ovoid fruits. Three, bi-valved cocci are formed after the seeds mature and the fleshy
exocarp dries.
1.3.4 Seeds: The seeds become mature when the capsule changes from green to
yellow, after two to four months from fertilization. The blackish, thin shelled seeds
are oblong and resemble small castor seeds. The seeds are black and in the average 18
mm long (11-30 mm) and 10 mm wide (7-11mm). The 1000 seed weight is about 727
grams there are 1375 seeds per kg generally. In plate 1.2 Size of Jatropha curcas
fruits (A) Large (B) Medium (C) Small.
Analysis of the Jatropha curcas seed shows the following chemical
composition:
Moisture
6.20%
Protein
18.00%
Fat
38.00%
Carbohydrates
17.00%
Fiber
15.50%
Ash
5.30%
Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour Central University, Sagar (M.P.)
5
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Chapter–1
In
ntroduction
n
The oil
o content is
i 25-30% in the seeds and 50-60%
% in the keernel. The ooil
coontains 21%
% saturated fatty
f
acids and
a 79% unssaturated fattty acids. Thhere are som
me
chhemical elem
ments in thee seed, like ccurcin, which is poisonoous and rendder the oil noot
apppropriate foor human coonsumption.
Plate 1.2
2 Size of Jatropha curccas fruits (A
A) Large (B) Medium (C
C) Small
D
Department
o Botany, Dr.
of
D H.S. Gour Central Un
niversity, Sa
agar (M.P.)
6
Chapter–1
Introduction
1.3.5 Roots: Normally, five roots are formed from the seeds, one tap root and four
lateral roots. Plants from cutting develop only lateral roots.
1.4
Life span: The Jatropha curcas trees take 4 to 5 years to mature fully. Yield
0.35 to 0.375 gallon of oil per tree or 375 gallons per hectare or 150 gallons per acre.
If it is irrigated (3 to 5 liters per plant every 15 days) it can double this amount. The
life-span of the Jatropha curcas plant is more than 50 years.
1.5
Ecology: Jatropha curcas is not a weed. It is not self propagating. It has to be
planted. It grows well on marginal land with more than 200 mm of rainfall per year,
and it withstands long drought periods. With less than 200-300 mm rainfall it cannot
grow except in special conditions like dormancy is induced by fluctuations in rainfall
and temperature/light. But not all trees respond simultaneously. Jatropha curcas like
castor grows almost anywhere - even in gravel dominated, sandy and saline soils. It
can thrive on the poorest stony soil. It can grow even in the crevices of rocks. The
leaves shed during the winter months form mulch around the base of the plant. The
organic matter from shed leaves enhance earth-worm activity in the soil around the
root-zone of the plants, which improves the fertility of the soil. Its water requirement
is extremely low (1 liter per plant per day) and it can stand long periods of drought by
shedding most of its leaves to reduce transpiration loss. Jatropha curcas is also
suitable for preventing soil erosion and shifting of sand dunes. Jatropha curcas is a
highly adaptable species and can be planted as a pure block, boundary fence or an
intercrop in existing plantation of coconut, mango, citrus, cashew, etc. The plant may
start seeding from the first year itself. However, the yield peaks up from the third year
onwards and stabilizes by the sixth year. It has an average yield of 2 kg per plant in
well irrigated conditions. The seeds of Jatropha curcas yield oil after processing is
transformed into transport fuel also known as bio-diesel.
Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour Central University, Sagar (M.P.)
7
Chapter–1
1.6
Introduction
Jatropha curcas and its Applications: The Jatropha curcas plant is drought
resistant and can be grown easily. It can grow up to 8 meters high. It has been
traditionally used as a hedge and live up to 50 years producing seeds up to three times
per annum (Chachage, 2003). Figure 1.1 shows the main stages in the Jatropha
curcas production chain from seed to end product. There are many possible uses for
Jatropha curcas.
Jatropha
Seeds
Nursery
Scedlings/cuttings
Cultivation
Cultivation
Seeds
Large amount of seeds
Oil-expelling facility
Seedcake
Production
Oil
Conversion to:
- Soap
- Production of biogas
- Fertiliser
-Briqucttes
Usage
Direct use in:
- Cooking stoves
- Oil lamps
In diesel engines
(either straight or
converted into
biodiesel)
Figure 1.1 Jatropha curcas production chain (Heller, 1996; Jones and Miller, 1993)
Cultivation includes the activities regarding growing of the Jatropha curcas
plant and the harvesting of the seeds. Jatropha curcas is grown in nurseries from
seeds. In Tanzania this is done by some women’s group. Villagers also take cuttings
and plant them. The cuttings take less time to establish, but the seed-grown Jatropha
curcas bushes are stronger because they develop the tap root system.
The seed yields reported for different countries and regions ranges from 0.1 to
15t/ha/y (Heller, 1996; Jones and Miller, 1993). Apparently the yield depends on a
range of factors such as water, soil conditions, altitude and temperature.
Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour Central University, Sagar (M.P.)
8
Chapter–1
Introduction
Jatropha curcas gives higher oil yield per hectare than peanuts, sunflower,
soya, maize or cotton when grow under optimum conditions. The processed oil can be
used directly in diesel engines after minor modification or after blending with
conventional diesel. The fact that oil of Jatropha curcas cannot be used for nutritional
purposes without detoxification makes its use as an energy source for fuel production
attractive. The byproducts of the bio-diesel processing plant are nitrogen rich fresh
cake and glycerol, which are used as fertilizer and as a base for soap and cosmetics.
Makkar et al. (1998) found that crude protein was 56% in cape verde, 61% in
Nicargua, 55% in Nigeria and 64% in non toxin of Mexico Jatropha curcas seed is
generally attributed to the presence of lectin in these seeds (Samia et al., 1992). In
Figure 1.2 the various use of Jatropha curcas are shown.
Seed oil
- Biodiesel Production
- Soap production
- Medicinal uses
- Insecticide
- Cooking and lighting
Fruits coats
- Medicinal uses
- Fertilizer
Fruits
- Fertilizer
Seed cake
- Organic fertilizer
- Biogas production
- Fodder
(after de toxification or
lower toxic accessions)
Seed shells
- Combstibles
- Organic fertilizer
Seeds
- Insecticide
- Medicinal uses
Leaves
- Medicinal uses,
- Fertilizer
- Source of dark blue dye
Latex
- Medicinal uses
- Biocidal uses
Roots oil
- Antihelmintic properties
Water conservation, Erosion control, hedge living fence Jatropha
curcas Linn.
Figure 1.2 The various uses of Jatropha curcas components (adapted from Jones
and Miller, 1991)
Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour Central University, Sagar (M.P.)
9
Chapter–1
Introduction
The fruits contain irritants which affect pickers who remove the seeds by
hand. The seeds are poisonous because they contain toxalbumine called curine, cyanic
acid related to ricimic acid, and toxic phorbol esters (Nath and Dutt, 1991; Adolf et
al., 1984; Levin et al., 2000; Rai and Lakhanpal, 2008). Toxicoses are reported in the
medical literature and ingesting four seeds can be toxic to a child, with symptoms
resembling organophosphate insecticide intoxication, yet with no antidote for the
lethal mixture (Abdu-Aguye et al., 1986; Gubitz et al., 1999; Koltin et al., 2006).
Phorbol esters were found to be responsible for purgative, skin-irritant effects and
tumor promotion (Adolf et al., 1984; Hirota et al., 1988).
The leaves contain the flavonoids and its glycosides vitexin and isovitexin, the
sterols stismasterol, β-D-sltosterol and its β-D-glucoside (Mampane et al., 1987). In
addition,
Jatropha
curcas
leaves
contain
steroid,
saponins,
alkaloids,
the
triterpenalchol1-triacontanol (C30H62O) and a dimmer of a triterpenalchol (C63H117O9).
12-Deoxy-10-hydroxyphorbol, a polyunsaturated diterpene ester was isolated from
the seed oil of Jatropha curcas which is an irritant and purgative (Adolf et al., 1984).
The data for this type of plantation is available only from one research site at
Kasetsart University, in Thailand. The crop density is 1 m × 1 m yielding 10,000 trees
per ha. The land preparation is done once every five years. Irrigation is carried out
twice a month via. pumping of water. Fertilizer is applied at the rate of 277, 223 and
405 kg of N, P, and K respectively per ha every year. Part of this requirement could
be supplemented with cow manure, but this is not included in the analysis. Glyphosate
(48% w/v) is applied as herbicide at about 25 l/ha/y and various insecticides are
applied. Figure 1.3 shows system boundaries and figure 1.4 shows life cycle scheme
of plants.
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Chapter–1
Introduction
Energy, raw materials, auxiliary materials
System Boundary
Farming Phase
Manu. & transp. of materials
Fertilizer
Insecticide
Herbicide
Fruit
Field operations
Plowing
Harrowing
Furrowing
Irrigation
Fertilization
Insecticide/herbicide spray
Harvesting
Oil extraction phase Oil
Cracking
Pressing
Filtering
Biodiesel production phase
Trans-esterification
Wood
Peel and Seed cake
Glycerin
Biodiesel
Fuel
Fuel stock/fertilizer
Fuel stock
Use in diesel engine
Figure 1.3 System boundaries, Prueksakorn et al., (2008)
Repeated that energy analysis of Jatropha curcas plantation systems are for
bio-diesel production in Thailand.
T = Transportation
Jatropha
farming
Fruit
T
Wood
Fuel stock
T
T
Oil extraction and
refining
Peel &
seedcake
Fuel stock
fertilizer
Biodiesel
Use in diesel
engine
Oil
Biodiesel
production
Emissions to air, water and soil
Energy/raw materials/auxiliary materials
System boundary
T
Glycerin
Fuel stock
Figure 1.4 Life cycle scheme for the studied system (Heller, 1996; Jones and
Miller, 1993)
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Chapter–1
Introduction
1.6.1 Direct use blending: In year 1900, Dr. Diesel demonstrated his engine
running on 100% peanut oil at world exhibition in Paris, Caterpillar (Brazil) in 1980
used pre-combustion chamber engines with a mixture of 10% vegetable oil to
maintain total power without any modifications to the engine (Agarwal, 2007).
Table 1.1 Specifications of seed oil of Jatropha curcas (Foidl et al., 1996;
Tamalampundi et al., 2008)
Variable
Variety
Caboverde
Variety
Nicaragua
Variety
Nigeria
Color
Light yellow
Light yellow
Light Yellow
Saponification number(mg/g)
192
190
199
Vicosity at 30ºC (cst)
39
37
17
Free fatty acids (% weight)
0.3-0.4
0.6-1.3
1.8
Unsaponifiable (% weight)
1.1
0.8
0.8
Iodine number
95
107
105
Acid value
-
-
3.5
Specific gravity (25 ºC)
-
-
0.92
Table 1.2 Fatty acid composition (%) of the seed oil of Jatropha curcas compared
with other vegetable oils (Ma and Hanna, 1999; Sarin et al., 2007 Foidl et al.,
1996)
Fatty acid
J. curcas
Caboverde
J. curcas
Nicaragua
Soybean
Cotton
seed
Palm
Sunflower
Capric
0.1
0.1
-
-
-
-
Myristic
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.7
1.0
0.2
Palmitic
15.1
13.6
10.2
20.1
42.2
4.8
Plamtoleic
0.9
0.8
0.1
-
-
0.8
Stearic
7.1
7.4
3.7
2.6
4.5
5.7
Oleic
44.7
34.6
22.8
19.2
40.5
20.6
Linoleic
31.4
43.2
53.7
55.2
10.1
66.2
Linolenic
0.2
0.2
8.6
0.6
0.2
0.8
Arachidic
0.2
0.3
0.3
-
-
0.4
Behenic
0.2
-
0.1
-
-
-
Lauric
-
-
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.5
Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour Central University, Sagar (M.P.)
12
Chapter–1
Introduction
Direct use of vegetable oils and their blends have been generally considered to
be unsatisfactory and difficult to use in both direct and indirect diesel engines. The
obvious problems are the high viscosity, acid composition, free fatty acid content, as
well as gum formation due to oxidation, polymerisation during storage and
combustion, oil ring sticking, carbon deposits and thickening or jelling of lubricating
oil and other problems (Ma and Hanna, 1999; Agrawal, 2007; Meher et al., 2006;
Engler et al., 1983; Nath and Dutta, 1989; Peterson, 1986).
The problem of the high viscosity of vegetable oils was solved by microemulsions with solvents such as methanol, ethanol, and 1-butanol (Agrawal, 2007).
The components of a bio-diesel micro- emulsion include diesel fuel, vegetable oil,
alcohol, and surfactant and cetane improvers in suitable proportions. Alcohols such as
methanol and ethanol are used as viscosity lowering additives, higher alcohols are
used as surfactants and alkyl nitrates are used as cetane improvers. Micro-emulsions
can improve spray properties by explosive vaporization of the low boiling
constituents in the micelles. Micro-emulsion results in reduction in viscosity increase
in cetane number and good spray characters in the bio-diesel. According to Srivastava
and Prasad (2000), short term performance of micro-emulsions of aqueous ethanol in
soybean oil was nearly as good as that of No. 2 diesel, despite the lower cetane
number and energy content.
Use of various parts of Jatropha curcas is a promising because of its useful
and profitable byproducts. The chemical composition of various parts of Jatropha
curcas plant and industrial applications has been reported by Kumar and Shrama,
(2008). Jatropha curcas oil has various uses apart from its use as a bio-fuel. Oil has
been used to produce soap, medicine and pesticides (Shanker and Dhyani, 2006). The
utilization of various parts of Jatropha curcas has been reviewed to know the
Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour Central University, Sagar (M.P.)
13
Chapter–1
Introduction
potentials for improving economic situation by Kumar and Sharma, (2008) are
described in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3 Chemical compositions of parts of Jatropha curcas plant
Various Parts of Plant
Chemical composition with references
β- sitosterol and its β-D glucoside, propacin, the
curculathyranes A and B and the cumarin tomentin, the
Root
coumarino-lignan
jatrophin
as
well
as
taraxerol
(Naengchomnong et al., 1986,1994)
Stem bark
β-Amyrin, β-sitosterol and taraxerol (Mitra et al., 1970)
Flavaonoids apigeinin, vitexin, isovitexin, dimmer of
atriterpene alconol (C63H117O9) and two flavonoidal glycosides
Leaves
(Mitra et al., 1970; Khafagy et al., 1977; Hufford and
Oguntimein, 1987)
Organic acids (O and p- coumaric acid p-OH benzoic acid,
protocatechuic acid, resorsilic acid saponins and tannisns, βAerial parts
Amyrin, β-sitosterol and taraxerol [Hemalatha and
Radhaakrishnaiah, 1993)
Curcacycline A, a cyclic octapeptide, Curcain (a protease)
Latex
(Van den Berg et al., 1995; Nath and Dutta, 1991)
Curcin, lectin, phorbolesters, esterases (JEA) and lipase (JEB)
Seeds
(Stirpe et al., 1976; Adolf et al., 1984; Makkar et al., 1997;
Staubmann et al., 1999)
Phytates, saponins and trypsine inhibitor (Aregheore et al.,
Oil cake and kernel
1997; Makkar and Becker, 1997; Wink et al., 1997)
Source: Kumar and Sharma (2008)
Green manure
Medicinal uses various parts
(Seed, leaves and bark)
Plant cultivation- Soil
erosion control
Leaves Sericulture
Biocidal value (Phorbolisters
molluscidal, insecticidal and
fungicidal)
Plant- As a hedge to
protect fields
Oil- soap production
Potentials of
Jatropha
curcas
Oil Source of Biodiesel
Leaves+Stem
Vermiculture
Leaves- As an
animal feed
Employment generation
Figure 1.5 Economic Significance of Jatropha curcas (Kumar et al., 2008)
Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour Central University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Chapter–1
Introduction
Linoleic acid (C18.2) content in Jatropha curcas kernal oils is of possible
interest for skincare. Further Goonasekera et al. (1995) showed that various solvent
extracts of Jatropha curcas have abortive effects. The oil is also used as a purgative
(Jamalgota) and for the treatment of skin ailments (Duke, 1988). The latex itself has
been found to be strong. Inhibitors to watermelon mosaic virus (Tewari and Shukla,
1982).
The leaves and latex are used in healing of wounds, refractor ulcers and septic
gums and as a septic in wounds, in cuts and bruises. A proteolytic enzyme curcain has
been reported to have wound healing activity in mice (Nath and Dutta, 1977; Villgas
et al., 1997). Investigation of the coagulant activity of the latex of Jatropha curcas
showed that whole latex significantly reduced the clotting time of human blood,
diluted latex however, prolonged the clotting and at high dilutions, the blood did not
clot at all (Osoniyi and Onajobi, 2003). Typical application of Jatropha curcas root in
paste form is common in ethno-botanical practices for the treatment of inflammation
which has been followed by Bhils tribes from Rajasthan area in India, which was
confirmed in albino mice. The successive solvent extraction of these roots was carried
out by ether and methanol. The methanol anti-inflammatory activity in acute
carrageenan-induced rat paws edema (Mujumdar and Misra, 2004). Economic
significance of Jatropha curcas has been shown above (Fig. 1.5) and other details are
given in Table 1.4.
Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour Central University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Chapter–1
Introduction
Table 1.4 Saponificatioin number (SN), iodine value (iv) and cetane number
(CN) of fatty acid methyl ester of some selected seed oils (Bringi, 1987; and
Singh, 1991; Tyagi and Kakkar, 1991)
S. No
1.
2.
Sources
Jatropha
curcas Linn.
Pongamia
pinnata
piettra
Oila
CN
MPb
SN
IV
40.0
52.31
-
202.6
93.0
33.0e
55.84
-
196.7
80.9
3.
Madhuca
indica
40.0e
56.61
-
202.1
74.2
4.
Euphorbia
helioscopia
Linn.
31.5
34.25
-
206.7
170.9
5.
Mesua
ferrea Linn.
68.5d
201.0
81.3
55.10
-
Fatty acid composition by
14.0(1.4)16.0(15.6),18.1(40.
8),18.2(32.1),20.0(0.4)
16.0(10.6),18.0(6.8),18.1(49.
4),18.2(19.0),20.0(4.1),20.1
(2.4),22.0(5.3),24.0(2.4)
14.0,(1.0),16.0(17.8),18.0(14
.0),18.1(46.3)18.2(17.9),
20.0()3.0
12.0(2.8), 14.0 (5.5), 16.0
(9.9),18.0(1.1),18.1(15.8),
18.2(22.1),18.3 (42.7)
14.0(0.0),16.0(10.8),18.0(12.
4),18.1(60.0),18.2(15.0),
20.0(0.9)
Source: Kumar and Sharma (2008)
(a) Percent oil content expressed in w/w, (b) Melting point/freezing point of oils and
(-) indicated state of oil at room temperature, (c) OSa: other saturated acid, (d) Oil
from kernel, (e) Oil from seed.
1.7
The Trans-esterification:
1.7.1 Chemical Reaction: Trans-esterification is a base-catalyzed chemical reaction
process. Almost all the bio-diesel is produced by using a base catalyzed transesterification process as it is the most economically valuable process. It only requires
low temperature and pressure. In the reaction, 100 parts of a fat or oil, is reacted with
10 part of methanol in the presence of a base catalyst to produce 10 parts of glycerin
and 100 parts of methyl esters (bio-diesel). Normally, the methanol is changed in
excess is recovered for reuse. The catalyst is usually sodium or potassium hydroxide
that has been mixed with the methanol. Below a typical trans-esterification reaction is
shown, a triglyceride reacts with methanol through a base catalyst to produce bio
diesel methyl ester and glycerin.
Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour Central University, Sagar (M.P.)
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1.7.2 The trans-esterification Reaction: According to IEA (2002), EPA (2002),
the table 1.6 shown a property comparison of bio-diesel and diesel at low sulphur
content. The reason to compare the products is based on environmental and on
performance basis. Nowadays international efforts are being carried out to reduce
green house gases emissions as well as air pollution. Therefore high diesel sulphur
contents are to be avoided and then extra technological processes are to be applied for
the diesel production to reduce sulphur level.
Table 1.5 Bio-diesel/Diesel properties
Composition
Cetane number
Lubricity
Bio-degradability
Toxicity
Oxygen
Aeromatic
Sulphur
Cloud point
Flash point
Effect on natural butyl rubber
Bio-diesel
51 to 62
+
+
+
up to 11%
0
0
300-400ºF
Can degrade
Low sulphur diesel
44 to 49
Very low
Very low
18-22%
0-350ppm
+
125ºF
No. Impact
The general properties of Bio-diesel are given in table 1.5. Bio-diesel is a fatty
acid or methyl ester made from virgin or used vegetable oil (both edible and nonedible) and animal fats. Bio-diesel contains no petroleum but it can be blended at any
level with petroleum diesel to create a bio-diesel blend or it can be used in its pure
form. It is considered pure clean fuel since it has almost no sulphur, no aromatics and
has about 10% built in oxygen, which helps it to burn fully.
In India Jatropha curcas is found in almost all the states and is generally
grown as a fence for protection of agricultural fields from damage by live stock as it is
not browsed by cattle. It is found in Jabalpur, Khandawa, Raisen, Rewa, Baster,
Bilaspur, Durg, Dhamtri, Jagdalpur and Raipur etc. The main economic importance of
Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour Central University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Jatropha curcas is the oil, extracted from the seeds of Jatropha curcas which is an
environmentally safe, cost effective and renewable source of non-conventional energy
as a promising substitute to hydro energy, diesel, kerosene, LPG, coal and firewood
etc. But its other parts like leaves, stem, bark, roots, cake are also having remarkable
medicinal importance.
There are around 300 types of oil seed in nature however in the market the
most used for bio-diesel production are the following ones. Soyabean (Glycine max);
rape (Brassica napus), rice (Oryza sativa), sunflower (Helianthus annuus), peanut
(Arachis hipogaea), castar (Ricinus communis), avocado (Persea americana), coco
(Cocos nucifera), palm (Elaeis guinecsis), mahua (Madhuca indica) and neem
(Azadirachta indica) etc.
These oils also have good low temperature flow characteristics. Therefore, the
European studies generally focus on rape seed methyl ester while the US studies look
at both rape and soyabean based bio-diesel.
Jatropha curcas is widely grown in Mexico, Nicaragua, Thailand and in parts
of India. It is now being promoted in southern Africa, Brazil, Mali and Nepal. There
are several Government, International Organization, National bodies and NGOs
promoting the planting and use of Jatropha curcas and other oil bearing plants.
The main source for bio-diesel in India can be non-edible oils obtained from
plant species such as Jatropha curcas, Madhuca latifolia, Azadirachta indica,
Simarouba glauca, Pongamia pinnata, Calophylhem inophyllum, Hevea brasilensis
etc. The seed yield as high as 1200 kg/ha year after 5 year of plantation (Jones and
Miller, 1992)while 0.8 to 1 kg of seed per meter of line can be obtained if it is planted
for live hedge (Henning, 1996). Flower and seed production directly related to
rainfall/moisture and fertility of soil. The oil content of seed represents a reasonable
Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour Central University, Sagar (M.P.)
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opportunity for renewable fuel (Schultz and Margan, 1985, Princen 1983 and
Harrington, 1986).
Various germination indices viz. germination percentage, daily germination,
peak value and germination value were calculated as described by Zabator, (1962).
1.8
Average Dimension of the Jatropha curcas seed size: Variation could be
determined by taking 100 seeds from the seed lot, length, width, and diameter of each
seed and measured through Vernier Calliper, seeds then be classified into small,
medium and large size classes according to their length. After size grading, number
and weight of the seed in each size class may be recorded. Damaged seed may be
discarded and only uniform used for germination casts. Average 100 seed weight of
each class was determined in four replications similarly, to estimate the average
length, width and thickness of seeds in each size class a total of 100 seed with four
replications were also recorded with Vernier Calliper by earlier workers Djavanshir
and Pourbeik (1976), Yousheng and Sziklai (1985) and Devagiri (1998).
1.9
Seed Viability: Seed of Jatropha curcas were subjected to observe the
moisture content. The term "Viability" has been widely and repeatedly used for seed
beyond several other aspects (Balwin, 1942). Looking into the possibility of growth of
plants it was proposed that it may be an abstract term referring to the potential
capacity of seed to germinate. Barton (1961) stated that viability is the condition of
seed in the sense of being capable of growth and survival. Schopmeyer (1974) stated
that viability is the potentiality of seed to germinate. Bonner (1984) defined seed
viability as the state of being capable of germination and subsequent growth and
development of the seedlings. Thus it can be said that a viable seed is one which is
capable of germinating under the proper circumstances.
The Jatropha curcas seed viability is usually tested by means of a standard
germination test requiring minimum of 3 weeks duration or sometimes 6 weeks.
Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour Central University, Sagar (M.P.)
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However, germination test is not possible in seed with under developed embryo,
dormancy, hard fruit coat and in conditions not favorable for germination.
1.10
Seed Germination: The seed size is a considerable and significant factor in
the germination and early stage of plant growth (Indira et al., 2000; Girish et al.,
2001). Different size of seeds having different levels of starch and other food storage
may be one factor which influences the expression of germination and growth of the
plants (Wood et al., 1977). Some works (Stanton, 1985, Nizam and Hossain, 1999,
Arunachalam et al., 2003, Suresh et al., 2003) have observed the seed germination
and seedling growth is high in large seeds, while other (Wood et al., 1977) have
reported that small or medium seeds performed better than large seeds in certain
species, however, the seed size may not even affect rate of seed germination
(Cideciyan and Malloch, 1982), germination parameters (Gonzalez, 1993) and
seedling growth and dry weight (Carelton Cooper, 1972).
The seedling quality index could be calculated as per the methodology detailed
by Dickson et al. (1960) as per details given below:
Dicksons Quality:
. .
1.11
Seedling dry weight
Height cm 1 caller diameter
%
Jatropha seed cake: Considering the effect of Bacillus megatherium
inoculation, previous studies have indicated that phosphorus deficiency is one of the
most important factors limiting plant growth. On the other hand, increasing microbial
activities in the rhizosphere raised available nutrients content in soil and plays special
role in decomposing organic substances of transforming inorganic substances to
available nutrients for plant growth and pH of all soils.
Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour Central University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Chapter–1
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The world population is increasing and there is an urgent need to increase
animal production in order to meet the increasing demand of animal protein.
However, the consumption of conventional feed stuffs like soya bean, maize, sorghum
etc. by human beings is undermining their availability to animals. Hence, the world is
becoming increasingly aware of the looming food scarcity. The seed from the plant
can be used as seed cake after extracting the oil either mechanically or chemically.
The cake is known to contain crude protein content between 57 and 64% with 90%
true protein with the exception of lysine. Jatropha curcas contains some toxins and
anti-nutrients (cyanide, saponin, tannin, phytate, etc). Various methods (physical,
mechanical and chemical) of detoxification are well documented in literature
(Aderibigbe et al., 1997).
Fermentation used up food energy and make conditions unsuitable for
undesirable microbes reported on the effect of fungi treated Jatropha curcas kernel
cake with encouraging result (Belewu et al., 2010). Opined that goat fed diet
containing 50% soya bean meal plus 50% Rhizopus oligosporus treated Jatropha
curcas kernel cake under condiment consumed adequate dry matter and other
nutrients.
Jatropha curcas is not browsed; its leaves are toxic to animals. But after
treatment, like oil cake its leaves are also poisonous in nature and can be suitably used
in composting. For preparation of leaf compost two combinations were employed in
two different pits. Bisla et al. (1992) reported inhibitory effects of aqueous extracts of
dried leaves of E. terticonis and P. deltoids on seed germination of wheat barley,
lentil, chickpea and mustard.
1.12
Medicinal Use: Traditional medicine using plant extracts continues to provide
health coverage for 80% of the world's population, especially in the developing world
(WHO, 2002). The plant exhibits bioactive compounds for fever, mouth infections,
Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour Central University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Chapter–1
Introduction
jaundice, guinea worm source and joint rheumatism (Irine, 1961; Oliver-Bever, 1986;
Fagbenro Beyioku, 1998). Studies have also reported the anti-parasitic activity of
crushed leaves of Jatropha curcas. Early works have shown that many species of
Jatropha curcas posses anti microbial activity (Aiyelaagbe et al., 2000; Aiyelaagbe,
et al. 2001).
The seed of Jatropha curcas or expressed oil have been used medicinally as a
purgative and as remedy against syphilis. The viscid sap (latex) is employed for
cleaning teeth to cure sores on the tongues of babies and tooth (Burkill, 1994;
Langdon, 1977). The extracts of Jatropha curcas species including Jatropha curcas
displayed potent cytotoxic, anti-tumer and anti-microbial activities in different assays.
The latex of Jatropha curcas also showed antibacterial activities against
Staphylococus aureus (Thomas, 1989).
The seeds are mechanically expelled to get the de-oiled cake which has 8-10%
remnant oil along with protein and fibrous part. The cake is poisonous in nature.
Therefore, at present the best use can be its conversion into manure after composting.
The Jatropha curcas plant has luxuriant foliage during the summer season and the
winter season leaves fall down due to its deciduous nature. The stem also green for
the whole year. Like oil its leaves are also poisonous in nature and can be suitably
used in composting.
1.13
Role of Microorganisms in the growth of Jatropha curcas: The
microorganisms are distributed densely in the upper layer and therefore facility of this
layer is more than of the profiles of soil. Microorganisms in the soil are responsible
for the lack of nutrients for the benefit of plants. The phosphors requirement of plants
could be enhanced by the rhizosphere microorganisms (Khan et al., 2006). Significant
information has been received about the role of microbial inoculants and their
interaction with plants (Singh and Jamaluddin, 2008, Jamaluddin and Singh, 2006).
Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour Central University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Phosphorus solubilising bacteria (PSB) play a key role in biogeochemical cycles in
phosphorous into its soluble form by acidification, chelation, exchange reaction
(Delvasto et al., 2006). For the better growth or development of Jatropha curcas the
quality enhancement of soil is essential.
Impact of microorganisms during storage of seeds like decay in seed
germination, biochemical change, nutritional losses, heating, cracking of grains, micro
toxin production (Christensen and Kantman 1969) etc. were studied (Jayaraman et al.,
2011).
1.14
Isolation Techniques: Warcup's soils plate (1950) and Warksman's (1927)
dilution plate methods were followed for the isolation and identification of
microorganism. Techniques are normally employed to obtain as many fungi and
bacteria as possible. Fungi can be isolated supplementing rose Bengal and
streptomycin (Martin, 1950 and Johnson, 1957) to suppress the growth of fast
growing fungi and bacteria colonies.
1.14.1 Antimicrobial Activity: Medicinal plants like Jatropha curcas have played
major role in the treatment of various diseases including bacterial and fungal
infections. The extracts of many Jatropha curcas species including Jatropha curcas
displayed potent cytotoxic, anti-tumor and anti-microbial activities in different assays.
The latex of Jatropha curcas also showed anti-bacterial activity (Oyi et al., 2007).
The other plant parts have not been fully investigated for antimicrobial activity. In
vitro anti-microbial activity of crude ethanolic methanolic and water extracts of the
stem bark and root barks of Jatropha curcas were investigated (Igbinosa et al., 2009).
Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour Central University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Chapter–1
1.15
Introduction
Jatropha curcas Linn. Classification:
Botanical Name
Locality
Jatropha curcas
Sagar, U.T.D.
Family
Field
Vernacular
Ratanjot, Safed arand
Habit
Common in waste
land near villages
May-October
Yellowish green by
insect
Resin/latex/watery
substance
Fruiting season
Height scent/
Aroma if any
Name Habitat
Flowering season
Color of flower
pollination
1.16
Euphorbiaceae
Botanical garden
A shrub or Small
tree
Latex stick obtained
from whole plant
November-January
Up to 2.3.5 m high
odorless
Aims and objective of this study were:
1. The seed germination and growth behavior of Jatropha curcas in open field and
Botanical garden of Dr. Harisingh Gour Central University, Sagar (M.P.).
2. Growth studies of Jatropha curcas in botanical garden under plantation
conditions.
3. Economic use of different parts of the Jatropha curcas plant and its medicinal
value.
4. To determine the qualitative effect of different microbial population of soil which
may indicate the relative efficiency of different soil microorganisms and their role
in the development process of Jatropha curcas.
5. In view of the past studies on antifungal an antibacterial properties, leaf extract of
Jatropha curcas were treated against some fungi and bacteria (microorganism).
The selection of microorganisms was based on their known pathogenic properties.
6. The present study aims to acknowledge the antimicrobial property of crude extracts of
the stem and root barks of Jatropha curcas against some selected microfungi and
microbacteria.
Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour Central University, Sagar (M.P.)
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