Chapter 5
DRUGS
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-1
Introduction
• Drug - a natural or synthetic substance that
produces physiological or psychological effects
in humans or other animals.
• 75% of all evidence being processed in crime labs is
related to illegal drugs
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-2
DEA – NJ Drug Statistics
NJ State Facts
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(http://www.justice.gov/dea/pubs/state_factsheets/newjersey.html)
Population: 8,717,925
State Prison Population: 26,757
Probation Population: 143,315
Violent Crime Rate National Ranking: 26
2010 Federal Drug Seizures
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•
Cocaine: 900.78 kg
Heroin: 140.21 kg
Methamphetamine: 47.94 kg/26 DU
Marijuana: 2,887.80kg
Hashish: 57.55 kg.
MDMA: 3,790 DU
Meth Lab Incidents: 3 (DEA, state, and local)
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-3
Narcotics
• Narcotics - drugs that
induce sleep and relieve
pain
 Lowers blood pressure and slows
breathing rate
 Examples:
- Heroin
- Morphine
- Codeine
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
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Hallucinogens
• Hallucinogens include marijuana, LSD, PCP, and
MDMA (Ecstasy)
• PCP is often mixed with other drugs, such as LSD,
or amphetamine, and is sold as a powder (“angel
dust”), capsule, or tablet.
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-5
Depressants
• Depressants - are substances
used to slow down the functions
of the central nervous system.
• Depressants calm irritability and
anxiety and may induce sleep.
• Examples:
- alcohol
- Xanax
-Rohypnol
- Barbiturates
“Roofies”
-tranquilizers
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-6
Stimulants
• Stimulants – substance that speeds up, or
stimulates, the central nervous system
• Stimulants give the user an adrenaline rush often
followed by a crash.
• Heavy use of stimulants result in paranoia,
restlessness, irritability, and depression.
• The most frequently used stimulant is
coffee with caffeine.
• The most common illegal stimulants are
cocaine and amphetamines.
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-7
Amphetamines
• A group of synthetic stimulants that
are usually called UPPERS or
SPEED.
• Used in diet pills
• Hydroxycut with Ephedra
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-8
COCAINE
• Erythroxoylon coca – the plant
• Increases alertness and energy
• Suppression of hunger, fatigue, and
boredom
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-9
Drug-Control Laws
• The U.S. federal law known as the Controlled
Substances Act will serve to illustrate a legal
drug-classification system created to prevent
and control drug abuse.
• This federal law establishes five schedules of
classification for controlled dangerous
substances based on the drug’s
– potential for abuse
– potential for physical and psychological dependence
– medical use/value
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
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Your Brain on Drugs
• Youtube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N6N
L41bREHo
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-11
Forensic Drug Analysis
• A forensic chemist will determine if a
unknown substance is a drug by performing
a series of tests
• The results will have a direct bearing on the
process of determining the guilt or
innocence of a defendant.
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-12
Drug Identification
2-step procedure:
1) Use screening tests to reduce the number of
possibilities to a small and manageable number.
2) Use more sophisticated tests to pinpoint and confirm
the identity of the drug.
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-13
Drug Identification
Screening tests only tells what drug is possibly present.
(Screening tests are easier, cheaper, and quicker to use.)
Confirmatory tests tell that the drug is definitely present.
Screening tests
• Color tests
Confirmatory tests
• Spectrophotometry
• Microcrystalline test
 Ultraviolet (UV)
• Chromatography
 Visible
 Infrared (IR)
• Mass spectrometry
Video – Drug Analysis
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-14
Forensic Drug Analysis
Screening tests
• Color Tests (5 tests) - Suspect material is
subjected to a series of different color tests
that will produce characteristic colors for the
more common illicit drugs.
• Microcrystalline Test
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-15
5 Color Tests
1. Marquis
– turns purple when positive for heroin
and morphine
– turns orange-brown when positive for
amphetamines and methamphetamines.
2. Dille-Koppanyi – tests for barbiturates
3. Duqenois-Levine – series of chemicals to
test for marijuana
4. Van Urk –tests for LSD
5. Scott – three solution test for the
presence of cocaine. Positive
color sequence is blue-pink-blue.
Video - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ue9zp5P2Mxo
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-16
Microcrystalline Tests
• Microcrystalline tests - used to identify specific drug
substances by studying the size and shape of crystals formed
Cocaine crystal – “K” shaped
methamphetamine crystal
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
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Confirmation Determination
• Forensic chemists will employ a specific test to
identify a drug substance to the exclusion of all
other known chemical substances.
• Typically infrared spectrophotometry or gas
chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) is
used to specifically identify a drug substance.
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-18
Chromatography
 A technique for separating
mixtures into their
components
 Includes two phases—a
mobile one that flows past a
stationary one.
 The mixture interacts with
the stationary phase and
separates.
Kendall/Hunt
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
19
5-19
Types of Chromatography
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Paper
Thin Layer (TLC)
Gas (GC)
Pyrolysis Gas (PGC)
Liquid (LC)
High Pressure Liquid (HPLC)
Column
Kendall/Hunt
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©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
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5-20
Paper Chromatography
 Stationary phase—paper
 Mobile phase—a liquid solvent
Capillary action moves
the mobile phase through
the stationary phase
Kendall/Hunt
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
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Calculating Rf Values
• The distance moved by a pigment is
compared to the distance moved by
the solvent front. We call this
relationship the retention time or
Rf value and define it as follows:
Rf = Distance moved by the pigment
Distance from pigment origin to solvent front
• Paper chromatography can be used to
identify substances both qualitatively
(by color) and quantitatively by its
characteristic Rf value.
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
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Thin Layer Chromatography
 Stationary phase— a
thin layer of coating
(usually alumina or
silica) on a sheet of
plastic or glass
 Mobile phase—
a liquid solvent
Kendall/Hunt
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©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
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5-23
Gas Chromatography
In GC, the moving phase is actually a gas
called the carrier gas, which flows through
a column.
Phases
 Stationary —liquid that lines a
tube or column
 Mobile — a gas like nitrogen or
helium
• After a mixture passes through
the length of the column, it will
become separated into its
components.
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
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Gas Chromatography Results
• Chromatogram: The printed record of the separation.
• Retention Time: The time required for a component to
come out of a GC column.
Analysis
 Shows a peak that
is proportional to
the quantity of the
substance present
 Uses retention time
instead of Rf for the
qualitative analysis
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Xaa9WdXVTM
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-25
Uses of Gas Chromatography
 Not considered a confirmation of a
controlled substance
 For more accurate results – Used in
conjunction with mass spectroscopy (MS)
and infrared spectroscopy (IR)
 a separation tool for MS and IR
 Used to quantitatively measure the
concentration of a sample.
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
26
5-26
Marijuana Testing
The U.S. Drug Enforcement
Administration (DEA) regulates
marijuana under the Controlled
Substances Act (CSA).
substances. Within this CSA
framework, marijuana is placed
into Schedule 1. Many testing
methods are used for detecting
THC in saliva: radio
immunoassay (RIA) method, gas
chromatography with electron
capture detection (GC-ECD),
and liquid chromatography with
electrochemical detection.
Gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry (GC-MS) is the
preferred method for analysis screening and confirmation in one
step.3 GC/MS is extremely selective
and sensitive, enabling routine
analysis of THC in saliva at the low
levels required by most regulatory
bodies.
Testing for prosecution is actively
pursued EVERYDAY.
REMEMBER: Marijuana is still
considered a Schedule I drug by
the U.S. Government - federal
laws trump state or local laws.
Source: Forensic Magazine 23-29 10-17-2010
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
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Spectrophotometry
 Spectrophotometry - measures the quantity of
radiation that a particular material (i.e. drug)
absorbs
 Spectrophotometer—an instrument used to
measure the quantity of radiation absorbed by
material
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©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
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Types
 Infrared Spectrophotometry
 Mass Spectrometry
Kendall/Hunt
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©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
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Infrared (IR) Spectrometry
 Material absorbs energy in the near-Infrared
(IR) region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
 Result—an absorption spectrum
 Gives a unique view of the substance; like a
fingerprint  used to determine the identify
of an unknown substance
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©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
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Mass Spectrometry
• In the mass spectrometer, a beam
of high-energy electrons collide
with a sample, producing
positively charged ions.
• These positive ions almost
instantaneously decompose into
numerous fragments
 Fragments of sample
are separated
according to their
masses.
• The unique feature of mass
spectrometry is that under
carefully controlled conditions,
no two substances produce the
same fragment pattern.
Video
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-31
Do Now
• How does Infrared spectrophotometry
identify a specific drug?
• What technique measures the amount of a
drug?
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-32
Mass Spectrometry
• Gas chromatography (GC) and mass spec have
major drawbacks, GC does not give a specific
identification. Mass spectrometry cannot
separate mixtures or provide specific
identification.
• By combining gas chromatography and mass
spectrometry, constituents of mixtures can be
specifically identified.
Kendall/Hunt
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©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
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GC and Mass
• The GC column and the mass spectrometer
can be connected to one another.
• The separation of a mixture’s components is
first accomplished by the GC.
• Then, fragmentation of each separated
component by high-energy electrons in the
mass spectrometer, will produce a distinct
pattern, or a “fingerprint” of the sample
being examined.
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
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Collection and Preservation
• The evidence must be properly packaged and
labeled for the laboratory.
• The original container in which the drug was
seized will be sufficient.
• All samples must be marked with information
that will ensure identification in the future and
establish the chain of custody.
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-35
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
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PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-37
Chromatography
Chromatography is a means of
separating and identifying the
components of a mixture.
• Theory of chromatography is
that chemical substances
partially escape into the
surrounding environment
when dissolved in a liquid or
when absorbed on a solid
surface.
• Materials that have a
preference for the moving
phase will slowly pull ahead
and separate from those
substances that prefer to
remain in the stationary
phase.
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
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Qualitative vs. Quantitative
• Analytical techniques must give either a
qualitative or a quantitative result.
Qualitative gives only the identity of the
suspect material.
Quantitative gives the percent
composition of the different elements in a
mixture.
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-39
Chromatography
Chromatography is a means of
separating and identifying the
components of a mixture.
• Theory of chromatography is
that chemical substances
partially escape into the
surrounding environment
when dissolved in a liquid or
when absorbed on a solid
surface.
• Materials that have a
preference for the moving
phase will slowly pull ahead
and separate from those
substances that prefer to
remain in the stationary
phase.
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-40
TLC
Solid stationary phase (usually
coated onto a glass plate) and a
mobile liquid phase to separate
the components of the mixture.
• The liquid will move up the
plate by capillary action.
• The sample travels between
the stationary phase (plate)
and the moving liquid phase.
• Most compounds are colorless
so results must be viewed by
placing the plates under UV
light or spraying the plate
with a chemical reagent.
• The distance a spot travels up
a thin-layer plate can be
measured as a numerical
value or the Rf value.
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
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Spectrophotometry
Spectrophotometry
measures the quantity of
radiation that a
particular material
absorbs as a function of
wavelength and
frequency.
• Beer’s Law:
The quantity of light
absorbed at any
frequency is directly
proportional to the
concentration of the
absorbing substance.
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
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UVand IR Spectrophotometry
• Most forensic laboratories use
UV and IR
spectrophotometers to
identify chemical compounds.
• The UV spectrum is simple
enough to determine the
general identity of an
unknown substance.
• The IR spectrum is much
more exact; each IR spectrum
is equivalent to a
“fingerprint” of that
substance.
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©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
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The Spectrophotometer
• Measures the light absorption
spectrum of a chemical
substance.
• The components of a
spectrophotometer are:
•
– A radiation source
– A monochromator or
frequency selector
– A sample holder
– A detector to convert
electromagnetic radiation
into an electrical signal
– A recorder to produce a
record of the signal
The light source can be the
visible, ultraviolet (UV) or
infrared (IR)
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
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GC and Mass
• The GC column and the mass
spectrometer can be connected.
• The separation of a mixture’s components
is first accomplished by the GC.
• Then, fragmentation of each separated
component by high-energy electrons in the
mass spectrometer, will produce a distinct
pattern, or a “fingerprint” of the sample
being examined.
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-45
Collection and Preservation
• The evidence must be properly packaged and
labeled for the laboratory.
• Common sense is the best guide, the package
must prevent the loss of the sample contents
and/or cross-contamination with another sample.
• The original container in which the drug was
seized will be suffcient.
• All samples must be marked with information
that will ensure identification in the future and
establish the chain of custody.
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-46