Theories of Learning in Educational Psychology
Compiled by M. Sedaghatzadeh
Here you will find lots of information about theories of learning that have been developed over
the past 150 years. Teachers and students of educational psychology, curriculum development,
instructional methodology and related areas will find useful information. Brief biological
sketches of the theorists are provided, when such information is available.
Theories about human learning can be grouped into four broad "perspectives". These are
1.
2.
3.
4.
Behaviorism - focus on observable behavior
Cognitive - learning as purely a mental/ neurological process
Humanistic - emotions and affect play a role in learning
Social - humans learn best in group activities
The development of these theories over many decades is a fascinating story. Some theories
developed as a negative reaction to earlier ones. Others built upon foundational theories, looking
at specific contexts for learning, or taking them to a more sophisticated level.
There is also information here about general theories of learning, memory, and instructional
methodology.
1. Behaviorist Perspective
Behaviorism is more concerned with behavior than with thinking, feeling, or knowing. It focuses on the objective
and observable components of behavior. The behaviorist theories all share some version of stimulus-response
mechanisms for learning. Behaviorism originated with the work of John B. Watson, an American psychologist.
Watson coined the term "Behaviorism" in 1913. Behaviorism assumes that behavior is observable and can be
correlated with other observable events.Thus, there are events that precede and follow behavior. Behaviorism's goal
is to explain relationships between antecedent conditions (stimuli), behavior (responses), and consequences (reward,
punishment, or neutral effect).
Aspects of Watson's theory:
• He opposed mentalistic concepts
• He used contiguity to explain learning
• He considered emotion to be just another example of classical conditioning
• He rejected the notion of individual differences
• He thought complex behaviors came about through combinations of identifiable reflexes
• He was a chief proponent of "nurture" and believed that all human differences were the result of learning
• He believed that practice strengthens learning
Watson's theory was more concerned with effects of stimuli. He derived much of his thinking from Pavlov's animal
studies (classical conditioning). this is also referred to as "learning through stimulus substitution," a reference to the
substitution of one stimulus for another. For example, the ringing of a bell eventually produced the same response as
food for Pavlov's dogs.
Nowadays, behaviorism is associated with the name of B.F. Skinner, who made his reputation by testing Watson's
theories in the laboratory. Skinner ultimately rejected Watson's almost exclusive emphasis on reflexes and
conditioning. Skinner believed that people respond to their environment, but they also operate on the environment to
produce certain consequences. Thus they participate in a feedback loop as an important part of a larger system.
Skinner developed the theory of "operant conditioning," the idea that we behave the way we do because this kind of
behavior has had certain consequences in the past.
Presuppositions of behaviorism:
1. Behaviorism is naturalistic. This means that the material world is the ultimate reality, and everything can be
explained in terms of natural laws. Man has no soul and no mind, only a brain that responds to external stimuli.
2. A central tenet of behaviorism is that thoughts, feelings, intentions, and mental processes, do not determine what
we do. Behaviorism views behavior as the product of conditioning. Humans are biological machines and do not
consciously act; rather they react to stimuli.
3. Consistently, behaviorism teaches that we are not responsible for our actions. If we are mere machines, without
minds or souls, reacting to stimuli and operating on our environment to attain certain ends, then anything we do is
inevitable.
4. Behaviorism is manipulative. It seeks not merely to understand human behavior, but to predict and control it.
From his theories, Skinner developed the idea of "shaping." By controlling rewards and punishments, you can shape
the behavior of another person.
Other significant behaviorist researchers were Guthrie and Thorndike.
Early behaviorism in retrospect:
Behaviorist theories ultimately have been relegated to mere historical significance as early attempts to explain
learning, but are generally regarded as failures not so much because the stimulus-response ideas are inaccurate, but
more because they are insufficient. They could be used to explain some behavior, but their generality was extremely
limited. Other kinds of explanations were needed.
Skinnerian behaviorism in retrospect:
Skinner stands out in the history of psychology as a great system-builder.Probably his greatest contribution was his
description of effects of reinforcement on responses. He related these findings to individuals as well as social
groups.
Skinner's Theory:Operant Conditioning
B. F. Skinner's system is based on operant conditioning. The organism, while going about its everyday activities, is
in the process of “operating” on the environment. In the course of its activities, the organism encounters a special
kind of stimulus, called a reinforcing stimulus, or simply a reinforcer. This special stimulus has the effect of
increasing the behavior occurring just before the reinforcer. This is operant conditioning: “the behavior is followed
by a consequence, and the nature of the consequence modifies the organism's tendency to repeat the behavior in the
future.” A behavior followed by a reinforcing stimulus results in an increased probability of that behavior occurring
in the future.
Skinner's observations can be divided into independent variables which can be manipulated by the experimenter, and
dependent variables, which can not be manipulated by the experimenter and are thought to be affected by the
independent variables.
Independent variables:
Type of reinforcement
Schedule of reinforcement
Dependent variables (measures of learning):
• Acquisition rate- how rapidly an animal can be trained to a new operant behavior as a function of reinforcement.
Skinner typically deprived his lab animals of food for 24 or more hours before beginning a schedule of
reinforcement. This tended to increase acquisition rate.
• Rate of response- this is a measure of learning that is very sensitive to different schedules of reinforcement. In
most cases, animals were given intermittent schedules of reinforcement, so they were called upon to elicit the
desired response at other times as well. Rate of response is a measure of correct responses throughout a testing
schedule including the times when reinforcement is not provided after a correct response. It appears as if test
animals build expectations when they are given rewards at predictable times (Animals which are fed at the same
time each day become active as that time approaches, and a dog whose master comes home at the same time each
day becomes more attentive around that time of day.) Also, Skinner found that when fixed interval reinforcement
was used, the desired behavior would decrease or disappear just after a reinforcement, but when it was almost time
for the next reinforcement, the animal would resume the desired responses.
• Extinction rate- The rate at which an operant response disappears following the withdrawal of reinforcement.
Skinner found that continuous reinforcement schedules produced a faster rate of learning in the early stages of a
training program, and also a more rapid extinction rate once the reinforcement was discontinued. A behavior no
longer followed by the reinforcing stimulus results in a decreased probability of that behavior occurring in the
future.
Types of reinforcement:
1 Primary reinforcement- instinctive behaviors lead to satisfaction of basic survival needs such as food, water, sex,
shelter. No learning takes place because the behaviors emerge spontaneously
2 Secondary reinforcement - the reinforcer is not reinforcing by itself, but becomes reinforcing when paired with a
primary reinforcer, such as pairing a sound or a light with food.
3 Generalized reinforcement - stimuli become reinforcing through repeated pairing with primary or secondary
reinforcers. Many are culturally reinforced. For example, in human behavior, wealth, power, fame, strength, and
intelligence are valued in many cultures. The external symbols of these attributes are generalized reinforcers.
Money, rank, recognition, degrees and certificates, etc are strongly reinforcing to many individuals in the cultures
that value the attributes they symbolize.
Reinforcers always follow a behavior and could be pleasant or unpleasant (noxious) and could be added to or
removed from a situation. The following table summarizes the various combinations:
Add to a Situation After a Response:
Pleasant = Positive Reinforcement- Reward. Increases the probability of the same response occurring again.
(Example: praise, monetary reward, food)
Noxious = Punishment- Administering a painful or unpleasant reinforcer after an unwanted response. Decreases the
probability of the same response occurring again.(Examples: corporal punishment, electrical shocks, yelling)
Remove from a Situation After a Response:
Pleasant = Punishment - Decrease the probability of the same response occurring again (Example: punishing a
teenager by taking away his cell phone or car keys.)
Noxious = Negative Reinforcement - Removing or decreasing an unpleasant or painful situation after a desirable
response is produced. Increases the probability of the same response occurring again (Example: time off for good
behavior)
Schedules of Reinforcement:
• Continuous reinforcement - reinforcement is given every time the animal gives the desired response.
• Intermittent reinforcement - reinforcement is given only part of the times the animal gives the desired response.
• Ratio reinforcement - a pre-determined proportion of responses will be reinforced.
• Fixed ratio reinforcement - reinforcement is given on a regular ratio, such as every fifth time the desired behavior
is produced.
• Variable (random) fixed reinforcement- reinforcement is given for a predetermined proportion of responses, but
randomly instead of on a fixed schedule.
• Interval reinforcement- reinforcement is given after a predetermined period of time.
• Fixed interval reinforcement - reinforcement is given on a regular schedule, such as every five minutes.
• Variable interval reinforcement - reinforcement is given after random amounts of time have passed.
In animal studies, Skinner found that continuous reinforcement in the early stages of training seems to increase the
rate of learning. Later, intermittent reinforcement keeps the response going longer and slows extinction.
Skinner specifically addressed the applications of behaviorism and operant conditioning to educational practice. He
believed that the goal of education was to train learners in survival skills for self and society. The role of the teacher
was to reinforce behaviors that contributed to survival skills, and extinguish behaviors that did not. Behaviorist
views have shaped much of contemporary education in children and adult learning.
Neo-behaviorism
As researchers noted problems and exceptions to the behaviorist concepts, new theories emerged
which retained some of the behaviorist concepts but deleted others, and added new ideas which
later came to be associated with the cognitive views of learning.
The neo-behaviorists, then, were a transitional group, bridging the gap between behaviorism and
cognitive theories of learning.
2- Cognitive Perspective: Learning as a Mental Process
I. Gestalt Learning Theory
Gestalt became one of the main theories of learning. The three main Gestalt theorists
(Wertheimer, Kohler, and Koffka) were all Germans, and received their training and did their
early work in Germany, but all three ended their careers in the US. The term "Gestalt" was
coined by Graf Christian von Ehrenfels. His ideas influenced the trio of theorists.
Gestalt was a holistic approach and rejected the mechanistic perspectives of the stimulus response models. Numerous new concepts and approaches emerged from this different
philosophical perspective. The Gestalt theory proposes that learning consists of the grasping of a
structural whole and not just a mechanistic response to a stimulus.
A "Gestalt" is an integrated whole system with it's parts enmeshed. The whole is greater than just
the sum of the parts.
The "PHI" phenomenon described a characteristic of things wherein they have a recognizability
inherent in their nature. Examples include the recognizability of a melody, no matter how it is
arranged or what instrument plays it, or the recognizability of a letter rendered in a wide variety
of different fonts or type styles. Other examples include the apparent motion created by a rapid
sequence of stills in motion pictures, and the sequences of illminating elements in neon signs
which give the illusion of movement. Visual and auditory examples are numerous. This
phenomenon leads to the conclusion that elements sensed are not the only reality.
"Phenomenology" is the acceptance of first hand experience as it is found in human
consciousness.
Gestalt Learning Theory proposed several laws of organization, which are innate ways that
human beings organized perceptions. A gestalt factor is a condition that aids in perceiving
situations as a whole or totality. Isomorphism refers to the Doctrine of Psychophysical
parallelism and depicts the cerebral cortex as "mapping these gestalt fields of stimuli.
The Factor of Closure suggests that perception tends to complete incomplete objects. When only
part of an image, sound, thought or feeling is presented as a stimulus, the brain attempts to
complete it to generate the whole.
The Factor of Proximity suggests that when elements are grouped closely together, they are
percieved as wholes. This has relevance in reading, visual arts, and music.
The Factor of Similarity proposes that like parts tend to be grouped together in cognition. This
has implications for instruction, suggesting that learning is facilitated if similar ideas are treated
and linked together and then contrasted with opposing or complementary sets of ideas.
The Figure-Ground Effect suggests that the eye tends to see the objects, rather than the spaces or
holes between them.
Trace Theory - This proposes a mechanism for learning in which neruological changes occur as
connections are made in the brain. These changes, called traces, represent links between
thoughts, ideas, concepts, images, etc. REpetition and uniqueness reinforce a trace. Thus,
learning is the creation of traces. Traces group together to form maps. Instructional methods
relating to repetition and to making items to be learned somehow distinctive to make learning
(trace formation) quicker and more lasting.
From the early theorys of Gestalt, there also emerged a branch of therapeutic interventions,
called Gestalt Therapy. Fritz Perls went through psychoanalytic training with Karen Horney and
then with Wilhelm Reich. He also adapted existentialist philosophy along with Zen and Taoist
views to therapeutic work, and was strongly influenced by Freud.
II. Information Processing and Computer Models
George A. Miller, 1920Information Processing (IP)
Princeton University's George Miller co-authored a landmark book in 1960, called Plans and the Structure of
Behavior. (co-authored with Karl Pribram and Eugene Galanter, 1960). This book marked a transition away from
animal experimentation of the behaviorists and toward human research in learning. The theory put forth by these
authors is called the Information Processing Theory of Learning (IP). It resembled Tolman's ideas about
cognitive maps and elaborated on the notion of cybernetic recursive loops. Information processing used a computer
model to understand human cognition.
George A. Miller provided two theoretical ideas that are fundamental to the information processing framework and
cognitive psychology. The first concept is `chunking' and the capacity of short term (working) memory. Miller
(1956) presented the idea that short-term memory could only hold 5-9 chunks of information (seven plus or minus
two) where a chunk is any meaningful unit. A chunk could refer to digits, words, chess positions, or people's faces.
The concept of chunking and the limited capacity of short term memory became a basic element of all subsequent
theories of memory.
Miller's second great contribution was the concept of information processing, using a computer model of human
learning. The human mind takes in information, performs operations on it to change its form and content, stores and
locates it and generates responses to it, all functions which are similar to the way digital computers input and
process. Thus, processing involves gathering and representing information, or encoding; holding information or
retention; and getting at the information when needed, or retrieval. A central idea is that information processing
takes place as a series of sequential steps. Information processing theorists approach learning primarily through a
study of memory.
In this model, an "image" is the accumulated organized knowledge the learner has about himself and the world. A
"plan" was any hierarchical process in the organism that could control the order in which a sequence of operations
would be performed, like a computer software program. "Strategies" and "tactics" are units in the organization of
behavior. "Execution" represents control sequences of operations.
Miller and his colleagues proposed a model for identifying units of behavior called TOTE's. (Test - Operate - Test Exit). These are operational feedback units that function within a self-regulated system. According to the model, an
individual could have numerous TOTE's. Before a behavior can occur, there must first be some input that starts the
TOTE. Then there must be criteria for testing the input; usually this is a comparison with some internal standard (T).
Next there must be some response or operational mechanism (O) for dealing with incongruities. When the input
does not match the internal standard, some action must be taken and the Test against the internal standard is repeated
(T). The TOTE will continue to cycle through iterations of TOT until the incongruity is resolved. Once resolution of
incongruities is accomplished, the individual exits the loop with a resultant behavior that is based on congruity (E).
Miller also produced landmark work on short term memory. He proposed that information is organized into units or
"chunks", and the limitations on short term memory apply to the number of chunks an individual can hold in
consciousness at one time. Chunks can have variable size, and the number of chunks humans can hold in short-term
memory is 7 + 2. This idea is the basis of grouping numbers such as phone numbers or social security numbers into
small groups to make them easier to remember and work with.
Dr. Miller is the senior research psychologist and principal investigator of WordNet. WordNet® is a large lexical
database of English. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are grouped into sets of cognitive synonyms (synsets),
each expressing a distinct concept. Synsets are interlinked by means of conceptual-semantic and lexical relations.
The resulting network of meaningfully related words and concepts can be navigated with the browser. WordNet is
also freely and publicly available for download. WordNet's structure makes it a useful tool for computational
linguistics and natural language processing.
F. I. M Craik and R. S. Lockhart
Levels of Processing
These two authors proposed that memory was enhanced more by depth of processing than by how long information
was rehearsed. They suggested that rehearsal was mainly effective if the rehearsal was done in a deep and
meaningful way. In a number of experiments they demonstrated that passive rehearsal does not result in better
retention. They opposed the view that short-term and long-term memory were different.
III. Constructivism
Constructivist Learning Theory
Constructivism is a meta-concept. It is not just another way of knowing, but a way of thinking
about knowing. It is a theory of communication and suggests that each listener or reader will
potentially use the content and process of the communication in different ways. There are
numerous constructivist perspectives, and the common thread that unites them is that learning is
an active process, unique to the individual, and consists of constructing conceptual relationships
and meaning from information and experiences already in the learner's repertoire.
The core ideas were mentioned by John Dewey, so it is not a new idea.
Constructivism claims that each learner constructs knowledge individually and socially. The
"glue" that holds the constructs together is meaning. Knowledge is not "out there", as the realist
philosophers such as Plato claimed. Knowledge is always an interpretation of reality, not a "true"
representation of it.
Main Contributors to Constructivism
David AusubelSubsumption Theory
Jerome Bruner Constructivism
Piaget Genetic Epistemology
Lave Situated Cognition
Argyris Double Loop Learning
Spiro Cognitive Flexibility
Kolb Learning Styles
Flavell Metacognition
Schank Script Theory
Principles of Constructivist Learning
1. The learner uses sensory input and does something with it, ultimately making meaning of it.
2. Learning consists of both constructing meaning and constructing systems of meaning.
Learning is layered.
3. Learning occurs in the mind. Physical activity may be necessary, but is not sufficient alone.
4. Learning involves language. Vygotsky believed that language and learning are inextricably
intermeshed.
5. Learning is a social activity.
6. Learning is contextual. We do not isolate facts from the situations and environments in which
they are relevant
7. Knowledge is necessary for learning. It is the basis of structure and meaning-making. The
more we know, the more we can learn.
8. Learning takes time; it is not spontaneous. Learners go over information, ponder them, use
them, practice, experiment.
9. Motivation is a necessary component, because it causes the learner's sensory apparatus to be
activated. Relevance, curiosity, fun, accomplishment, achievement, external rewards and other
motivators facilitate ease of learning.
Schools of Constructivism
Trivial (Cognitive) Constructivism
The concept that knowledge is actively constructed by the learner, not passively received by the
environment.Derived from the assimilation - accommodation and schema models of Piaget.
Radical Constructivism
Derived from Von Glaserfeld (1990). Von Glaserfeld put forth the notion that the learner's
constructions do not necessarily reflect knowledge of a “real world.” Coming to know is a
process of dynamic adaptation toward viable interpretations of experiences. We have no way of
knowing what “real” reality might be, since input is filtered. Previous constructs also influence
our perceptions of current experience. We construct “viable” models of what reality is based on
social and physical constraints.
Social Constructivism
This was the theory of Vygotsky in the late 1970's. Vygotsky's point of view was that acquisition
and participation were synergistic strategies in learning situations. Aspects of participation
involved teaching in contexts that could be meaningful to students based on their personal and
social history, negotiating, class discussions, small group collaborative learning with projects and
tasks, and valuing meaningful activity over correct answers. Social Constructivism emphasizes
that learning takes place through interactions with other students, teachers, and the world-atlarge. (Vygotsky)
Cultural Constructivism
Brings in a wider context to learning, including customs, religion, language, physiology, tools
available (Computers, books, etc.). Tools are used to redistribute the cognitive load between the
learner and the tool, and can affect the mind beyond actual use by changing one's skills,
perspectives, and responses.
Critical Constructivism
Critical Constructivism adds a dimension of critical evaluation and cultural reform to the
educational process. This approach incorporates the use of Communicative Ethics which defines
the conditions for establishing dialog oriented toward mutual understanding among learners and
teachers. Communicative Ethics promotes (1) primary concern for maintaining empathetic,
caring, and trusting relationships, (2) commitment to achieve reciprocal understanding of goals,
interests and standards, and (3) concern for and critical awareness of the often-invisible rules of
the classroom, including social and cultural myths.
Prevalent myths in today's educational system include (1) Cold reason, the notion of knowledge
as eternal truth, teacher as transmitter of objective truths, and curriculum as a product which is
delivered, and (2) Hard control, the perspective of teacher as controller, in which there is a power
differential between teacher and learners, and a dominance-subordinate relationship.
Tenets of Constructivism for course design (Presuppositions from Bruner)
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Students come with a world view
Their world view acts as a filter to all their experiences and incoming observations
Changing a world view takes work
Students learn from other students and the teacher
Students learn by doing
When all participants have a voice, construction of new ideas is promoted
Constructivism works best when the learner prepares something for others to see or hear.
When the learner prepares visuals such as text, graphics, web sites, or activities in which
another can participate, or endeavors to explain material to other students, or works in a
group context, leaning is especially powerful.
Nine Characteristics of a Constructivist Teacher
1. Teacher serves as one of many resources for students, not necessarily the primary source
of information.
2. The teacher engages students in experiences that challenge previous conceptions of their
existing knowledge.
3. The teacher uses student responses in the planning of next lessons and seeks elaboration
of students' initial responses.
4. The teacher encourages questions and discussion among students by asking open-ended
questions.
5. The teacher assists students to understand their own cognitive processes (metacognition)
by using cognitive terminology such as classify, analyze, create, organize, hierarchy, etc.
when framing tasks.
6. The teacher encourages and accepts student autonomy and initiative by being willing to
let go of classroom control
7. The teacher makes available raw data and primary resources, along with manipulative
and interactive physical materials.
8. The teacher does not separate knowing from the process of finding out. Nouns and verbs.
9. The teacher facilitates clear communication from students in writing and verbal
responses, from the point of view that communication comes from one's deep structural
understanding of the concepts being communicated. When they can communicate clearly
and meaningfully, they have truly integrated the new learning.
Principles of constructivist course design:
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Maintain a buffer between the learner and potentially damaging effects of instructional
practices. Emphasize the affective domain, make instruction relevant to the learner, help
learners develop attitudes and beliefs that ill support both present learning and lifelong
learning, and balance teacher-control with personal autonomy in the learning
environment.
Provide contexts for both autonomous learning and learning within relationships to other
students. Group discussion, projects, collaboration as well as independent.
Provide reasons for learning within the learning activities themselves. Have students
identify relevance and purpose.
Promote and make conscious the skills and attitudes that enable a learner to assume
responsibility for his/her cognitive and developmental processes.
Use the strategic exploration of errors to strengthen the learners involvement with
intentional learning processes and self-feedback.
A. David Ausubel, M.D. (1918 - 2008 )
Subsumption Theory
Ausubel, whose theories are particularly relevant for educators, considered neo-behaviorist views inadequate.
Although he recognized other forms of learning, his work focused on verbal learning. He dealt with the nature of
meaning, and believes the external world acquires meaning only as it is converted into the content of consciousness
by the learner.
Meaningful Verbal Learning
Meaning is created through some form of representational equivalence between language (symbols) and mental
context. Two processes are involved:
1. Reception, which is employed in meaningful verbal learning, and
2. Discovery, which is involved in concept formation and problem solving.
Ausubel's work has frequently been compared with Bruner's. The two held similar views about the hierarchical
nature of knowledge, but Bruner was strongly oriented toward discovery processes, where Ausubel gave more
emphasis to the verbal learning methods of speech, reading and writing.
Subsumption Theory
To subsume is to incorporate new material into one's cognitive structures. From Ausubel's perspective, this is the
meaning of learning. When information is subsumed into the learner's cognitive structure it is organized
hierarchically. New material can be subsumed in two different ways, and for both of these, no meaningful learning
takes place unless a stable cognitive structure exists. This existing structure provides a framework into which the
new learning is related, hierarchically, to the previous information or concepts in the individual's cognitive structure.
When one encounters completely new unfamiliar material, then rote learning, as opposed to meaningful learning,
takes place. This rote learning may eventually contribute to the construction of a new cognitive structure which can
later be used in meaningful learning. The two types of subsumption are:
1. Correlative subsumption - new material is an extension or elaboration of what is already known.
2. Derivative subsumption - new material or relationships can be derived from the existing structure. Information
can be moved in the hierarchy, or linked to other concepts or information to create new interpretations or meaning.
From this type of subsumption, completely new concepts can emerge, and previous concepts can be changed or
expanded to include more of the previously existing information. This is "figuring out".
Ausubel is a proponent of didactic, expository teaching methods. From this perspective, expository (verbal) learning
approaches encourage rapid learning and retention, whereas discovery learning (Bruner) facilitates transfer to other
contexts.
Advanced Organizers
Ausubel contributed much to the theoretical body of cognitive learning theory, but not as much to the practical
classroom aspects as Bruner and others. Ausubel's most notable contribution for classroom application was the
advance organizer.
The advance organizer is a tool or a mental learning aid to help students `integrate new information with their
existing knowledge, leading to "meaningful learning" as opposed to rote memorization. It is a means of preparing
the learner's cognitive structure for the learning experience about to take place. It is a device to activate the relevant
schema or conceptual patterns so that new information can be more readily `subsumed' into the learner's existing
cognitive structures.
Ausubel believed that it was important for teachers to provide a preview of information to be learned. Teachers
could do this by providing a brief introduction about the way that information that is going to be presented is
structured. This would enable students to start with a "Big Picture" of the upcoming content, and link new ideas,
concepts, vocabulary, to existing mental maps of the content area.
B. Jerome Bruner (1915 - )
Constructivism & Discovery Learning
Bruner was one of the founding fathers of constructivist theory. Constructivism is a broad conceptual framework
with numerous perspectives, and Bruner's is only one. Bruner's theoretical framework is based on the theme that
learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon existing knowledge. Learning is an active process. Facets of the
process include selection and transformation of information, decision making, generating hypotheses, and making
meaning from information and experiences.
Bruner's theories emphasize the significance of categorization in learning. "To perceive is to categorize, to
conceptualize is to categorize, to learn is to form categories, to make decisions is to categorize." Interpreting
information and experiences by similarities and differences is a key concept.
Bruner was influenced by Piaget's ideas about cognitive development in children. During the 1940's his early work
focused on the impact of needs, motivations, & expectations (“mental sets”) and their influence on perception. He
also looked at the role of strategies in the process of human categorization, and development of human cognition. He
presented the point of view that children are active problem-solvers and capable of exploring “difficult subjects”.
This was widely divergent from the dominant views in education at the time, but found an audience.
Four Key themes emerged in Bruner's early work:
Bruner emphasized the role of structure in learning and how it may be made central in teaching. Structure refers to
relationships among factual elements and techniques. See the section on categorization, below.
He introduced the ideas of "readiness for learning" and spiral curriculum. Bruner believed that any subject could be
taught at any stage of development in a way that fit the child's cognitive abilities. Spiral curriculum refers to the idea
of revisiting basic ideas over and over, building upon them and elaborating to the level of full understanding and
mastery.
Bruner believed that intuitive and analytical thinking should both be encouraged and rewarded. He believed the
intuitive skills were under-emphasized and he reflected on the ability of experts in every field to make intuitive
leaps.
He investigated motivation for learning. He felt that ideally, interest in the subject matter is the best stimulus for
learning. Bruner did not like external competitive goals such as grades or class ranking.
Eventually Bruner was strongly influenced by Vygotsky's writings and began to turn away from the intrapersonal
focus he had had for learning, and began to adopt a social and political view of learning. Bruner argued that aspects
of cognitive performance are facilitated by language. He stressed the importance of the social setting in the
acquisition of language. His views are similar to those of Piaget, but he places more emphasis on the social
influences on development. The earliest social setting is the mother-child dyad, where children work out the
meanings of utterances to which they are repeatedly exposed. Bruner identified several important social devices
including joint attention, mutual gaze, and turn-taking.
Bruner also incorporated Darwinian thinking into his basic assumptions about learning. He believed it was necessary
to refer to human culture and primate evolution in order to understand growth and development. He did, however,
believe there were individual differences and that no standard sequence could be found for all learners. He
considered instruction as an effort to assist or shape growth.In 1996 he published The Culture of Education.. This
book reflected his changes in viewpoints since the 1960's. He adopted the point of view that culture shapes the mind
and provides the raw material with which we constrict our world and our self-conception.
Four features of Bruner's theory of instruction.
1. Predisposition to learn.... This feature specifically states the experiences which move the learner toward a love of
learning in general, or of learning something in particular. Motivational, cultural, and personal factors contribute to
this. Bruner emphasized social factors and early teachers and parents' influence on this. He believed learning and
problem solving emerged out of exploration. Part of the task of a teacher is to maintain and direct a child's
spontaneous explorations.
2. Structure of knowledge....it is possible to structure knowledge in a way that enables the learner to most readily
grasp the information. This is a relative feature, as there are many ways to structure a body of knowledge and many
preferences among learners. Bruner offered considerable detail about structuring knowledge.
Understanding the fundamental structure of a subject makes it more comprehensible. Bruner viewed categorization
as a fundamental process in the structuring of knowledge. (See the section below on categorization.)
Details are better retained when placed within the contest of an ordered and structured pattern.
To generate knowledge which is transferable to other contexts, fundamental principles or patterns are best suited.
The discrepancy between beginning and advanced knowledge in a subject area is diminished when instruction
centers on a structure and principles of orientation. This means that a body of knowledge must be in a simple enough
form for the learner to understand it and it must be in a form recognizable to the student's experience.
3. Modes of representation: visual, words, symbols.
4. Effective sequencing- no one sequencing will fit every learner, but in general, increasing difficulty. Sequencing,
or lack of it, can make learning easier or more difficult.
Form and pacing of reinforcement
Categorization:
Bruner gave much attention to categorization of information in the construction of internal cognitive maps. He
believed that perception, conceptualization, learning, decision making, and making inferences all involved
categorization.
Bruner suggested a system of coding in which people form a hierarchical arrangement of related categories. Each
successively higher level of categories becomes more specific, echoing Benjamin Bloom's understanding of
knowledge acquisition as well as the related idea of instructional scaffolding (Bloom's Taxonomy).
Categories are "rules" that specify four thing about objects.
1. Criterial attributes - required characteristics for inclusion of an object in a category. (Example, for an object to be
included in the category "car" it must have an engine, 4 wheels, and be a possible means of transportation,
2. The second rule prescribes how the criteral attributes are combined.
3. The third rule assignees weight to various properties. (Example, it could be a car even if a tire was missing, and if
it was used for hauling cargo it would be shifted to a different category of "truck" or perhaps "van".
4. The fourth rule sets acceptance limits on attributes. Some attributes can vary widely, such as color. Others are
fixed. For example a vehicle without an engine is not a car. Likewise, a vehicle with only two wheels would not be
included in "car".
There are several kinds of categories:
Identity categories - categories include objects based on their attributes or features.
Equivalent categories (provide rules for combining categories. Equivalence can be determined by affective criteria,
which render objects equivalent by emotional reactions, functional criteria, based on related functions (for example,
"car", "truck", "van" could all be combined in an inclusive category called "motor vehicle"), or by formal criteria,
for example by science, law, or cultural agreement. For example, and apple is still an apple whether it is green, ripe,
dried, etc (identity). It is food (functional), and it is a member of of a botanical classification group (formal).
Coding systems are categories serve to recognize sensory input. They are major organizational variables in higher
cognitive functioning. Going beyond immediate sensory data involves making inferences on the basis of related
categories. Related categories form a "coding system." These are hierarchical arrangements of related categories.
Bruner's theories introduced the idea that people interpret the world largely in terms of similarities and differences.
This is a significant contribution to how individuals construct their unique models of the world.
Application
Bruner emphasized four characteristics of effective instruction which emerged from his theoretical constructs.
1. Personalized: instruction should relate to learners' predisposition, and facilitate interest toward learning,
2. Content Structure: content should be structured so it can be most easily grasped by the learner
3. Sequencing: sequencing is an important aspect for presentation of material
4. Reinforcement: rewards and punishment should be selected and paced appropriately.
Intellectual Development
Bruner postulated three stages of intellectual development.
The first stage he termed "Enactive", when a person learns about the world through actions on physical objects and
the outcomes of these actions.
The second stage was called "Iconic" where learning can be obtained through using models and pictures.
The final stage was "Symbolic" in which the learner develops the capacity to think in abstract terms. Based on this
three-stage notion, Bruner recommended using a combination of concrete, pictorial then symbolic activities will lead
to more effective learning.
C. Jean Piaget (1896 - 1980)
Genetic Epistemology
Cognitive Constructivism
Piaget stressed that the development of knowledge representation and manipulation is not
genetically programmed into the brain. He viewed children as young scientists who are driven to
understand their world, and to change their understanding in the face of mistaken predictions
about the world. Changes in knowledge structures drive changes in fundamental cognitive
capabilities. The seemingly natural progression of cognitive capabilities emerge in an orderly
way because certain ways of thinking must be mastered, and for the foundation for subsequent
ones. The later ones cannot emerge until the early ones have been mastered.
Stages of Cognitive Development:
Stage
Sensorimotor stage
Pre- Operational stage
Concrete Operations stage
Formal Operations stage
Age
Features
Rudimentary perceptual abilities
Reflexive movements
Birth to 2 years
Inability to mentally represent unseen objects
Non-random movements in response to sensations
Representational thought
Can make mental transformations on ideas/images
Unstructured flow of thought
2 to 5 years
Egocentric thinking *
Cannot solve conservational problems **
Difficulty with transitive relationships ***
Has mastered the concept of conservation
Can take other's perceptual perspectives
Can perform operations on concrete ideas and objects
5 to 11 years
Cannot perform mental operations on abstract or hypothetical
elements
Difficulty understanding relationships among relationships
11 years to adult Can perform all the cognitive abilities described.
Accumulation of knowledge and skills and not the acquisition
Beyond age 18
of new cognitive abilities
* Egocentric thinking - cannot take another person's perceptual perspective.
** Conservational problems - an element which moves in spaces does not change it's
fundamental properties. For example a quantity of water is the same regardless of the shape of
the container. Depends upon the mental operation of reversibility.
*** Transitive relationships- Bill is taller than Bob, and John is taller than Bill. Deduce that John
is the tallest
Piaget postulated that cognitive abilities are acquired by an Assimilation - Accommodation
mechanism, a claim originally put forth by his mentor, Baldwin. Assimilation refers to to making
associations between new information and what is already known. For example, when a child
learns that a lion he sees at the zoo is a cat, like the pet cat at home. Accommodation refers to
changing what is known when the current knowledge is inadequate for solving a problem. When
information cannot be easily assimilated, the knowledge structure must change to "make sense."
These knowledge structures he called "Schemas" and schemas could be endlessly linked and
woven as new learning was created. This mechanism is what makes Piaget a constructionist.
External input may cause learning to increase, and also, an individual can manipulate the existing
schemas to learn of new relationships among them.
Piaget argued that cognitive structures are not innate.
Acquisition of language: Piaget's position was between the behaviorist view that language was
learned by reinforcement (empiricist view) and the rationalist view of researchers such as
Chomsky, who argued for an innate language-acquisition component.
According to Piaget, language is a cognitive and perceptual process and follows the stages of
development. Adult language has been socialized whereas children's language is egocentric.
Piaget distinguished three types of egocentric speech:
1. Echolalia- repetition of their own or others' utterances
2. Monologue - talking to themselves,
apparently speaking their thoughts aloud
3. Collective monologue - two or more children appear
to be engaged in conversation, taking turns speaking appropriately, but careful listening produces
the observation that each is actually just producing monologues. There is no exchange of
meaning evident.
The application of Piaget's theory in the classroom entails providing a rich environment for the
learner to explore. Like Vygotsky, Piaget was a proponent of whole, authentic, applicable
learning. Activities like operating a classroom "store", or "post office" would be examples of
relating to real-world situations.
Criticisms of Piaget's Theory
1. Piaget underestimated the competence of infants and children
2. The theory seems to imply an evenness in cognitive development. A child may learn different
mental processes at different times
3. It is controversial whether many adults ever actually reach the formal operations stage. There
may even be entire cultures where people do not reach this stage.
H.JohnFlavell
Metacognition Theory
Biography
John Flavell of Stanford University is regarded as a foundation researcher in metacognition. He
was influenced by the work of Jean Piaget. One of Flavell's significant accomplishments was the
publication of his book, The Developmental Psychology of Jean Piaget (Flavell, 1963). While
many recent researchers now challenge certain aspects of Piaget's theories, many ideas that he
proposed have found their way into the conventional wisdom of metacognition. Included among
those is the notion of intentionality. Intentionality presupposes thinking that is deliberate and
goal-directed, and involves planning a sequence of actions.
Theory
Flavell (1971) used the term meta-memory in regard to an individual's ability to manage and
monitor the input, storage, search and retrieval of the contents of his own memory. Flavell
invited the academic community to come forth with additional metamemory research, and this
theme of metacognitive research has continued more than thirty years later. He implied with his
statements that metacognition is intentional, conscious, foresighted, purposeful, and directed at
accomplishing a goal or outcome. These implications have all been carefully scrutinized in
subsequent research, and in some cases have been the subjects of controversy among researchers
in metacognition. For example, Reder&Schunn (1996) and Kentridge and Heywood (2000)
argue that metacognitive processes need not operate in a person's conscious awareness.
In his 1976 article, Flavell recognized that metacognition consisted of both monitoring and
regulation aspects. It was here that the term metacognition was first formally used in the title of
his paper. He defined metacognition as follows: "In any kind of cognitive transaction with the
human or non-human environment, a variety of information processing activities may go on.
Metacognition refers, among other things, to the active monitoring and consequent regulation
and orchestration of these processes in relation to the cognitive objects or data on which they
bear, usually in service of some concrete goal or objective." (p.232). Hacker (1998) offered a
more comprehensive definition of metacognition, to include the knowledge of one's own
cognitive and affective processes and states as well as the ability to consciously and deliberately
monitor and regulate those processes and states.
Flavell (1976) also identified three “metas” that children gradually acquire in the context of
information storage and retrieval. These were: (a) The child learns to identify situations in which
intentional, conscious storage of certain information may be useful at some time in the future; (b)
the child learns to keep current any information which may be related to active problem-solving,
and have it ready to retrieve as needed; and (c) the child learns how to make deliberate
systematic searches for information which may be helpful in solving a problem, even when the
need for it has not been foreseen.
Flavell (1979) was another seminal paper. In this work Flavell acknowledged the explosion of
interest and work in areas related to metacognition, such as oral skills of communication,
persuasion and comprehension, reading, writing, language acquisition, memory, attention,
problem-solving, social cognition, affective monitoring, and self-instruction. In the 1979 paper,
Flavell proposed a formal model of metacognitive monitoring to include four classes of
phenomena and their relationships. The four classes included (a) metacognitive knowledge, (b)
metacognitive experiences, (c) tasks or goals, and (d) strategies or activities. Flavell's 1979
model will be further described in the section on the theories of metacognition.
The first attempt to generate a formal model of metacognition was presented by Flavell (1979).
He acknowledged the significance of metacognition in a wide range of applications which
included reading, oral skills, writing, language acquisition, memory, attention, social
interactions, self-instruction, personality development and education. Flavell mentioned that
components of metacognition can be activated intentionally, as by a memory search aimed at
retrieving specific information, or unintentionally, such as by cues in a task situation.
Metacognitive processes can operate consciously or unconsciously and they can be accurate or
inaccurate. They can also fail to be activated when needed, and can fail to have adaptive or
beneficial effect. Metacognition can lead to selection, evaluation, revision or deletion of
cognitive tasks, goals, and strategies. They can also help the individual make meaning and
discover behavioral implications of metacognitive experiences.
In his 1979 paper, Flavell proposed a formal model of metacognitive monitoring which included
four classes of phenomena and their relationships. The four classes were (a) metacognitive
knowledge, (b) metacognitive experiences, (c) tasks and goals, and (d) strategies or actions. Each
of these will be discussed in detail. Figure 1 is a concept map showing the components of
Flavell's model.
The first of Flavell's (1979) classes was metacognitive knowledge, which he defined as one's
knowledge or beliefs about the factors that affect cognitive activities. The distinction between
cognitive and metacognitive knowledge may lie in how the information is used, more than a
fundamental difference in processes. Metacognitive activity usually precedes and follows
cognitive activity. They are closely interrelated and mutually dependent. Metacognitive
knowledge can lead the individual to engage in or abandon a particular cognitive enterprise
based on its relationship to his interests, abilities and goals. Flavell described three categories of
these knowledge factors: 1) Person variables 2) task variables, and 3) strategy variables. These
are the three categories in which Flavell proposed that individuals have metacognitive
knowledge. The person category of knowledge includes the individual's knowledge and beliefs
about himself as a thinker or learner, and what he believes about other people's thinking
processes. Flavell gave examples of knowledge such as a person believing that he can learn
better by listening than by reading, or that a person perceives her friend to be more socially
aware than she is. One's beliefs about himself as a learner may facilitate or impede performance
in learning situations.
The task category of metacognitive knowledge encompassed all the information about a
proposed task that is available to a person (Flavell, 1979). This knowledge guides the individual
in the management of a task, and provides information about the degree of success that he is
likely to produce. Task information can be plentiful or scarce, familiar or unfamiliar, reliable or
unreliable, interesting or not, organized in a useable or unusable fashion. Task knowledge
informs the person of the range of possible acceptable outcomes of the cognitive enterprise and
the goals related to its completion. Knowledge about task difficulty and mental or tangible
resources necessary for its completion also belong to this category.
The strategy category of metacognitive knowledge involved identifying goals and sub-goals and
selection of cognitive processes to use in their achievement (Flavell, 1979). Flavell also
emphasized that these types of variables overlap and the individual actually works with
combinations and interactions of the metacognitive knowledge that is available at that particular
time. He also stated that metacognitive knowledge is not fundamentally different than other
knowledge, but its object is different. He also mentioned that metacognitive knowledge may be
activated consciously or unconsciously by the individual. This question of consciousness later
became a subject of controversy among researchers in metacognition.
Metacognitive experiences, Flavell's (1979) second class of phenomena included the subjective internal
responses of an individual to his own metacognitive knowledge, goals, or strategies. These may be
fleeting or lengthy, and can occur before, during, or after a cognitive enterprise. As monitoring
phenomena, these experiences can provide internal feedback about current progress, future expectations
of progress or completion, degree of comprehension, connecting new information to old, and many
other events. New or difficult tasks, or tasks performed under stress tend to provoke more experiential
interaction, while familiar tasks may tend to provoke less metacognitive experience.
According to Flavell (1979). Metacognitive experience can also be a “stream of consciousness” process
in which other information, memories, or earlier experiences may be recalled as resources in the
process of solving a current-moment cognitive problem. Metacognitive experience also encompasses
the affective response to tasks. Success or failure, frustration or satisfaction, and many other responses
effect the moment-to-moment unfolding of a task for an individual, and may in fact determine his
interest or willingness to pursue similar tasks in the future. Flavell underscored the overlapping nature
of metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experience.
Metacognitive goals and tasks are the desired outcomes or objectives of a cognitive venture. This was
Flavell's third major category. Goals and tasks include comprehension, committing facts to memory, or
producing something, such as a written document or an answer to a math problem, or of simply
improving one's knowledge about something. Achievement of a goal draws heavily on both
metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experience for its successful completion (Flavell, 1979).
Metacognitive strategies are designed to monitor cognitive progress. Metacognitive strategies are
ordered processes used to control one's own cognitive activities and to ensure that a cognitive goal (for
example, solving a math problem, writing an effective sentence, understanding reading material) have
been met. A person with good metacognitive skills and awareness uses these processes to oversee his
own learning process, plan and monitor ongoing cognitive activities, and to compare cognitive
outcomes with internal or external standards. Flavell (1979) indicated that a single strategy can be
invoked for either cognitive or metacognitive purposes and to move toward goals in the cognitive or
metacognitive domains. He gave the example of asking oneself questions at the end of a learning unit
with the aim of improving knowledge of the content, or to monitor comprehension and assessment of
the new knowledge.
Flavell (1987) elaborated on several aspects of the theory he proposed in 1979. In the category of
metacognitive knowledge, he suggested subcategories of person variables; he defined intra-individual
variables such as knowledge or beliefs about the interests, propensities, aptitudes, abilities, and the like,
of oneself or of another person. Inter-individual variables provide comparisons between or among
people in a relativistic manner. The universal subcategory deals with generalizations a person forms
about learning and learners in general. Flavell underscored the importance of cultural influences on the
formation of beliefs about learning.
Flavell (1987) offered additional description of task variables, reflecting that individuals learn about the
implications that various tasks carry with them. Personal experience builds up sets of expectations
about which tasks will be rigorous or difficult, and which will be less taxing. Different kinds of
information require different kinds of processing and place different demands on the learner.
Strategy variables are interlocked with one's goals or objectives in the learning process (Flavell, 1987).
It is important to distinguish between cognitive strategies, such as summing a column of numbers, and
metacognitive strategies, such as evaluating whether the correct answer has been obtained.
Flavell (1987) also offered clarification on the term metacognitive experience. He defined
metacognitive experience as affective or cognitive awareness that is relevant to one's thinking
processes. He described a variety of examples such as feeling that one is not understanding something,
feeling that something is difficult or easy to remember, solve, or comprehend, and feeling that one is
approaching or failing to approach a cognitive goal. Metacognitive experiences arise when they are
explicitly demanded by a situation, such as when one is asked why he chose a particular answer or a
particular way of doing something. Unfamiliar and novel situations and expectations also generate
metacognitive experiences. Situations having an important consequence can also stimulate strong
metacognitive experience. If the outcome is very important, the individual is likely to monitor his
judgements and decisions more carefully. Conflict and paradox also trigger metacognitive experiences.
Becoming aware of inconsistencies, paradigm differences, and counterexamples are likely to generate
strong affective responses. More urgent subjective experiences such as physical or emotional pain are
also powerful triggers for metacognitive experience.
Flavell (1987) also proposed numerous questions and possible explanations relating to the development
of metacognition. He proposed that the emergence in the child of awareness of the flow of time, and
specifically awareness of future time could support the ability to form metacognitive goals. Another
change that occurs during childhood development is the sense of the self as an active agent in one's own
experiences. As early as 1987 Flavell was actively encouraging the development of metacognition in
school children; in schools there are abundant opportunities to develop metacognitive knowledge about
persons, tasks, and strategies.
3. Humanistic Perspective: Emotions and Affect Play a Role in Learning
A. Maslow, Abraham H. (1908-1970)
Humanistic Theory of Learning
Theory
Abraham Maslow has been considered the Father of Humanistic Psychology. Maslow's theory is based on the notion that
experience is the primary phenomenon in the study of human learning and behavior. He placed emphasis on choice,
creativity, values, self-realization, all distinctively human qualities, and believed that meaningfulness and subjectivity were
more important than objectivity. For Maslow, development of human potential, dignity and worth are ultimate concerns.
Maslow rejected behaviorist views and Freud's theories on the basis of their reductionistic approaches. He felt Freud's view
of human nature was negative, and he valued goodness, nobility and reason. Also, Freud concentrated on the mentally ill,
and Maslow was interested in healthy human psychology.
Maslow and his colleagues came to refer to their movement as “third force psychology,” the first two being psychoanalysis
and behaviorism. The third force is based on philosophies of existentialism and humanism.
He is famous for proposing that human motivation is based on a hierarchy of needs. The lowest level of needs are
physiological and survival needs such as hunger and thirst. Further levels include belonging and love, self-esteem, and selfactualization.
From Maslow's perspective, the drive to learn is intrinsic. The purpose of learning is to bring about self-actualization, and
the goals of educators should include this process. Learning contributes to psychological health. Maslow proposed other
goals of learning, including discovery of one's vocation or destiny; knowledge of values; realization of life as precious,
acquisition of peak experiences, sense of accomplishment, satisfaction of psychological needs, awareness of beauty and
wonder in life, impulse control, developing choice, and grappling with the critical existential problems of life.
Maslow's theory of learning highlighted the differences between experiential knowledge and spectator knowledge. He
regarded spectator, or scientific, knowledge to be inferior to experiential.
Properties of experiential learning include:
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immersion in the experience without awareness of the flow of time
momentarily not being self-conscious
transcending time, place, history, and society by being beyond and unaffected by them
merging with that which is being experienced
being innocently receptive, as a child, uncritical
suspending temporarily evaluation of the experience in terms of its importance or unimportance
lack of inhibition, subsiding of selfishness, fear, defensiveness
experience unfolds naturally without striving or effort
suspending criticism, validation, and evaluation of the experience
trusting experience by passively letting it happen; letting go of preconceived notions
disengaging from logical, analytical, and rational activities
4. Social Learning Perspective: Learning as a group process
A. Lev Vygotsky( 1896 - 1934)
Social Constructivism
Vygotsky shared many of Piaget's views about child development, but he was more interested in the social aspects
of learning. Vygotsky differs from discovery learning, which is also based on Piaget's ideas, in that the teacher and
older children play important roles in learning. The teacher is typically active and involved. The classroom should
provide variety of learning materials (including electronic) and experiences and the classroom culture provides the
child with cognitive tools such as language, cultural history, and social context.
The Zone of Proximal Development is a concept for which Vygotsky is well known. It refers to the observation that
children, when learning a particular task or body of information, start out by not being able to do the task. Then they
can do it with the assistance of an adult or older child mentor, and finally they can do it without assistance. The ZPD
is the stage where they can do it assisted, but not alone. Thus the teacher often serves to guide a child or group of
children as they encounter different learning challenges.
Vygotsky's observations led him to propose a complex relationship between language and thought. He observed
egocentric speech and child monologues such as Piaget wrote about, as well as internal speech. He proposed that
speech (external language) and thought have different origins within the human individual. He described thought as
non-verbal, and speech as having a pre-intellectual stage, in which words are not symbols for the objects they
denote, but are properties of the objects. Up to about age two, they are independent. After that thought and speech
become connected. At this point, speech and thought become interdependent, and thought becomes verbal. Thus,
children's monologues become internalized as internal dialog.
Vygotsky differed from Piaget in that he considered development after age 2 as, at least partially determined by
language. He believed that egocentric speech serves the function of self-guidance, and eventually becomes
internalized. It is only spoken aloud because the child has not yet learned how to internalize it. He found that
egocentric speech decreased when the child's feeling of being understood diminished, as when there was no listener
or the listener was occupied with other matters. These ideas, while intriguing, have never been adequately
researched, so it is difficult to evaluate their significance.
While there can be wide variation of activities and content in a Vygotskian classroom, four principles always apply:
1. Learning and development is a social, collaborative activity
2. The Zone of Proximal Development can serve as a guide for curricular and lesson planning
3. Classroom activity should be reality-based and applicable to the real world
4. Learning extends to the home and other out-of-school environments and activities and all learning situations
should be related.
B.Albert Bandura (1925 )
Observational Learning
Bandura's early work in the 1960's represents one of the bridges from behaviorism to cognitive models for learning.
Observational learning is the process of learning by observing a model and then duplicating a skill, process, strategy,
or task that is demonstrated by the model. This occurs without overt instructional activity, and the model may not
even know he/she is serving as an instrument of learning for the observer. According to Bandura, this type of
learning is an information processing activity.
Factors that influence observational learning:
1. Attention - the learner must have his/her senses directed at the model
2. Retention, coding, and storing the patterns so they can be retrieved. This may include vivid imagery an verbal
descriptions.
3. Motor reproduction - kinesthetic and neuromuscular patterns are practiced with successive iterations until the
model's behavior is approximated by the observer.
4. Reinforcement and incentives- propel the learner to attention, practice and retention.
Observe ---> Acquire Info about World ---> make cognitive reps (VAK) ---> guide for action
Bandura's models evolved over approximately 25 years of his career. By 1986 the model appeared as a three-part
model with the three parts interacting and influencing each other. According to Bandura, expectations are important
in this model.
B = behavior
p(C) = personal/cognitive
E = environment
Learning Theory Bibliography
Bandura, 1986
Lefton, 1997
Merriam &Caffarella, 1991
Santrock, 1988
C. John Seely Brown
Cognitive Apprenticeship
Brown's work on cognitive apprenticeship evolved from the work of Lave on situated learning. This model of
learning is derived from the notion that cognitive tools are acquired in the same way as apprentices learn a craft or
trade. This method of instruction is a synthesis of formal schooling and traditional apprenticeship. Learners enter a
culture of practice. Acquisition, development and application of cognitive tools in a learning domain is based on
activity in learning and knowledge. Enculturation (social interaction) and context (learning environment) are
powerful components of learning in this model. Instructors and other students provide modeling in situ and
scaffolding for students to enter into learning activity. As students learn and gain skills and self-confidence they are
prepared for more autonomy, and begin to have conscious participation in the learning culture.
An element of apprenticeship approaches is that the teacher's methods of thinking and doing are explicitly revealed
to the apprentice, who models these approaches in his own activity. In traditional classroom approaches, the
teacher's thinking processes are usually invisible and operate outside of conscious awareness, even for the teacher.
The goal of cognitive apprenticeship is to make the thinking processes of a learning activity visible to both the
students and the teacher. The teacher is then able to employ the methods of traditional apprenticeship (modeling,
coaching, scaffolding, and fading) to effectively guide student learning.
Several other characteristics are important in cognitive apprenticeship. The legitimacy of prior learning and
knowledge of new students is respected, and is drawn upon as scaffolding in tasks which initially seem unfamiliar or
difficult to learners. Procedures are seen as flexible and evolving. Both algorithms and heuristics are assessed in
context and with respect to desired outcomes and objectives. This flexibility allows students to generate unique
solutions to problems, and makes them more active, conscious, and creative participants in the learning culture.
Cognitive apprenticeship can be especially effective when teaching complex, cognitive skills such as reading
comprehension, essay writing, and mathematical problem solving. Not only does cognitive apprenticeship lead to
students' greater understanding of the material, it also combats "inert knowledge," helping them to apply their
knowledge and skills in novel situations. In one method, the teacher models the processes involved in a complex
task initially, by thinking aloud or describing the cognitive strategy for the task. As soon as possible, the teacher
turns the role of "teacher" over to students. The teacher then coaches and scaffolds students' efforts, decreasing
active participation as they become more proficient in their skills.
The main theories in Second Language Acquisition (SLA)
Contents
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1 History
2 Semantic theory
3 Sociocultural theory
4 Universal grammar
5 Input hypothesis
6 Monitor model
7 Interaction Hypothesis
8 Output hypothesis
9 Competition model
10 Connectionism and second-language acquisition
11 Noticing hypothesis
12 Processability
13 Automaticity
14 Declarative/procedural model
15 Memory and second-language acquisition
16 Notes
17 References
Theories of second-language acquisition are various theories and hypotheses in the field of
second-language acquisition about how people learn a second language. Research in secondlanguage acquisition is closely related to several disciplines including linguistics,
sociolinguistics, psychology, neuroscience, and education, and consequently most theories of
second-language acquisition can be identified as having roots in one of them. Each of these
theories can be thought of as shedding light on one part of the language learning process;
however, no one overarching theory of second-language acquisition has yet been widely
accepted by researchers.
History
As second-language acquisition began as an interdisciplinary field, it is hard to pin down a
precise starting date.[1] However, there are two publications in particular that are seen as
instrumental to the development of the modern study of SLA: Pit Corder's 1967 essay The
Significance of Learners' Errors, and Larry Selinker's 1972 article Interlanguage. Corder's essay
rejected a behaviorist account of SLA and suggested that learners made use of intrinsic internal
linguistic processes; Selinker's article argued that second-language learners possess their own
individual linguistic systems that are independent from both the first and second languages.[2]
In the 1970s the general trend in SLA was for research exploring the ideas of Corder and
Selinker, and refuting behaviorist theories of language acquisition. Examples include research
into error analysis, studies in transitional stages of second-language ability, and the "morpheme
studies" investigating the order in which learners acquired linguistic features. The 70s were
dominated by naturalistic studies of people learning English as a second language.[2]
By the 1980s, the theories of Stephen Krashen had become the prominent paradigm in SLA. In
his theories, often collectively known as the Input Hypothesis, Krashen suggested that language
acquisition is driven solely by comprehensible input, language input that learners can understand.
Krashen's model was influential in the field of SLA and also had a large influence on language
teaching, but it left some important processes in SLA unexplained. Research in the 1980s was
characterized by the attempt to fill in these gaps. Some approaches included Lydia White's
descriptions of learner competence, and Manfred Pienemann's use of speech processing models
and lexical functional grammar to explain learner output. This period also saw the beginning of
approaches based in other disciplines, such as the psychological approach of connectionism.[2]
The 1990s saw a host of new theories introduced to the field, such as Michael Long's interaction
hypothesis, Merrill Swain's output hypothesis, and Richard Schmidt's noticing hypothesis.
However, the two main areas of research interest were linguistic theories of SLA based upon
Noam Chomsky's universal grammar, and psychological approaches such as skill acquisition
theory and connectionism. The latter category also saw the new theories of processability and
input processing in this time period. The 1990s also saw the introduction of sociocultural theory,
an approach to explain second-language acquisition in terms of the social environment of the
learner.[2]
In the 2000s research was focused on much the same areas as in the 1990s, with research split
into two main camps of linguistic and psychological approaches. VanPatten and Benati do not
see this state of affairs as changing in the near future, pointing to the support both areas of
research have in the wider fields of linguistics and psychology, respectively.[2]
Semantic theory
For the second-language learner, the acquisition of meaning is arguably the most important task.
Meaning it is the heart of a language, not the exotic sounds or elegant sentence structure. There
are several types of meanings: lexical, grammatical, semantic, and pragmatic. All the different
meaning contributing to the acquisition to the meaning of generally having the integral second
language possession.[3]
Lexical meaning – meaning that is stored in our mental lexicon;
Grammatical meaning – comes into consideration when calculating the meaning of a sentence;
usually encoded in inflectional morphology (ex. - ed for past simple, -‘s for third person
possessive)
Semantic meaning – word meaning;
Pragmatic meaning – meaning that depends on context, requires knowledge of the world to
decipher; for example, when someone asks on the phone, “Is Mike there?” he doesn’t want to
know if Mike is physically there; he wants to know if he can talk to Mike.
Sociocultural theory
Sociocultural theory was originally coined by Wertsch in 1985 and derived from the work of Lev
Vygotsky and the Vygotsky Circle in Moscow from the 1920s onwards. Sociocultural theory is
the notion that human mental function is from participating cultural mediation integrated into
social activities. [4]
Universal grammar
Main article: Universal grammar
From the field of linguistics, the most influential theory by far has been Chomsky's theory of
Universal Grammar (UG). The UG model of principles, basic properties which all languages
share, and parameters, properties which can vary between languages, has been the basis for much
second-language research.
From a UG perspective, learning the grammar of a second language is simply a matter of setting
the correct parameters. Take the pro-drop parameter, which dictates whether or not sentences
must have a subject in order to be grammatically correct. This parameter can have two values:
positive, in which case sentences do not necessarily need a subject, and negative, in which case
subjects must be present. In German the sentence "Erspricht" (he speaks) is grammatical, but the
sentence "Spricht" (speaks) is ungrammatical. In Italian, however, the sentence "Parla" (speaks)
is perfectly normal and grammatically correct.[5] A German speaker learning Italian would only
need to deduce that subjects are optional from the language he hears, and then set his pro-drop
parameter for Italian accordingly. Once he has set all the parameters in the language correctly,
then from a UG perspective he can be said to have learned Italian, i.e. he will always produce
perfectly correct Italian sentences.
Universal Grammar also provides a succinct explanation for much of the phenomenon of
language transfer. Spanish learners of English who make the mistake "Is raining" instead of "It is
raining" have not yet set their pro-drop parameters correctly and are still using the same setting
as in Spanish.
The main shortcoming of Universal Grammar in describing second-language acquisition is that it
does not deal at all with the psychological processes involved with learning a language. UG
scholarship is only concerned with whether parameters are set or not, not with how they are set.
Input hypothesis
Main article: Comprehensible input
Learners' most direct source of information about the target language is the target language itself.
When they come into direct contact with the target language, this is referred to as "input." When
learners process that language in a way that can contribute to learning, this is referred to as
"intake."
Generally speaking, the amount of input learners take in is one of the most important factors
affecting their learning. However, it must be at a level that is comprehensible to them. In his
Monitor Theory, Krashen advanced the concept that language input should be at the "i+1" level,
just beyond what the learner can fully understand; this input is comprehensible, but contains
structures that are not yet fully understood. This has been criticized on the basis that there is no
clear definition of i+1, and that factors other than structural difficulty (such as interest or
presentation) can affect whether input is actually turned into intake. The concept has been
quantified, however, in vocabulary acquisition research; Nation reviews various studies which
indicate that about 98% of the words in running text should be previously known in order for
extensive reading to be effective.[6]
In his Input Hypothesis, Krashen proposes that language acquisition takes place only when
learners receive input just beyond their current level of L2 competence. He termed this level of
input “i+1.” However, in contrast to emergentist and connectionist theories, he follows the innate
approach by applying Chomsky’s Government and binding theory and concept of Universal
grammar (UG) to second-language acquisition. He does so by proposing a Language Acquisition
Device that uses L2 input to define the parameters of the L2, within the constraints of UG, and to
increase the L2 proficiency of the learner. In addition, Krashen (1982)’s Affective Filter
Hypothesis holds that the acquisition of a second language is halted if the learner has a high
degree of anxiety when receiving input. According to this concept, a part of the mind filters out
L2 input and prevents uptake by the learner, if the learner feels that the process of SLA is
threatening. As mentioned earlier, since input is essential in Krashen’s model, this filtering
action prevents acquisition from progressing.
A great deal of research has taken place on input enhancement, the ways in which input may be
altered so as to direct learners' attention to linguistically important areas. Input enhancement
might include bold-faced vocabulary words or marginal glosses in a reading text. Research here
is closely linked to research on pedagogical effects, and comparably diverse.
Monitor model
Main article: Monitor hypothesis
Other concepts have also been influential in the speculation about the processes of building
internal systems of second-language information. Some thinkers hold that language processing
handles distinct types of knowledge. For instance, one component of the Monitor Model,
propounded by Krashen, posits a distinction between “acquisition” and “learning.”[7] According
to Krashen, L2 acquisition is a subconscious process of incidentally “picking up” a language, as
children do when becoming proficient in their first languages. Language learning, on the other
hand, is studying, consciously and intentionally, the features of a language, as is common in
traditional classrooms. Krashen sees these two processes as fundamentally different, with little or
no interface between them. In common with connectionism, Krashen sees input as essential to
language acquisition.[7]
Further, Bialystok and Smith make another distinction in explaining how learners build and use
L2 and interlanguage knowledge structures.[8] They argue that the concept of interlanguage
should include a distinction between two specific kinds of language processing ability. On one
hand is learners’ knowledge of L2 grammatical structure and ability to analyze the target
language objectively using that knowledge, which they term “representation,” and, on the other
hand is the ability to use their L2 linguistic knowledge, under time constraints, to accurately
comprehend input and produce output in the L2, which they call “control.” They point out that
often non-native speakers of a language have higher levels of representation than their nativespeaking counterparts have, yet have a lower level of control. Finally, Bialystok has framed the
acquisition of language in terms of the interaction between what she calls “analysis” and
“control.”[9] Analysis is what learners do when they attempt to understand the rules of the target
language. Through this process, they acquire these rules and can use them to gain greater control
over their own production.
Monitoring is another important concept in some theoretical models of learner use of L2
knowledge. According to Krashen, the Monitor is a component of an L2 learner’s language
processing device that uses knowledge gained from language learning to observe and regulate
the learner’s own L2 production, checking for accuracy and adjusting language production when
necessary.[7]
Interaction Hypothesis
Main article: Interaction Hypothesis
Long's interaction hypothesis proposes that language acquisition is strongly facilitated by the use
of the target language in interaction. Similarly to Krashen'sInput Hypothesis, the Interaction
Hypothesis claims that comprehensible input is important for language learning. In addition, it
claims that the effectiveness of comprehensible input is greatly increased when learners have to
negotiate for meaning.[10]
Interactions often result in learners receiving negative evidence.[10][11] That is, if learners say
something that their interlocutors do not understand, after negotiation the interlocutors may
model the correct language form. In doing this, learners can receive feedback on their production
and on grammar that they have not yet mastered.[10] The process of interaction may also result in
learners receiving more input from their interlocutors than they would otherwise.[11] Furthermore,
if learners stop to clarify things that they do not understand, they may have more time to process
the input they receive. This can lead to better understanding and possibly the acquisition of new
language forms.[10] Finally, interactions may serve as a way of focusing learners' attention on a
difference between their knowledge of the target language and the reality of what they are
hearing; it may also focus their attention on a part of the target language of which they are not
yet aware.[12]
Output hypothesis
Main article: Comprehensible output
In the 1980s, Canadian SLA researcher Merrill Swain advanced the output hypothesis, that
meaningful output is as necessary to language learning as meaningful input. However, most
studies have shown little if any correlation between learning and quantity of output. Today, most
scholars[contend that small amounts of meaningful output are important to language learning, but
primarily because the experience of producing language leads to more effective processing of
input.
Competition model
Main article: Competition model
Some of the major cognitive theories of how learners organize language knowledge are based on
analyses of how speakers of various languages analyze sentences for meaning. MacWhinney,
Bates, and Kliegl found that speakers of English, German, and Italian showed varying patterns in
identifying the subjects of transitive sentences containing more than one noun.[13] English
speakers relied heavily on word order; German speakers used morphological agreement, the
animacy status of noun referents, and stress; and speakers of Italian relied on agreement and
stress. MacWhinney et al. interpreted these results as supporting the Competition Model, which
states that individuals use linguistic cues to get meaning from language, rather than relying on
linguistic universals.[13] According to this theory, when acquiring an L2, learners sometimes
receive competing cues and must decide which cue(s) is most relevant for determining meaning.
Connectionism and second-language acquisition
See also: Connectionism
These findings also relate to Connectionism. Connectionism attempts to model the cognitive
language processing of the human brain, using computer architectures that make associations
between elements of language, based on frequency of co-occurrence in the language input.[14]
Frequency has been found to be a factor in various linguistic domains of language learning.[15]
Connectionism posits that learners form mental connections between items that co-occur, using
exemplars found in language input. From this input, learners extract the rules of the language
through cognitive processes common to other areas of cognitive skill acquisition. Since
connectionism denies both innate rules and the existence of any innate language-learning
module, L2 input is of greater importance than it is in processing models based on innate
approaches, since, in connectionism, input is the source of both the units and the rules of
language.
Noticing hypothesis
Main article: Noticing hypothesis
Attention is another characteristic that some believe to have a role in determining the success or
failure of language processing. Richard Schmidt states that although explicit metalinguistic
knowledge of a language is not always essential for acquisition, the learner must be aware of L2
input in order to gain from it.[16][broken citation] In his “noticing hypothesis,” Schmidt posits that learners
must notice the ways in which their interlanguage structures differ from target norms. This
noticing of the gap allows the learner’s internal language processing to restructure the learner’s
internal representation of the rules of the L2 in order to bring the learner’s production closer to
the target. In this respect, Schmidt’s understanding is consistent with the ongoing process of rule
formation found in emergentism and connectionism.
Processability
Main article: Processability theory
Some theorists and researchers have contributed to the cognitive approach to second-language
acquisition by increasing understanding of the ways L2 learners restructure their interlanguage
knowledge systems to be in greater conformity to L2 structures. Processability theory states that
learners restructure their L2 knowledge systems in an order of which they are capable at their
stage of development.[17] For instance, In order to acquire the correct morphological and syntactic
forms for English questions, learners must transform declarative English sentences. They do so
by a series of stages, consistent across learners. Clahsen proposed that certain processing
principles determine this order of restructuring.[18] Specifically, he stated that learners first,
maintain declarative word order while changing other aspects of the utterances, second, move
words to the beginning and end of sentences, and third, move elements within main clauses
before subordinate clauses.
Automaticity
Thinkers have produced several theories concerning how learners use their internal L2
knowledge structures to comprehend L2 input and produce L2 output. One idea is that learners
acquire proficiency in an L2 in the same way that people acquire other complex cognitive skills.
Automaticity is the performance of a skill without conscious control. It results from the gradated
process of proceduralization. In the field of cognitive psychology, Anderson expounds a model
of skill acquisition, according to which persons use procedures to apply their declarative
knowledge about a subject in order to solve problems.[19] On repeated practice, these procedures
develop into production rules that the individual can use to solve the problem, without accessing
long-term declarative memory. Performance speed and accuracy improve as the learner
implements these production rules. DeKeyser tested the application of this model to L2 language
automaticity.[20] He found that subjects developed increasing proficiency in performing tasks
related to the morphosyntax of an artificial language, Autopractan, and performed on a learning
curve typical of the acquisition of non-language cognitive skills. This evidence conforms to
Anderson’s general model of cognitive skill acquisition, supports the idea that declarative
knowledge can be transformed into procedural knowledge, and tends to undermine the idea of
Krashen[7] that knowledge gained through language “learning” cannot be used to initiate speech
production.
Declarative/procedural model
Michael T. Ullman has used a declarative/procedural model to understand how language
information is stored. This model is consistent with a distinction made in general cognitive
science between the storage and retrieval of facts, on the one hand, and understanding of how to
carry out operations, on the other. It states that declarative knowledge consists of arbitrary
linguistic information, such as irregular verb forms, that are stored in the brain’s declarative
memory. In contrast, knowledge about the rules of a language, such as grammatical word order is
procedural knowledge and is stored in procedural memory. Ullman reviews several
psycholinguistic and neurolinguistic studies that support the declarative/procedural model.[21]
Memory and second-language acquisition
Perhaps certain psychological characteristics constrain language processing. One area of research
is the role of memory. Williams conducted a study in which he found some positive correlation
between verbatim memory functioning and grammar learning success for his subjects.[22] This
suggests that individuals with less short-term memory capacity might have a limitation in
performing cognitive processes for organization and use of linguistic knowledge.
Note
1.
2.
3.
^Gass&Selinker 2008, p. 1.
^ abcdeVanPatten&Benati 2010, pp. 2–5.
^RoumyanaSlabakova. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics. Cambridge: Mar 2010. Vol. 30 pg. 231, 17
pgs
4. ^Lantolf, J. P., & Beckett, T. G. (2009). Sociocultural theory and second language acquisition. Language
Teaching, 42(4), 459-475. doi: 10.1017/S0261444809990048
5. ^Cook 2008, p. 35.
6. ^Nation 2001.
7. ^ abcdKrashen 1982.
8. ^Bialystok & Smith 1985.
9. ^Bialystok 1994.
10. ^ abcd Ellis, Rod (1997). Second Language Acquisition. Oxford Introductions to Language Study. Oxford,
New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 47–48. ISBN 978-0-19-437212-1.
11. ^ ab Richards, Jack; Schmidt, Richard, eds. (2002). "Interaction Hypothesis". Longman dictionary of
language teaching and applied linguistics. London New York: Longman. p. 264. ISBN 978-0-582-438255.
12. ^Gass, Susan; Selinker, Larry (2008). Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course. New York,
NY: Routledge. p. 350. ISBN 978-0-8058-5497-8.
13. ^ abMacWhinney, Bates &Kliegl 1984.
14. ^Christiansen &Chater 2001.
15. ^Ellis 2002.
16. ^Schmidt 1990.
17. ^Pienemann 1998.
18. ^Clahsen 1984.
19. ^Anderson 1992.
20. ^DeKeyser 1997.
21. ^Ullman 2001.
22. ^Williams 1999.
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