Effective Models for Continuing Education and Training
ABSTRACT
Continuing education and training is now a necessity to sustain workers’ capacities for productive
work and on-going employability, and to contribute to social and economic prosperity. Hence there
is much interest in models of continuing education and training (CET) that can meet the needs of
different stakeholders such as workers, employers, policymakers and industry. Combinations of
different models, in place of a one size fits all, are required. A team of Australian researchers
conducted a three-year study that aimed to identify and evaluate potential models and strategies
that might constitute a national approach to CET. The study identified four models of CET. We briefly
explain the approach to this study, describe the models, and discuss implications for implementing
the four models.
CALL FOR CET MODELS
Continuing education and training is now the new blueprint to sustain socio-economic changes in
contemporary societies and at the same time preserve workers’ employability. Hence there is much
interest in models of continuing education and training (CET) that can meet the needs of different
stakeholders such as workers, employers, policymakers and industry, to maintain social cohesion
and economic prosperity. Surprisingly, while there is much research on learning in the workplace as
a significant component of CET, advancing understandings about what and how workers can learn at
and through work, there is little evidence of studies on CET models that can effectively meet
workplace demands and sustain workers’ ongoing occupational competence and employability
across their working lives. Given the pace of changes in the nature of work and work practices,
diverse circumstances of workers who are balancing work, family and social lives, and competing
workplace productivity demands and resources, necessity for multiple models of CET provisions is
even more apparent. Combinations of different models, in place of a one size fits all, can potentially
meet the learning needs of workers when and how they most prefer to learn and at the same time
be accommodated by their workplaces. Pressed for a search for appropriate models of CET, a team
of Australian researchers conducted a three-year study that aimed to identify and evaluate potential
models and strategies that might constitute a national approach to CET.
THE RESEARCH STUDY
The study reported in this paper responded to concerns about limitations in the current Australian
national system of education and training that is more aligned with preparations for entry level
training, in meeting the needs of workers and employers interested in CET. The main research
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question was: What models and practices of continuing tertiary education and training can best
meet workplace demands and sustain Australian workers’ ongoing occupational competence and
employability across their working lives? Two sub-questions directed the focus of the study: i) What
models and practices can support on-the-job learning, allowing workers to acquire the kinds of
experiences and expertise valued by industry?; and ii) How best can workers be prepared as active
learners to engage in productive learning in the workplace and meet the skill demands of industry?
Data were gathered from a survey and interviews with 136 workers and 60 workplace managers
from five industries (health and community services, transport and logistics, mining, financial
services and services/hospitality) across five jurisdictions in Australia (Queensland, New South
Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Western Australia). The participants reported on and explained
their experiences with current CET provisions and went on to identify the strengths and weaknesses
of those provisions within their specific work situations. They also indicated preferences for CET
provisions to enhance their capacity to address current and emerging changes impacting on their
work. Analysis of data from workers and managers informed four models of CET. These were:
1. Practice-based experiences with direct guidance
2. Practice-based experiences with ‘educational’ interventions
3. Wholly practice-based experiences
4. Wholly educational institution-based experiences
According to the workers and managers, these four models of CET were most effective in meeting
the needs of individual workers as well the workplaces to appropriately address service delivery,
productivity and regulatory requirements.
The models and ways to support learning strongly suggest that effective CET needs to be founded on
experiences in workplaces as well as educational institutions. The models and approaches to support
CET were translated into four scenarios based on the key features of each. These were appraised at
roundtable discussions held with groups of 39 vocational education and training (VET) teachers, and
62 VET professionals (in training and management roles) in three capital cities and two regional
centres across three State jurisdictions in Australia. The teachers and VET professionals were asked
to review the four models in light of their experiences in delivering CET. Finally, senior
representatives of three key national agencies responsible for vocational education and training and
workforce development were interviewed to gain policy and implementation perspectives (for
details see Billett et al. 2012, 2014).
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MODELS OF CONTINUING EDUCATION AND TRAINING
The four models of CET signified a continuum from wholly work-based experiences to wholly
educational institution based experiences, with two variations of an integrated model that combines
practice-based experiences with educational interventions. The four models are labelled as: i)
Wholly work-based experiences; ii) Practice-based experiences with direct guidance; iii) Practicebased experiences with educational interventions; and iv) Wholly educational institution based
experiences. Each of these models serves different purposes, and collectively offers a platform for
the provision of CET.
Model 1: Wholly work-based experiences
Workers consciously or unconsciously learn during the course of everyday work activities and
interactions, and continue to develop their competences independently or interdependently. This is
not surprising because every-day work experiences are known to contribute to three key areas of
competence: i) practical skills and knowledge required in specific occupations and job-tasks; ii)
knowledge related to the work community and organisation; and iii) knowledge that helps one to
assess one’s work and ways of working and acting (Paloniemi, 2006, p. 443-444). Common strategies
workers use for learning include observing, imitating, practice, and reproducing what they observe
while being immersed in work tasks, and receiving indirect guidance from co-workers and
supervisors. These processes count on their efforts and capacities as observers, imitators and
initiators, and call for individuals to identify what they need to learn and be self-directed in seeking
opportunities. Additionally, a wholly work-based model is effective if supervisors are supportive of
workers engaging in learning and provide opportunities for learning through new work activities for
instance through rotational arrangements and shadowing. A wholly practice-based model also has
limitations in that workers may not have access to the types of theoretical and conceptual
understanding that underpin the more complex activities at work or to the affordances of the
workplace.
Model 2: Work-based with direct guidance
Invariably, workers interact with others around them to complete work tasks and during such
interactions, individuals receive direct and indirect guidance from others working in proximity.
Guidance is necessary to extend individual’s current level of skills and understanding. Work and
learning in such instances is simultaneous and enacted jointly, hence highly proximal. Such
interactions draw on the support and expertise that is available immediately to provide new skills,
information or understandings that demand some form of guidance to immediately apply these to
perform the task at hand. Common strategies for direct guidance include mentoring, coaching,
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demonstration, and one-to-one instruction and feedback. The success of direct guidance relies on
the types of relations workers develop with those around them and how individuals value the
sources of direct guidance. Direct guidance is more effective when it is timely, sought and requested,
not imposed. That is, it needs to focus on the intentions of the learner and be initiated by the
individual. Those providing guidance need to be credible, available when needed and be able to
provide constructive feedback. Furthermore, these guides need to be given time to mentor others
and their contributions recognised as part of their work tasks.
Model 3: Work-based experiences with educational interventions
Work-based learning experiences such as those described in Models 1 and 2 above, supplemented
with structured training by staff from educational institutions enable workers to further develop
their understandings about work as well as their procedural and analytical skills. The curriculum for
such educational interventions is commonly negotiated with the employer who sponsors the
provision and may include assessments that lead to formal credits towards qualifications or for
accreditation. The enactment of the curriculum is by accredited trainers, workplace supervisors or
vendor trainers and could be with individuals or in groups, at the work-site or outside work settings
and held during or after work hours. Regardless, the learning needs to be directly related to work.
Examples of learning using Model 3 include engagement in action learning or action research
projects and initiatives to improve efficiencies. This model is effective when supervisors and
managers support and sponsor educational interventions as part of workforce development for
improved productivity and allow workers to actively engage in these.
Model 4: Wholly educational institution based
The main strength of a wholly educational institution based learning program lies in a curriculum
comprising theoretical knowledge, and development of canonical occupational capacities such as
what workers are required and expected to have in order to perform their work tasks. Learning
provisions are located on the educational institute site or made available online. Such programs are
commonly accessed by workers who are interested in developing themselves for specific
occupations, or learn a new or emerging aspect of work task and such opportunities are not
available in their work settings. When wholly educational institution based provisions offer flexibility
that considers workers’ circumstances, recognises workers’ needs and provides follow-up support
they are deemed more effective. A wholly educational institution based program may be limited in
developing the kinds of capacities required for active and productive occupational practice (Griffiths
& Guile 2003; OECD, 2010). Most educational institutions are now incorporating work integrated
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learning to provide authentic learning experiences. Workers may engage in a wholly educational
institution based provision to gain a qualification that allows them to advance in their careers.
IMPLICATIONS FOR IMPLEMENTATION
Successful implementation of the four models will need to be reconciled with the local regulatory
and administrative frameworks within which CET operates. The needs and roles of the four key
stakeholders (workers, supervisors, managers and educational institution providers) need to align
with support from those responsible for policy, administrative and funding roles. Workers, their
supervisors and managers need some preparation to formally engage, recognise and be supported
with their respective contributions to assisting workers’ learning for CET. New forms of partnerships
need to be forged between workplaces and educational institutions for accredited and nonaccredited training to develop the workforce.
As mentioned earlier, each model serves particular purposes, so it may be a combination of models
that will meet the learning needs of workers and workplaces at a particular phase in development.
Overall, it is important that workers’ learning needs rather than educational arrangements form the
central focus of which models are approved, supported and sponsored. Hence policies and
guidelines need to be informed by the fact that maintaining and developing occupational
competence can be made possible through the four CET models proposed here. However, the
significance of work-based learning needs to be recognised and supported accordingly. Moreover,
ways to formally recognise, record and report outcomes from such learning need approval to be
formally accepted.
Furthermore, effective implementation of the four CET models will need a cultural and some
structural (eg. funding models) changes. Commitment from all stakeholders and appraised policies
and procedures to implement the four models of CET will contribute to learning needs of individuals,
workplaces and industry.
REFERENCES
Billett, S, Henderson, A, Choy, S, Dymock, D, Kelly, A, Smith, R, James, I, Beven, F & Lewis, J. (2012).
Continuing education and training models and strategies: an initial appraisal, NCVER, Adelaide.
Billett, S., Henderson, A., Choy, S., Dymock, D., Beven, F., Kelly, A., James, I., Lewis, J., Smith, R.
(2014). Refining models and approaches in continuing education and training. Adelaide:
National Centre for Vocational Education Research.
Griffiths, T. and Guile, D (2003). A connective model of learning: The implications for work process
knowledge. European Educational Research Journal, 2(1), 56-73.
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Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2010). Learning for jobs. OECD: Paris.
Paloniemi, S. (2006). Experience, competence and workplace learning. Journal of Workplace
Learning, 18 (7/8), 439-450.
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