THEORIES OF CHILD
PSYCHOLOGY 1
INTRODUCTION
• Child development that occurs from birth to adulthood was largely
ignored throughout much of history.
• Children were often viewed simply as small versions of adults and little
attention was paid to the many advances in cognitive abilities, language
usage, and physical growth.
• Interest in the field of child development finally began to emerge early in
the 20th-century, but it tended to focus on abnormal behavior.
WHY LEARN CHILD
PSYCHOLOGY??????
An understanding of child
development is essential,
allowing us to understand the
cognitive, emotional, physical,
social and educational growth
that children go through from
birth and into early adulthood.
IMPORTANCE OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Understand
Know Problem
Deliver Dental Services
Communication
Confidence
Teach
Comfort
DEFINITIONS
PSYCHOLOGY:
“ is the science dealing with human nature ,function &
phenomenon of his soul in the main.”
It is the science that deals with the study of man, his
behaviour and his relationship with the environment. It
seeks to understand ability, motivates thinking processes
and action of people.
CHILD PSYCHOLOGY:
“ is the science that deals with the mental power or an
interaction between the conscious & subconscious element
in a child “
Development of child occurs as a result of genetic and
environment influence classically defined as
NATURE
Genetic
Vs
NURTURE
Environment
THEORIES OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY
PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES.
- Psychosexual/Psychoanalytical theory –Sigmond Freud
- Psychosocial theory – Eric Erickson
- Social learning theory – Bandura
BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES
-
Hierarchy of needs – Maslow
Cognitive theory – Piaget
Classical conditioning – Pavlov
Operant conditioning – Skinner
PSYCHOANALYTICAL THEORY
Sigmond Freud ( 1905 )
The first formal theory of personality to
have marked impact on psychology &
psychiatry was that of Sigmond Freud
• Child behaviour is motivated by a need to satisfy instinctive
needs. In the search to satisfy these needs a state of conflict
arises which demands resolution.
• This conflict results in development of anxiety.
• Sigmond Freud has described the presence of a structure
called Phychic Structure.
Freud & Personality Structure
Id
- energy constantly striving to satisfy basic drives —
Pleasure Principle
Ego
- seeks to gratify the Id in realistic ways
Reality Principle
Super Ego
voice of conscience
that focuses on how
we ought to behave
ID
ID
• It is the basic structure
of personality.
• It serves as a reserviour
of instincts or their
mental representative
• Is present at birth.
• Impulse ridden & strives
for immediate pleasure
& gratification
(Pleasure principle)
SUPER EGO
SUPER EGO
• Acts as the sensor for acceptability of thoughts, feelings and
behaviour.
• Superego is determined by the regulations that are imposed
upon the child by the parents, society and culture.
• This internalised control produces feeling of shame and guilt.
IN TRANSITION FROM ID TO SUPEREGO……..
EGO
EGO
• It develops in 2nd -6th month
of life when the infant
begins to distinguish
between itself & the
outside world.
• REALITY PRINCIPLE
• Acts as a mediator between Id and Superego.
• Ego is concerned with memory and judgement. It is the
seat of consciousness which exploits the environment to
the maximum extent in order to find ways for achieving
gratification in socially accepted ways.
• It develops after birth, expands with age and delays,
modifies and controls the Id impulses.
• The major function of ego is the formation of
Defence mechanism. These ward off unconcious
and unwelcome instinctual impulse from the Id.
Thereby reducing the level of anxiety.
EGO DEFENSE MECHANISM
• These are unconscious responses that an individual makes to
cope with anxiety.
• +ve function:
the individual is able to avoid crises.
he tries to remain within ethics.
• -ve function:
prevents individual from realistically coping with life.
DEFENSE
DESCRIPTION
EXAMPLE
DENIAL
individual refuses to
diverge a
threatening or
unwelcome reality
If child has pain in
tooth, he does not
accept as he is
scared of dental
procedure.
when losing an
argument, you state
"You're just Stupid;"
homophobia
PROJECTION
Individual projects
personal feeling of
inadequacy over
others
DEFENSE
REGRESSION
SUPPRESSION
DESCRIPTION
Age inappropriate
response.
Behavioural response
to a more infantile
manner as a result of
confrontation with
anxiety producing
situation.
pushing into the
subconscious
EXAMPLE
sitting in a corner
and crying after
hearing bad news;
throwing a temper
tantrum when you
don't get your way
trying to forget
something that
causes you anxiety
THE PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
STAGES
ORAL
ANAL
PHALLIC
LATENCY
GENITAL
ORAL STAGE [birth-18months]
Birth – 18 months.
Introduction: In infants the oral cavity is the site for identifying needs
.It therefore serves as an erogenous zone.
Characterised by passiveness and dependance. Eruption of teeth
leads to a more aggressive and active behaviour. The mouth serves as
the primary zone of pleasure.
Objectives: Satisfaction of hunger by oral stimulation. eg: suckling of
milk by mother, help in development of trust.
If child’s needs are not adequately met in this stage
traits like optimism or envy, jealousy may develop.
ANAL STAGE(18 months-3 yrs)
Characterised by EGOCENTRIC BEHAVIOUR.
Child starts controlling bowel and bladder movement.
Anal zone is primary zone of pleasure.
Function of retention and elimination takes on importance.
Child learns to walk, talk and control toilet habits. As a result he
becomes more independent compared to the previous stage.
Over emphasis by adults on toilet habits at this stage
results in an OBSTINATE BEHAVIOUR in later adult life.
This personality is called ANAL PERSONALITY.
URETHRAL STAGE
It is a transition between the anal stage and phallic stage.
the child derives pleasure from exercising control over urinary
sphincter.
loss of urethral control results in shame.
PHALIC STAGE (3-7yrs)
Concerns itself with sex determination. The child attributes
greater importance to anatomical difference in sexes.
Characterised by a complex called OEDIPUS COMLEX and
ELECTRA COMPLEX.
The child feels possesive of parent of opposite sex and
rivalry toward parent of same sex.
Resolution of this complex is difficuly especially in females.
Oedipus complex
 Young boys have a natural
tendency to be attached to
the mother & they consider
their father as their enemy.
 Hence they strive to imitate
their father to gain the
affection of the mother.
Electra complex
Young girls develop an
attraction towards their
father & they resent
the mother being close
to the father
LATENCY STAGE 6-12 yrs
It is a period of CONSOLIDATION.
Characteristics:
Maturation of ego takes place
Previous drives become passive and there is greater importance
placed on peer development and character formation.
Further development of personality.
There is a temporary truce between Id and Ego
GENITAL STAGE
Begins with puberty and is characterised by re opening of Ego’s
struggle to gain mastery and control over impulses and superego.
Fluctuating extremes between emotional and behaviour are seen.
This is due to an individual struggle to attain a firm sense of self.
Resolution of these occurs due to maturation occuring during this
period.
Sigmund Freud’s Stages of Personality Formation
Freud’s Psychosexual Critical Events and
Stages: Vertical
Related Conflicts to
Column
be Resolved
Oral
Anal
Phallic
Latency
Genital
Possible Outcome in
Terms of the Emergence
of Personality Traits
Possible Outcome in Terms
of the Emergence of
Personality Traits
Early weaning results in
Weaning: 12 to 18 pessimism, envy, greed, fear,
sarcasm, and suspicion.
Over-indulgence yields an
anal expulsive personality
Months
Leniency yields an anal
expulsive character eg
disorganization, carelessness
Strictness yields an anal
retentive character.–- neat,
precise, careful, stingy
Oedipal or Electra
Superego and adaptive
Complexes:
identification with the same-
Fixation develops a phallic
personality that is reckless,
resolute, afraid or incapable
of close love.
Toilet Training:
2-3Years
Ages 4-5
sex parent.Oedepus
complex, electra complex
Sexual Drive
Children pour energy such
Dormant: Preas sports, same-sex
puberty: Ages 6-12 friendships, and school.
Social Rules
This person is well-adjusted
and balances love and work.
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2004
Physical sexual changes
reawaken repressed needs.
Direct sexual feelings
towards others lead to
sexual gratification.
Pros of Freud’s Work
1. Focused on the influence of unconscious processes.
2. Stressed that events in childhood do influence our adult
behavior.
3. Defense mechanisms
Cons of Freud’s Theory
1. Freud had not much scientific data to support his theories.
2. Observations not representative of all types of population.
3. Theory based on upper class female patients. The patients
were wealthy Viennese women.
ERIK ERICSSON
PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY
Psychosocial
(Erikson’s)
ERIK ERICSSON
Stages of Personality Development
Written and arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2004
• Erik Erikson- a student of Freud formulated his theory in 1963.
• This theory is called Psychosocial Theory.
• Unlike Frued’s use of organ stages, Erikson incorporated
stages- developmental tasks i.e. conflicts which confront the
child during similar periods of growth and demand resolution.
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
STAGES
1.
Basic Trust vs. Mistrust.
•
Infant Stage: Birth to 18 months

The basic needs of the child are met by persons whom he
trusts.

When these needs are not satisfied he develops mistrust.
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
STAGES
2.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt.
•
Toddler Stage: 18 months to 3 years
The child learns bowel control and he is interested in his
surroundings.
Failure to learn this bowel control leads to shame and doubt.
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
STAGES
3.
Initiative vs. Guilt.
•
Preschooler Stage: 3-5 years of age
The child is interested in anatomic differences in the
body.
Various animals are identified by gender.
When identity becomes a problem, it leads to frustration.
Failure leads to guilt.
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
STAGES
4.
Industry vs. Inferiority.
•
School-Age Child: 5-13 years of age
During this period the child is more bothered about
society, school and academic achievement.
Child becomes industrious and competent.
Failure during this period leads to inferiority.
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
STAGES
5.
Identity vs. Role Confusion.
•
Adolescence: 13-20 years of age
The child a teenager now must realize who he is and what he
shall become.
Identity becomes a problem. There is a goal oriented behaviour
and the child becomes miniature adult. Failure to identify
himself leads to role confusion.
Disadvantages
Of Freuds and Eriksons Theories:
Cannot be demonstrated or proven by clinical trial.
These are an interpretation of what the child goes
through.
THEORIES OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY
PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES.
- Psychosexual/Psychoanalytical theory –Sigmond Freud
- Psychosocial theory – Eric Erickson
- Social learning theory – Bandura
BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES
-
Hierarchy of needs – Maslow
Cognitive theory – Piaget
Classical conditioning – Pavlov
Operant conditioning – Skinner
COGNITIVE THEORY
• Introduced by JEAN PIAGET in 1952.
• COGNITION: means perception and interpretation
of the facts.
• According to Jean Piaget there;
1. Assimilation: learning new things.
2. Accomodation: alterations and bringing about
adjustments in these newly learnt things.
• 3.equilibration;
• Cognition differs from child to child and according to
age.
• Concept of assimilation and accomodation are
essential for the development of thought process.
• Assimilation refers to incorporation of new knowledge
through use of existing schemes.
• Accomodation refers to modification of childs
existing schemes to incorporate new knowledge.
Stages
1. SENSORY MOTOR STAGE
2. PRE OPERATIONAL STAGE
3. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE
4. FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE
1. Birth to 18 months(sensory-motor):
EGOCENTRIC: only bothered about himself, gradually
differentiates himself from world around him.
•
•
•
•
A period of sensory input and motor output.
Reacts to stress by eyes, hands and ears.
Every child is born with certain strategies for interacting with
the environment
As maturation progresses simple reflexes begin to be
coordinated e.g. looking along with arm movement resulting
in hand watching
• Separation Anxiety(separation from mother)
begins at 6 months because of sense of object
permanence and visual ability to recognise
strangers.
• Dental applications:
• Child can be given toys while sitting on the
dental chair in his/her hand
2. 18months – 7 years(Pre operational stage):
•
•
•
•
•
•
Childs symbolic system(communicating skills) expands.
Increased use of language leads to socialisation.
This is a transitional process to move concrete operations.
He learns to classify things
He can recall past experiences.
They have short attention span and are very inquisitive.
• Dental app:
• Constructivism: child surveying the dental
chair , airway syringe
• Cognitive equilibrium: child is explained
about the equipment or instruments
• Animism: child correlates things with other
objects
3. 7 – 11 years (Concrete operational stage):
•
•
•
•
Childs thinking process becomes logical.
There is a shift from egocentrism to relativism (refers to
ability to operate from different perspectives and to
approach two or more aspects of a particular problem
simultaneously)
Child has ability to understand others point of view
Child is more concerned about present.
• Dent. App:
• Concrete instructions like this is a retainer, brush can
be given
• Abstract instruction like wear the retainer every night
and keep clean
• Centering: allowed to hold the mirror and see what is
being done on his teeth
• Ego-centerism: achieved th level of understanding
and gets involved e.g.holds the suction tip
4. 12 years and above (Formal Operational stage):
•
•
•
•
Child now a teenager is able to think more abstractly
Adolescents in this period are more concerned with the
hypothetical future.
The adolescent learns to solve complex problems.
He thinks of ideas and has developed a vast imagination
• Dent. App:
• Peer influence and abstract thinking:
• Can play an imp. Role in orthodontic
appliances and braces
HIERARCHY OF NEEDS – ABRAHAM MASLOW
• Maslow believed in self actualisation theory.
• i.e. the need to understand the totality of a person.
• Needs are arranged in a hierarchy and as one is
satisfied another will emerge.
• Starts from most biologic to more psychologic
• Motivation is essential
• Pain avoidance, tension reduction act as sources of
motivation.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
• Albert Bandura in 1963.
• Considered to be the most complete and clinically
useful behavioral theory.
• Theory is based on the fact that behaviour is learnt
through observation of consequences.
• The learning of behavior is affected by
principal element:
1. Antecedent determinant: the conditioning is
affected if the person is aware of what is occurring
2. Consequent determinants: persons perception
and expectancy (cognitive factor) determine
behavior
• 3. modelling: learning through observation
eliminates the trial error-search
• 4. self –regulation: involves a process of self –
regulation ,judgement and evaluation of individuals
responses to his own behavior
Dental application:
• Children are capable of acquiring almost any
behavior that they observe closely
• Observational learning is an imp. tool in the
management of dental treatment
eg.,older sibling undergoing dental treatment
without any complaint
CLASSIC CONDITIONING
• Ivan Pavlov 1927
• Also called


Respondent conditioning
Pavlovian conditioning
• Classical experiment:
salivation on ringing the bell.
salivation on ringing the buzzer(stimulus generalisation)
Principles involved:
Generalisation
Extinction
Discrimination
• Dental applications:
• Sound of hand piece and sight of dentist
OPERANT CONDITIONING
• Introduced BF Skinner – 1938
• Also called as Instrumental Conditioning.
• Considered as an extension of classic conditioning.
• Individual response is changed as a result of
reinforcement or extinction of previous responses.
• According to this theory the consequence of the
behaviour itself acts as a stimulus and affects the
future behaviour.
• Four types of Operant Conditioning
• Reinforcement : Positive
Negative
• Omission
• Punishment
• Four types of Operant Conditioning
• Reinforcement :
Positive: occurs if a pleasant consequence follows a response
Negative: involves removal of unpleasant stimuli following a response
• Omission: removal of pleasant response after a particular response
• Punishment: introduction of an aversive stimulus into a situation to decrease
the undesirable behaviour
• Merits:
• Application on children who are difficult to manage
• Useful in instilling lifelong +ve behavior in a child
patient
• Demerits:
• Overemphasis on use of nagative reinforcers and
punishment in dental clinic
Thank you.