1
One Size Does Not Fit All: Adult Students’ Different Experiences, Sources of Support,
and Persistence in College
Debbie Ritter-Williams, Ph.D., and Ruby A. Rouse, Ph.D.
2
Table of Contents
Executive Summary
Background
Theories of Adult Student Retention
Lifespan Theories and Generational Influences
Purpose of the Study
Method
Population
Sample
Data Collection
Adult Student College Retention Scale (ASCRS)
Main Study Data Collection
Results
Personal Demographics
Employment Demographics
Education Demographics
Descriptive Results for Study Variables
Research Question 1: Psychosocial Issues and Generational Cohort
Research Question 2: Psychosocial Issues and Past Educational Experience
Research Question 3: Learner’s Decision to Continue their Education by Psychosocial
Issues Experienced
Research Question 4: Perceptions of Sources of Support by Generational Cohort
Research Question 5: Decision to Continue and Sources of Support
Discussion
Study Limitations and Future Research Recommendations
3
Conclusions and Recommendations for Practice
References
4
Tables
1
Response scales and collapsed scales for survey items about psychosocial issues
2
Percentage of respondents who experienced each issue to at least some extent, percentage
who thought the issue might have at least some influence on their decision to continue taking
classes, ranked by percentage point differences
3
Response scales and collapsed scales for survey items about sources of support
4
Percentage of respondents who rated each source of support as at least somewhat
effective and at least somewhat important, and percentage point differences between the two
ratings (ranked by Importance).
5
Statistical comparison of adult learners’ experience of psychosocial issues by
generational cohort
6
Comparison of adult learners’ mean scores for experience of psychosocial issues by
generational cohort
7
Statistical comparison of adult learners’ perception of the influence of psychosocial
issues on decision to continue, by generational cohort
8
Comparison of adult learners’ mean scores for influence of psychosocial issues on
decision to continue, by generational cohort
9
Adult learners reporting the extent of psychosocial issues experienced by past educational
experience
10
Comparison of adult learners’ mean scores for experience of psychosocial issues by past
educational experience
11
Adult learners reporting the extent of psychosocial issues experienced by elapsed time
since last enrollment
12
Comparison of means for adult learners’ experience of psychosocial issues, by time
elapsed since last enrollment
13
Statistical comparison of adult learners’ likelihood of continuing classes by psychosocial
issues experienced
14
Statistical comparison of adult learners’ perceptions of effectiveness of sources of
support by generational cohort
15
Mean scores for adult students’ perception of effectiveness of support, by generational
cohort
5
16
Statistical comparison of adult learners’ likelihood of continuing classes by effectiveness
of sources of support
6
Figures
1
Model of research questions for the study
2
Respondents by generational cohort
3
Respondents by gender
4
Respondents by ethnicity
5
Respondents by race
6
Respondents by marital status
7
Respondents by number of financially dependent children still living at home
8
Respondents by employment status
9
Institutions represented by study participants
10
Respondents’ institutional affiliations
11
Respondents by level of degree program
12
Respondents by previous college experience
13
Time elapsed since respondents’ previous degree enrollment
14
Respondents by likelihood of continuing
15
Experience of psychosocial issues to some extent, by previous educational experience
16
Experience of psychosocial issues to some extent, by time elapsed since previous
enrollment
17
Percentage of generational cohort members rating a source of support as at least
somewhat effective (showing significant results only)
18
Percentage of generational cohort members experiencing psychosocial issues to at least
some extent
19
Percentage of generational cohort members stating a psychosocial issue might have at
least Some influence on their decision to continue classes
7
Appendixes
A
Adult Student College Retention Scale
B
ANOVA and Post-Hoc Tukey Results for Adult Learners’ Experience of Psychosocial
Issues by Generational Cohort
C
ANOVA and Post-Hoc Tukey results for Adult Learners’ Perception of the Influence of
Psychosocial Issues on Decision to Continue, by Generational Cohort
D
ANOVA and Post-Hoc Tukey results for experience of psychosocial issues and highest
level of education previously completed
E
ANOVA and Post-Hoc Tukey results for adult learners’ experience of psychosocial
issues, by time elapsed since last enrollment
F
ANOVA and Post-Hoc Tukey results for adult students’ perception of effectiveness of
support, by generational cohort
8
Executive Summary
Background
•
Many researchers have studied the factors affecting the low retention rates of adult
students, focusing on adult students as a homogenous group.
•
Few researchers have explored retention-related differences between subgroups of adult
students or focused on the psychosocial issues they experience when they return to
school.
Purpose
•
The purpose of this quantitative correlational study was to gather demographic
information about adult students at a variety of institutions across the United States, to
understand adult students’ experience of psychosocial issues, and to determine the
sources of support they find helpful in dealing with issues that arise as a result of
returning to school.
Method

The Adult Student College Retention Scale was developed to measure students’
experiences of 16 different psychosocial issues, their perceptions of the effectiveness and
importance of 13 sources of personal, school-related, and work-related support, and their
estimated likelihood of continuing to take classes.

Surveys from 4446 students over the age of 22 attending more than 1,300 different
postsecondary institutions across the United States were used in the analysis..
Results
9
•
Results provided support for the existence of significant differences among adult learners
based on their generational cohort, past educational experience, likelihood of continuing
to take classes, and perceptions of effectiveness and importance of sources of support.
•
These differences suggest that educational institutions, businesses, and families must
offer multifaceted forms of support to ensure students are able to persist to degree
completion.
Recommendations
For Educational Institutions
•
Tailor college student orientation programs and other support services to the differing
needs of Baby Boomers (to exert their leadership) and to Millennials (to determine their
“fit” with the institution).
•
Institute an “early alert” system for adult students who experience an unexpected “shock”
that requires immediate assistance to prevent them from dropping out.
•
Leverage the support relationships between faculty and adult students to help students
connect with other support services on campus, and make sure those support services are
easily accessible both physically and temporally.
For Businesses
•
Establish work climates in which supervisors and coworkers are enabled to encourage
and recognize employees who are also students.
•
Make instrumental assistance available through tuition assistance and other financial
perks, and through creative working arrangements.
•
Acknowledge the added value educated employees bring to the workplace in the presence
of the students, their coworkers, and their loved ones when appropriate.
10
Summary
• As the largest-growing group of students in postsecondary institutions, adults must be
recognized as having different needs depending on their age, past educational experience, and
other variables, much as researchers and practitioners have already recognized differences in the
needs of the much more homogenous group of 18- to 22-year-old traditional students. Ignoring
these differences and continuing to consider all adult students as virtually the same will likely
result in continuing low retention rates for this population. As the United States emerges from
perilous economic times and strives to reach the President’s education goals, every student,
regardless of age or life situation, must have the best chance possible for degree completion.
11
One Size Does Not Fit All: Adult Students’ Different Experiences, Sources of Support,
and Persistence in College
Although enrollment of adults over the age of 22 is projected to increase up to 20% by
2016 (Eduventures, 2008), enrollment does not always result in degree attainment. National
Center for Education Statistics (NCES) records indicate that less than half of all students enrolled
in a 4-year bachelor’s program will earn a degree (Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, 2009). For
community colleges, which enroll a full 40% of degree-seeking students (Morris, 2005), the
retention rate was as low as 25% (Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, 2009). In Milam’s (2009)
study of nontraditional students, degree-attainment rates were very low: 28.1% of full-time and
5% of part-time nontraditional students had earned an associate’s or bachelor’s degree after 6
years of study.
Research on the factors influencing retention of adult learners in postsecondary degree
programs has focused on academic preparation and competence, lifestyle deterrents (such as lack
of time and money), institutional deterrents (such as inconvenient class times and office hours),
and, to a lesser extent, psychosocial issues such as self-esteem and goal clarity. The influence of
psychosocial issues on retention has been studied primarily through individual interviews with
small numbers of participants, so the extent to which these issues influence degree attainment is
largely unknown.
Another area of inquiry that has been noticeably neglected is the relationship between
age at enrollment and retention. Most definitions of “nontraditional student” or “adult learner”
place every learner over the age of 22 in one demographic category. Assuming all adult learners
are similar is theoretically risky when considering psychosocial experiences, because life span
theorists such as Erikson (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007), Levinson (Kittrell, 1998),
12
and Sheehy (1995) have identified sequential and developmentally unique periods of life
throughout adulthood.
The purpose of this study was to gather demographic information about adult students at
a variety of institutions across the United States, to understand adult students’ experience of
psychosocial issues, and to determine the sources of support they find helpful in coping with the
demands of attending college and completing a degree. dealing with issues that arise as a result
of returning to school.
The report begins with a review of germinal and current research about adult student
college retention and life span development theories, including descriptions of generational
cohorts. The guiding research questions are outlined in the Purpose section. The Method section
includes a description of the population, the sample, and data collection procedures, and the
Adult Student College Retention Scale (ASCRS) used to collect data,.
The Results section includes descriptions of selected demographic characteristics of the
sample members, responses of the entire sample to the ASCRS items, and results of statistical
tests used to determine whether the null hypothesis for each research question can be rejected.
A discussion of the results follows and includes observations about each research
question and how the results fit within the context of other published literature. Conclusions
about combinations of results are drawn, and the report concludes with a discussion of
implications for adult students , educational institutions, employers, and government
policymakers.and leaders in higher education and business.
13
Background
Theories of Adult Student Retention
For many years, researchers sought to identify the factors that resulted in the highest
possible retention rates for traditional-age college students. Tinto’s (1993) student integration
model is probably the best known model and was frequently used in subsequent research.
However, Bean and Metzner (1985) asserted that Tinto’s model could not be used to understand
the attrition of nontraditional students. They based their assertion on research results indicating
adult learners did not seek satisfaction of socialization needs through educational outlets, a main
component of Tinto’s theory. Instead, Bean and Metzner’s model depicted relationships among
background and defining variables (demographics), academic variables, and environmental
variables (personal finances, work hours) that elicited academic and psychological outcomes
(such as stress or goal commitment), which led to students’ decisions to remain in school or drop
out.
Bean and Metzner’s work followed Cross’s (1981) groundbreaking research. Although
Cross’s Chain of Response (COR) model focused on factors that positively influence adults to
participate in continuing education, she also identified a “barriers” factor that has been of
particular interest to researchers. Barriers are categorized as situational (related to practical
considerations such as loss of job or lack of transportation), institutional (inconvenient class
schedule or office hours, unavailability of faculty members), and dispositional (low self-esteem,
failure to adopt the role of “learner”). Although only a small percentage of participants reported
dispositional factors, Fogerson (2001) reported Cross thought the percentage was artificially low,
a product of erroneous sampling methodology and response bias. Participants may have reported
14
situational factors (such as lack of time or child care) because they were more socially acceptable
than dispositional factors like fear of failure or feelings of incompetence.
Attrition factors related to psychosocial needs were identified by other researchers, but
the constructs were not described consistently across studies. In reviewing anecdotal
experiences, MacKinnon-Slaney (1994) identified psychosocial barriers to retention in a
category labeled personal issues that included self-awareness, clarity of goals, and mastery of
life transitions. Park and Choi (2009) studied adults in a particular online class and found their
persistence was influenced by external factors including family and organizational support, and
internal motivational factors such as relevance and satisfaction. Using a case study design,
Müller (2008) found that the primary barrier to retention of adult women in an online academic
program was related to multiple responsibilities arising from their various life roles. Feelings of
anxiety, frustration, and isolation constituted another barrier for these women. Other researchers
investigated the importance of adults expanding their self-identities to include the role of learner
(Gallacher, Crossan, Field, & Merrill, 2002; Kasworm, 2008). All of these studies used small
samples and focused on phenomena with limited boundaries, or were tentative conclusions
synthesized from the literature. None of the findings have been tested for rigor using a largescale quantitative design.
One large-scale quantitative study similar to the one proposed here was undertaken by
Darkenwald and Valentine (1985). However, they surveyed respondents age 16 years and older
to analyze the obstacles that influenced their choice not to participate in continuing education of
any kind. Although the six factors they identified included two within the psychosocial realm
(personal problems and lack of confidence), it may be inaccurate to extrapolate the results to
adults age 23 and older who are already enrolled in a course of study.
15
Lifespan Theories and Generational Influences
Although many theorists have studied multiple aspects of development for the 18- to 22year-old student, a smaller number have conjectured that psychosocial development continues
into the adult years. Erikson presented one of the first and most well-known theories about
development over the lifespan (Torres, Howard-Hamilton, & Cooper, 2003) and coined the term
psychosocial. The names of Erikson’s eight stages of development reflect the positive or
negative outcome of the “crisis” experienced in the stage (Merriam et al., 2007). Although
Erikson did not attach approximate age ranges to the stages, three of the stages occur in
adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation, Generativity vs. Self-Absorption, and Integrity vs. Despair.
Erikson suggested that adults may return to earlier stages to re-resolve conflicts in different ways
or more completely (Merriam et al., 2003). This idea may apply for adults returning to school
and reestablishing the student role as part of their identity.
Levinson divided the developmental tasks of adulthood into sequences of stable periods,
during which life structures are consolidated and associated goals and values are pursued, and
transitional periods, during which previous life structures are abandoned and new structures
adopted as adults become more individuated and self-expressed (Wheeler-Scruggs, 2008). These
sequences are grouped into four eras, three of which occur in adulthood: Early Adulthood (ages
17–45), Middle Adulthood (ages 40–65), and Late Adulthood (ages 60–death). Developmental
tasks range from establishing tentative identity as an adult to questioning all goals, values, and
choices at midlife, to reflecting on achievements and regrets (Kittrell, 1998). Sheehy’s (1995)
description of women’s development in adulthood outlined some of the same passages as those
reflected in Levinson’s theory.
16
Membership in a generational cohort may also affect the kinds of issues experienced
when reentering an educational environment. Research on generational cohorts has described
how adults from different generations hold consistent sets of values and priorities
(Kupperschmidt, 2000); these values and priorities could influence how adults navigate the
psychosocial challenges present throughout life. Howe and Strauss (1991) defined a generation
as “a cohort-group whose length approximates the spans of a phase of life and whose boundaries
are fixed by a peer personality” (p. 60). Each generation moves through four different periods:
Youth (age 0–21) acquire values, Rising Adults (age 22–43) serve institutions and test values,
Midlifers (age 44–65) provide leadership and direction, and Elders (66–87) mentor and pass
down values (Howe & Strauss, 1991).
Researchers commonly use Howe & Strauss’s definitions for the five current generations,
which are based on their birth years: Veterans (or GIs), born 1901 to 1924; Silents, born 1925 to
1942; Baby Boomers, born 1943 to 1960; Generation X, born 1961 to 1981; and Millennials,
whose birth years began in 1982. There are at least three generations currently present in
classrooms. At the time of this research, Baby Boomers are in the Midlifer phase of life (with
just a few in the Elder phase), Gen X members are Midlifers and Rising Adults, and Millennials
are Rising Adults.
Each generation currently involved in degree-seeking programs is personified by certain
sets of “values, attitudes, preferences, and behaviors” (Kupperschmidt, 2000, p. 66). Baby
Boomers are intensely competitive and have a very strong work ethic (Delahoyde, 2009),
whereas members of Gen X value independent problem solving and sufficient time for leisure
activities (Walker et al., 2009). Millennials have only been considered adult learners since 2005,
and are characterized as self-reliant, questioning, linear thinkers who believe respect must be
17
earned, not automatically granted (Walker et al., 2009). These generational profiles have been
used as a framework for investigating the learning styles and classroom activity preferences
common to each generation (Coates, 2007; Delahoyde, 2009; Walker et al., 2006). However,
Hansman and McAtee (2009) raised concerns about research focused on generational differences
in the educational milieu. They noted that some writing seemed to be based on anecdotal
observations instead of empirical research, and other observations seemed to ignore differences
in race, gender, and socioeconomic level. Their call for more rigorous research about
generational differences in adult education may be partly answered by the study.
Given the amount of research supporting adult development and generational cohort
theories, it is remarkable that very few studies of adult student retention have considered that
retention factors, particularly psychosocial factors, might be influenced by the adult’s
generational cohort affiliation or phase of life. One exception was Darkenwald and Valentine’s
(1985) study, which identified two psychosocial factors, personal problems and lack of
confidence, in a factor analysis of deterrents to participation in adult education. Attempting to
correlate the factors with demographic descriptors, they found several “consistent, logical
patterns” (p. 185). A strong positive correlation existed between age and lack of confidence and
a strong negative correlation existed between previous education and lack of confidence. A
negative correlation was also found between personal problems (e.g., trouble with childcare or
personal health) and age.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to examine the extent to which adult learners experienced
specific psychosocial issues, the influence of the issues on their decision to continue their
education, and the types of support they found useful in resolving these issues. Measurements
18
were made of any variance that existed between generational cohort affiliation and the
psychosocial issues experienced, the potential influence of the issues on decision to continue
taking classes, and the effectiveness and importance of sources of personal support. Variance
that existed between effectiveness of sources of support and decision to continue education was
also measured. Because age (and thus generational cohort) may also be associated with extent of
prior educational experience, the relationship between prior educational experience and the
experience of psychosocial issues was also investigated. The research questions and hypotheses
were as follows (see Figure 1):
RQ1: How, if at all, do psychosocial issues experienced by adult learners vary based on
membership in a generational cohort?
H1A—Extent of experience of psychosocial issues differs significantly by generational
cohort membership.
RQ2: What relationship, if any, exists between past educational experience and
psychosocial issues experienced as an adult learner?
H2A—Extent of psychosocial issues experienced differs significantly by highest degree
previously earned.
H2C—Extent of psychosocial issues experienced differs significantly by time elapsed
since last enrollment in a degree program.
RQ3: What relationship exists between the experience of psychosocial issues and an
adult learner's decision to continue or discontinue their education?
H3A—Adult learners’ decision to continue taking classes varies significantly by the
extent of psychosocial issues experienced.
19
RQ4: How, if at all, do adult learners' perceptions of the effectiveness of sources of
support vary based on membership in a generational cohort?
H4A—Perceptions of the effectiveness of sources of support differ significantly by
generational cohort membership.
RQ5: How, if at all, does the decision to continue in college vary based on preferred
sources of support?
H5A—Adult learners’ decision to continue their college education differs significantly by
their preferred sources of support.
Figure 1. Model of research questions for the study.
Method
Population
The population for the study consisted of adults over the age of 22 who were enrolled in
degree programs at institutions across the United States. Because the study focused on
20
psychosocial issues experienced by adult students, the population also included adults who had
been enrolled in a degree program within the last 12 months who would still have recent
memories of their experiences with psychosocial issues.
Sample
Respondents were recruited through two different methods. The first sampling frame
included panelists obtained from Zoomerang Online Sample, a service provided by Zoomerang,
a MarketTools company (MarketTools, 2011c). Zoomerang Online Sample has provided
panelists to some of the largest companies that conduct consumer research, including Johnson &
Johnson and the Los Angeles County Office of Education (MarketTools, 2011c). Zoomerang
Online Sample is powered by TrueSample, a comprehensive technology designed to ensure
survey respondents are “real, unique, and engaged” (MarketTools, Inc., 2011a, para. 1).
For the second sampling method, university leaders across the country were recruited to
assist in distributing the data collection instrument to adult students enrolled at their institutions.
Nine institutions chose to participate directly in the study. A total of 7,280 participants gave
consent to complete the survey. After 2,834 responses were deleted because they did not pass the
screening criteria or were incomplete, there were 4,446 usable surveys.
Data collection
Adult Student College Retention Scale (ASCRS). A new data collection instrument was
developed to measure adult students’ perceptions of their experience of psychosocial issues and
the effectiveness of certain types of personal support related to their academic work. Items for
the ASCRS were developed after a thorough review of the literature and presented to a panel of
21
subject matter experts (SME’s) for review. Based on their narrative comments and the overall
content validity ratio of each item (Lawshe, 1975), a final instrument was developed.
After SME validation, the instrument included demographic questions, three questions
about 26 different psychosocial issues (78 questions total), and 18 items related to sources of
personal support. A pilot study was performed to test the validity and reliability of the first
iteration of the ASCRS, and a factor analysis yielded a five-factor solution for survey items
measuring psychosocial issues experienced by adult students. The five identified factors were
Intrusion in Routine, Academic Uncertainty, Lack of Support from Family/Friends, Lack of
Support from Work Colleagues, and Uncertain Value of Present Knowledge. After items with
low factor loading and/or low mean responses were deleted, combined with another item, or
reworded, the final scale contained 14 questions about demographic status, 32 items about 16
psychosocial issues, 26 items about 13 sources of support, 1 question about intent to continue
taking classes, and 3 open-ended questions.
Main study data collection. Data were collected through Zoomerang Online panel and by
individual institutions during April and May of 2011. All potential respondents received an email
containing a hyperlink to the location of the instrument on the Zoomerang.com website. The first
screen contained an informed consent statement that respondents were asked to read. Only
respondents who proactively gave Informed Consent were given access to the data collection
instrument. Screening questions included at the beginning of each survey filtered out potential
respondents who did not meet the population criteria: at least 23 years old, currently enrolled in a
degree-granting program or enrolled within the past year, and not enrolled in the institution from
which pilot study respondents were recruited. Respondents who were screened out were thanked
for their time and offered access to the study’s final report.
22
Analyses conducted on the survey data include descriptive statistics (frequency
distributions and measures of central tendency) and inferential statistics (e.g., chi-square and
other pertinent nonparametric tests appropriate to categorical and ordinal data). The units of
analysis for all data are individual adult students.
Results
Completed surveys were received from 4,446 survey respondents. According to Mugo
(n.d.), factors that influence the sample size selection include funding, the nature of the
population, the nature of the variables, the nature of the analysis, the precision needed, the
variance expected, and the number of operations to be performed. When the available population
is plus or minus 500, a common approach is to sample 50%. When the available population is
plus or minus 1,500, sampling 20% is appropriate, and when N is around 5,000, 400 is an
appropriate sample size. Given the more than 8 million adult learners in the United States
(NCES, 2010), a sample of 4,446 responses can yield results with a confidence level of 99% and
a confidence interval of 2% (RaoSoft, 2011).
Personal Demographics
The respondents’ year of birth was used to determine their membership in a generational
cohort. Members of Gen X and Millennial cohorts constituted 87% of the total sample (Gen X =
49%; Millennial = 38%); fewer members of the Baby Boomer (13%) and Silent (0.4%) cohorts
were represented (see Figure 2). Because of the small number of participants from the Silent
generation, further data about the group were not reported.
23
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Silent
(before 1942)
Baby Boomer (1942 1959)
Generation X (1960 1980)
Millenial
(1981 - 2011)
Figure 2. Respondents by generational cohort.
The respondents to the study were skewed in gender. Almost three quarters of the
respondents (72%) were female (see Figure 3). According to NCES (2010) data for 2009, 61% of
college students over the age of 24 were women, so the results of this study may not be
generalizable to other segments of the adult college student population.
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Male
Female
Figure 3. Respondents by gender.
Ten percent of respondents identified as Hispanic or Latino (see Figure 4), and the
majority of respondents identified as either White (75%) or Black/African American (14%), as
indicated in Figure 5.
24
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Hispanic or Latino
Not Hispanic or Latino
Figure 4. Respondents by ethnicity.
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
75%
14%
5%
1%
5%
Other
American
Indian or
Alaska Native
Asian
0%
Black or
African
American
Native
Hawaiian or
Other Pacific
Islander
White
Figure 5. Respondents by race.
Figure 6 displays the marital status of respondents. When describing their marital status,
equal percentages of respondents reported being single and married (42%). Ten percent reported
that they were divorced, 2% were separated, 1% were widowed, and 3% indicated some other
status.
25
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
Other
Single
Married
Separated
Divorced
Widowed
Figure 6. Respondents by marital status.
Although just under half of the respondents were married, the sample skewed toward
reporting they had no children (55%) living at home who were financially dependent upon them.
Thirty-five percent reported having one or two children, 9% reported three or four children, and
1% of the sample reported more than four children were living at home and financially
dependent upon them. Figure 7 shows these data.
60%
55%
50%
40%
35%
30%
20%
9%
10%
1%
0%
0 Children
1-2 Children
3-4 Children
> 4 Children
Figure 7. Respondents by number of financially dependent children still living at home.
Employment Demographics
When asked about employment status, only 40% of the sample reported being employed
full-time (see Figure 8). More respondents were unemployed (28%) than working part-time
26
(23%), 2% were retired, and 7% reported some other employment situation. The relatively high
percentage of unemployed respondents may have affected responses to survey items related to
supervisors and work colleagues.
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Other
Unemployed
Retired
Working part time Working full time
Figure 8. Respondents by employment status.
Education Demographics
Respondents represented more than 1,300 different postsecondary institutions across the
United States. Figure 9 indicates the number and type of institutions represented. Public
technical or community colleges were most frequently represented (39%), followed by public 4year colleges or universities (25%). Eighteen percent of the represented institutions were private
4-year colleges and universities, and each other institution type accounted for less than 10% of
the total institutions represented.
27
1%
6%
Public Community or
technical college
3%
Public 4-year college or
university
7%
39%
Private 4-year college or
university
For-profit 2-year institution
18%
For-profit 4-year institution
Other
25%
Private Community or
technical college
Figure 9. Institutions represented by study participants.
The percentage of respondents enrolled at each type of institution paralleled the
percentages of institutions represented, as shown in Figure 10. Thirty-five percent of respondents
were enrolled at public community or technical colleges, 31% were enrolled at public 4-year
colleges or universities, 13% at private 4-year colleges or universities, and 11% at for-profit 4year institutions. Respondent enrollment at other type of institutions was less than 5%.
28
3% 1%
Public Community or
technical college
4%
Public 4-year college or
university
11%
Private 4-year college or
university
35%
For-profit 4-year
institution
13%
For-profit 2-year
institution
Other
31%
Private Community or
technical college
Figure 10. Respondents’ institutional affiliations.
Over 80% of respondents reported being enrolled in either an associate’s (44%) or
bachelor’s (41%) degree program (see Figure 11). Respondents enrolled in a master’s or doctoral
degree program constituted only 11% and 4%, respectively, of the sample.
50%
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
Associate's
Bachelor's
Master's
Doctoral
Figure 11. Respondents by level of degree program.
Only 15% of respondents reported no previous college experience, as seen in Figure 12.
Most respondents (44%) had taken some college classes, whereas 18% held an associate’s
29
degree, 18% held a bachelor’s degree, 4% held a master’s degree, and less than 1% had already
earned a doctorate.
50%
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
No previous
college
experience
Some college
classes
Associate's
degree
Bachelor's
degree
Master's degree Doctoral degree
Figure 12. Respondents by previous college experience.
Figure 13 depicts the time lapse between each respondent’s last enrollment in a degree
program and their current enrollment. The largest group of respondents (29%) reported being out
of school for more than 10 years. Nineteen percent reported that 5 to 10 years had elapsed since
their last enrollment, 22% reported that 2 to 5 years had elapsed since their last enrollment, and
10% reported that 1 to 2 years had elapsed since their last enrollment. For the remainder of the
sample, 17% reported being out of school for one year or less, and 3% reported no break
between their current enrollment and their previous enrollment.
30
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
0
One year or Between 1- Between 2- Between 5- More than
less
2 years
5 years
10 years
10 years
Figure 13. Time elapsed since respondents’ previous degree enrollment.
Descriptive Results for Study Variables
The main part of the Adult Student College Retention Scale contains multiple items
describing psychosocial issues that students might experience related to their educational
journey; items related to the sources of personal, work-related, and school-related support that
may be available to them; and one item that asks about the respondent’s likelihood to continue
taking college classes. Descriptive statistics illustrate how the entire sample of participants
responded to each item.
Responses to items about psychosocial issues. Two questions were asked about each
psychosocial issue described on the ASCRS: “To what extent have you experienced this issue?”
and “How might this issue influence your decision to continue or discontinue taking college
classes?” A Likert-type scale was used to record responses. For data analysis, the five possible
responses were collapsed into two categories, as shown in Table 1.
31
Table 1
Response Scales and Collapsed Scales for Survey Items About Psychosocial Issues
How might the issue listed above
To what EXTENT did you experience
INFLUENCE YOUR DECISION TO
the issue described above?
CONTINUE OR DISCONTINUE taking
college classes?
Survey Response
Survey Response
Scale
Collapsed Scale Scale
Collapsed Scale
1 -- No influence at
1—No influence at
1—Not at all, A
1—Not at all
all
all, A little
slight extent
2—A slight extent
2—A little influence influence
3—Some extent
3—Some influence
2— Some
2— Some
4—A moderate
extent, A
4—Moderate
influence, Moderate
extent
moderate extent, influence
influence, Major
An extreme
5—An extreme
influence
extent
extent
5—Major influence
I never experienced
the issue described
above*
*Respondents who never experienced the issue were not included in data analysis.
Table 2 displays the response patterns for the two questions and the percentage point
differences for each issue. Almost three quarters of the participants (71.3%) indicated they
experienced anxiety or stress about money spent on school-related expenses at least some of the
time, and 40.8% indicated the issue might at least somewhat influence their decision to continue
taking classes.
The second most frequently experienced issue was anxiety about not spending enough
time with friends and loved ones (58.5%); it was also the second most influential issue (29.2%).
Approximately half of the sample experienced the next two issues: concern about having the
intellectual ability to complete schoolwork (51.5%) and stress about the extent to which classes
interfered with their normal routine (49.1%). Around 25% of respondents thought experiencing
these issues might influence their decision to continue (27.1% and 24.7%, respectively).
32
Another concern about academic competence ranked fifth: 42% of respondents feared
that they must earn degrees to prove their competence, although only 25.3% thought it might
somewhat influence their decision to continue. Just over 4 in 10 participants (40.4%) felt
resentful about doing schoolwork instead of something more interesting, and fewer than 2 in 10
(18.8%) thought this might influence their decision to continue. The remaining 10 issues were
experienced by less than 40% of the sample to some extent, and fewer than 3 in 10 respondents
indicated that the issue might influence their decision to continue or discontinue classes.
For each psychosocial issue, participants more frequently reported experiencing the issue
(“Some extent” on the scale) than thinking the issue might influence (at least “Some influence”
on the scale) their decision about continuing classes. Table 2 shows a comparison of the
“experience” and “influence” responses for each psychosocial issue, along with the difference in
percentage points between the two measurements. The differences between “experience” and
“influence” ranged from 7 percentage points to more than 30.
33
Table 2
Percentage of Respondents Who Experienced Each Issue to at Least Some Extent, and
Percentage Who Thought the Issue Might Have at Least Some Influence on Their Decision to
Continue Taking Classes, Ranked by Percentage Point Differences
Psychosocial issue
Extent
Influence
Difference
(rank order,
largest to
smallest)
Experiencing anxiety/stress about money spent on school-related
expenses
71.3%
40.8%
30.4
Feeling anxious about not spending enough time with friends and
loved ones
58.5%
29.2%
29.2
Experiencing stress while taking classes because they interfered
with my normal routine
49.1%
24.7%
24.4
Worrying about my intellectual ability to successfully complete
schoolwork
51.5%
27.1%
24.3
Feeling resentment about having to do schoolwork instead of
doing something more interesting
40.4%
18.8%
21.6
Feeling unable to develop collaborative relationships with other
students
35.0%
15.3%
19.7
Feeling that my practical experience is not valued in the academic
world
38.7%
20.0%
18.7
Feeling fearful that I must earn a degree to prove to others I am
competent
42.0%
25.3%
16.7
Not spending enough time on work related activities
39.4%
23.9%
15.5
Feeling unclear about my goal for returning to school
37.8%
24.0%
13.7
Feeling I must earn a degree to meet the needs of others, as
opposed to earning a degree for my own needs
32.1%
19.3%
12.8
34
Feeling angry or depressed about feedback given by an instructor
on my work
27.0%
14.6%
12.4
Thinking that being back in school was too big of a risk for me to
take
30.2%
17.8%
12.4
Lack of support or active discouragement from friends & loved
ones
31.0%
20.0%
11.0
Resisting new information presented in classes because it
conflicted with what I already knew
19.3%
11.1%
8.2
Responses to items about sources of support. Descriptive statistics reflect the responses
to two questions asked about sources of support: “How effective is the source of support?” and
“How important is the source of support” (whether you experienced it or not)? The questions
measured two separate qualities: a source of support might be effective even though it is not
particularly important, and an important source of support might not be particularly effective.
The sources of support were grouped into three categories: those that were personal, school
related, and work related. A Likert-type scale was used to record responses. For data analysis,
the five possible responses were collapsed into two categories, as shown in Table 3.
35
Table 3
Response Scales and Collapsed Scales for Survey Items About Sources of Support
How effective is this source of support?
How important is this source of support (whether
you experienced it or not)?
Survey Response Scale
Collapsed Scale
Survey Response Scale
1—Very ineffective
1—Very ineffective,
Somewhat ineffective,
Neither effective nor
ineffective
1—Very unimportant
2—Somewhat
ineffective
3—Neither effective
nor ineffective
4—Somewhat effective
2— Somewhat
effective, Very
effective
5—Very effective
2—Somewhat
unimportant
3—Neither important nor
unimportant
4—Somewhat important
Collapsed Scale
1—No influence at
all, A little influence
2—Some influence,
Moderate influence,
Major influence
5—Very important
6—I have not
experienced this source
of support*
*Respondents who never experienced the issue were not included in data analysis.
In response to the first question about effectiveness, respondents could choose the answer
“I have not experienced this type of support.” These respondents were excluded when tabulating
results for the effectiveness of support sources so that ratings of effectiveness came only from
those who had experienced the support.
Table 4 displays the cumulative percentage of respondents who rated each source of
support as at least somewhat effective and the percentage who rated each source as at least
somewhat important. More than three out of four respondents (76%) said their spouse or
significant other was at least somewhat important as a source of support, and almost three out of
four respondents (72%) rated their faculty members similarly effective. Eleven percentage points
separated faculty members from the next highest rating of effectiveness, for academic counselors
36
(61%). Four other sources of support were rated as at least somewhat effective by at least 50% of
the respondents: children (56%), financial aid counselors (55%), primary supervisors (53%), and
personal friends also taking classes (52%). Less than half of the participants rated the remaining
six sources of support as at least somewhat effective.
For every source of support, respondents were more likely to rate it as effective than as
important. Once again, spouses or significant others (78%) and faculty members (76%) were
rated as at least somewhat effective more often than other sources of support. Personal friends
also taking college classes were cited as effective by 68% of respondents, followed closely by
children (67%), academic counselors (64%), and primary supervisors (61%). Four other sources
of support were rated as effective by more than half the respondents: financial aid counselors
(59%), staff from academic department offices (56%), coworkers (53%), and other students in
the same classes (50%).
37
Table 4
Percentage of Respondents Who Rated Each Source of Support as at Least Somewhat
Effective and at Least Somewhat Important, and Percentage Point Differences Between the Two
Ratings (Ranked by Importance)
At least
somewhat
effective
% who have not
experienced
support from this
source
Source of support
Type of
Support
At least
somewhat
important
Spouse or significant
other
Personal
76%
78%
21%
Faculty members
School
72%
76%
6%
Academic counselor
School
61%
64%
13%
Personal
56%
67%
40%
Financial aid counselor
School
55%
59%
22%
Your primary supervisor
Work
53%
61%
14%
Personal friends also
taking college classes
Personal
52%
68%
15%
Staff from academic
department office
School
45%
56%
15%
Other students in my
classes who are not
personal friends or coworkers
School
39%
50%
5%
Co-workers at your
organization
Work
39%
53%
15%
Personal
38%
47%
9%
Children
Personal friends not
38
taking college classes
Staff from Dean of
Students or Student
Activities Office
School
38%
48%
20%
Staff from NonTraditional or Adult
Student Services Office
School
35%
45%
20%
Responses to item about likelihood of continuing to take classes. One item on the
ACSRS asked about how likely the respondent was to continue taking classes. Results
indicated that almost 6 in 10 participants rated themselves extremely likely to continue
classes (see Figure 14). Adding those who said they were likely to continue classes
reflected that 75% felt strongly that they would continue their enrollment. Only 15% of
respondents said they were unlikely to or definitely would not continue taking classes.
Extremely likely that I will
Likely that I will
58%
Somewhat likely that I will
17% 11%5%10%
Unlikely that I will
Definitely will not
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
Figure 14. Respondents by likelihood of continuing.
Beyond reporting descriptive data for the entire sample’s responses to items related to the
main study variables, additional statistical tests were used to answer each of the study’s research
questions. The results of those tests are presented in the next section. Given the number of
39
variables in the dataset and the large sample size, a low significance level (p < .01) was chosen.
Results are presented in separate tables based on variable clusters. The strength of the
relationships are determined as follows: weak (.01–.29), moderate (.30–.69), and strong (.70 –
1.00).
Research Question 1: Psychosocial Issues and Generational Cohort
The first research question examined how adult learners' psychosocial issues varied based
on membership in various generational cohorts. In separate questions, participants were asked to
describe the extent to which they experienced each issue, and the influence the issue might have
on their decision to continue taking classes. Chi-square tests compared the expected and
observed distributions, whereas analysis of variance (ANOVA) compared the mean scores of
Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Millennials.
Differences in the extent to which issues were experienced. As shown in Table 5, both
statistical tests indicated there were highly significant differences (p ≤ .01) in the extent
to which Baby Boomer, Generation X, and Millennial adult learners reported
experiencing 15 of the 16 psychosocial issues. The results support rejecting the null
hypothesis for the first research question that adult students’ experience of psychosocial
issues does not vary based on membership in a generational cohort.
40
Table 5
Statistical Comparison of Adult Learners’ Experience of Psychosocial Issues by
Generational Cohort
Psychosocial issue
Percentage of each
generational cohort
experiencing the issue to at
least some extent
2
F
p
Baby
Gen X
Boomer
Millennial
Feeling anxious about not
spending enough time with
friends and loved ones
44.0%
58.1%
63.9%
70.26
23.78
.00
Not spending enough time
on work related activities
29.0%
37.3%
46.2%
67.71
22.90
.00
Lack of support or active
discouragement from
friends & loved ones
22.0%
30.7%
34.3%
31.55
10.58
.00
Lack of support or active
discouragement from my
primary supervisor and/or
other employees at work
13.1%
21.0%
25.7%
42.19
14.19
.00
Experiencing anxiety/stress
about money spent on
60.1%
school-related expenses
69.8%
77.1%
73.02
24.73
.00
Worrying about my
intellectual ability to
successfully complete
schoolwork
46.9%
51.3%
53.5%
13.63
4.55
.00
Feeling unclear about my
29.2%
goal for returning to school
36.0%
42.9%
41.12
13.82
.00
41
Feeling resentment about
having to do schoolwork
instead of doing something
more interesting
21.8%
37.0%
51.4%
178.1
3
61.84
.00
Thinking that being back in
school was too big of a risk 29.5%
for me to take
32.3%
27.6%
11.48
3.83
.01
Experiencing stress while
taking classes because they
interfered with my normal
routine
35.6%
51.4%
51.6%
62.78
21.21
.00
Feeling unable to develop
collaborative relationships
with other students
25.0%
33.1%
40.9%
52.98
17.86
.00
Feeling fearful that I must
earn a degree to prove to
others I am competent
27.7%
39.9%
50.0%
98.98
33.72
.00
Resisting new information
presented in classes
because it conflicted with
what I already knew
13.4%
19.2%
21.6%
20.41
6.83
.00
Feeling angry or depressed
about feedback given by an 17.2%
instructor on my work
25.4%
32.7%
61.57
20.80
.00
Feeling I must earn a
degree to meet the needs of
others, as opposed to
18.2%
earning a degree for my
own needs
29.7%
40.2%
108.3
6
37.00
.00
Feeling that my practical
experience is not valued in
the academic world
38.3%
40.6%
6.82
2.27
.08
35.8%
42
Post hoc tests were conducted for all items that yielded significant p values to determine
where significant differences existed between generational cohorts (Urdan, 2010). Results of
Tukey HSD tests for the 10 issues experienced by at least 40% of a generational cohort are
reported in Table 6. Tables showing ANOVA results and complete post hoc comparisons can be
found in Appendix A.
Table 6
Comparison of Adult Learners’ Mean Scores for Experience of Psychosocial Issues by
Generational Cohort
Psychosocial issue
Baby
Boomers
(n = 559)
Gen X
(n = 2,140)
Millennials
(n = 1,664)
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
Feeling anxious about not spending
enough time with friends and loved
ones
1.44
0.50
1.58
0.49
1.64
0.48
Not spending enough time on work
related activities
1.29
0.45
1.37
0.48
1.46
0.50
Experiencing anxiety/stress about
money spent on school-related
expenses
1.60
0.49
1.70
0.46
1.77
0.42
Worrying about my intellectual
ability to successfully complete
schoolwork
1.47
0.50
1.51
0.50
1.53
0.50
Feeling unclear about my goal for
returning to school
1.29
0.45
1.36
0.48
1.43
0.50
Feeling resentment about having to
do schoolwork instead of doing
1.22
0.41
1.37
0.48
1.51
0.50
43
something more interesting
Experiencing stress while taking
classes because they interfered with
my normal routine
1.36
0.48
1.51
0.50
1.52
0.50
Feeling unable to develop
collaborative relationships with
other students
1.25
0.43
1.33
0.47
1.41
0.49
Feeling fearful that I must earn a
degree to prove to others I am
competent
1.28
0.45
1.40
0.49
1.50
0.50
Feeling I must earn a degree to meet
the needs of others, as opposed to
earning a degree for my own needs
1.18
0.39
1.30
0.46
1.40
0.49
Note. Means collapsed to a 2-point scale, with 1 = Not at all or A slight extent and 2 =
Some extent, A moderate extent, or An extreme extent.
As shown in Table 6, Millennials reported feeling significantly more anxiety about not
spending enough time with friends and loved ones than Baby Boomers (mean difference = .20, p
= .00). Gen Xers also experienced more anxiety about this issue than Baby Boomers (mean
difference =.14, p = .00).
The issue of not spending enough time on work-related activities also yielded significant
differences for generational cohorts. Millennials and Gen Xers were significantly more likely to
report anxiety about not spending enough time on work-related activities than Baby Boomers
(mean differences = .17 and .08, respectively; p = .00). Millennials were also significantly more
likely than Gen Xers (mean difference = .09, p = .00) to report concerns about insufficient time
for work.
Millennials were significantly more likely to report anxiety/stress about money spent on
school-related expenses than Baby Boomers (mean difference = .17, p = .00) and Gen Xers
44
(mean difference = .07, p = .00). Gen Xers were also significantly more likely than Baby
Boomers to report stress about this issue (mean difference = .10, p = .00).
Issues related to intellectual ability and goal clarity also showed unique results for
different generations. Millennials were significantly more likely than Baby Boomers to say they
worried about their intellectual ability to successfully complete schoolwork (mean difference =
.07, p = .03). Millennials (mean difference = .14, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference = .07,
p = .02) were significantly more likely than Baby Boomers to say they felt unclear about their
goal for returning to school.
Millennials were significantly more likely than Baby Boomers (mean difference = .30, p
= .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference = .14, p = .00) to say they felt resentment about having to
do schoolwork instead of doing something more interesting; Gen Xers were also significantly
more likely than Baby Boomers (mean difference = .15, p = .00) to report this issue. Both
younger generations were also significantly more likely than Baby Boomers to say they
experienced stress while taking classes because they interfered with their normal routine
(Millennials’ mean difference = .16, p = .00; Gen Xers’ mean difference = .16, p = .00).
Millennials (mean difference = .16, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference = .08, p =
.00) were significantly more likely than Baby Boomers to say they felt unable to develop
collaborative relationships with other students. In addition, Millennials were significantly more
likely than Gen Xers to report similar concerns (mean difference = .08, p = .00).
The same pattern was seen concerning the need to prove competence. Millennials (mean
difference = .12, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference = .22, p = .00) were significantly more
likely than Baby Boomers to report they felt they needed to earn a degree to prove to others that
45
they are competent. Millennials were also significantly more likely than Gen Xers (mean
difference = .10, p = .00) to report this concern.
Millennials (mean difference = .22, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference = .12, p =
.00) were significantly more likely than Baby Boomers to say they felt they needed to earn a
degree to meet the needs of others rather than to meet their own needs. Millennials (mean
difference = .10, p = .00) were also significantly more likely than Gen Xers to express these
concerns.
Differences in the extent to which psychosocial issues might influence the decision to
continue taking classes. Table 7 displays the frequency counts for each issue and the results of
chi-square and ANOVA tests. Results indicated that there were highly significant differences
between Baby Boomers, Generation Xers, and Millennials in their perceptions of how each
psychosocial issue might influence their decision to continue taking classes.
46
Table 7
Statistical Comparison of Adult Learners’ Perception of the Influence of Psychosocial
Issues on Decision to Continue, by Generational Cohort
Psychosocial issue
Percentage of each
generational cohort stating
the issue might have at least
some influence on their
decision to continue classes
Baby
Gen X Millennial
Boomer
Feeling anxious about not
spending enough time with friends
and loved ones
34.3%
46.2%
48.0%
32.04
10.75 0.00
Not spending enough time on
work related activities
29.8%
36.1%
43.6%
46.81
15.77 0.00
Lack of support or active
discouragement from friends &
loved ones
21.1%
32.6%
39.1%
59.97
20.28 0.00
Lack of support or active
discouragement from my primary
supervisor and/or other employees
at work
16.3%
24.0%
32.3%
58.83
19.91 0.00
Experiencing anxiety/stress about
money spent on school-related
expenses
56.6%
61.2%
68.2%
35.07
11.78 0.00
Worrying about my intellectual
ability to successfully complete
schoolwork
33.8%
43.4%
46.7%
33.39
11.21 0.00
Feeling unclear about my goal for
returning to school
31.0%
37.0%
46.4%
52.99
17.89 0.00
16.0%
28.6%
35.9%
81.22
27.59 0.00
Feeling resentment about having
2
F
p
47
to do schoolwork instead of doing
something more interesting
Thinking that being back in school
was too big of a risk for me to take
25.6%
31.0%
30.6%
6.95
2.32
Experiencing stress while taking
classes because they interfered
with my normal routine
29.0%
40.1%
41.2%
34.08
11.44 0.00
Feeling unable to develop
collaborative relationships with
other students
15.3%
24.8%
29.3%
39.69
13.35 0.00
Feeling fearful that I must earn a
degree to prove to others I am
competent
26.4%
39.6%
50.3%
101.63
34.74 0.00
Resisting new information
presented in classes because it
conflicted with what I already
knew
10.7%
18.3%
24.3%
46.96
15.84 0.00
Feeling angry or depressed about
feedback given by an instructor on
my work
14.7%
23.1%
29.2%
49.47
16.68 0.00
Feeling I must earn a degree to
meet the needs of others, as
opposed to earning a degree for
my own needs
17.0%
30.8%
41.5%
113.09
38.80 0.00
Feeling that my practical
experience is not valued in the
academic world
25.7%
33.0%
38.3%
31.21
10.48 0.00
0.07
48
Post hoc tests were conducted for all items that yielded significant p values to determine
where significant differences existed between generational cohorts. Results of Tukey HSD tests
for the eight issues experienced by at least 40% of a generational cohort are reported in Table 8.
Tables showing ANOVA results and complete post hoc comparisons can be found in Appendix
B.
Table 8
Comparison of Adult Learners’ Mean Scores for Influence of Psychosocial Issues on
Decision to Continue, by Generational Cohort
Psychosocial issue
Baby
Boomers
(n = 559)
M
SD
Gen X
(n = 2,140)
M
Millennials
(n = 1,664)
SD
M
SD
Feeling anxious about not spending enough
time with friends and loved ones
1.44
0.50 1.58 0.49
1.64
0.48
Not spending enough time on work related
activities
1.29
0.45 1.37 0.48
1.46
0.50
Experiencing anxiety/stress about money
spent on school-related expenses
1.60
0.49 1.70 0.46
1.77
0.42
Worrying about my intellectual ability to
successfully complete schoolwork
1.47
0.50 1.51 0.50
1.53
0.50
Feeling unclear about my goal for returning
to school
1.29
0.45 1.36 0.48
1.43
0.50
Experiencing stress while taking classes
because they interfered with my normal
routine
1.36
0.48 1.51 0.50
1.52
0.50
Feeling fearful that I must earn a degree to
prove to others I am competent
1.28
0.45 1.40 0.49
1.50
0.50
49
Feeling I must earn a degree to meet the
needs of others, as opposed to earning a
degree for my own needs
1.18
0.39 1.30 0.46
1.40
0.49
Note. Means collapsed to a 2-point scale, with 1 = No influence at all or A little influence
and 2 = Some influence, Moderate influence, or Major influence.
Similar patterns were seen for issues related to time spent with loved ones and time spent
on work-related activity. Millennials (mean difference = .14, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean
difference = .12, p = .00) were significantly more likely than Baby Boomers to say that feeling
anxious about not spending enough time with friends and loved ones might have at least some
influence on their decision to continue classes. For work-related activity, Millennials (mean
difference = .14, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference = .06, p = .04) were again significantly
more likely than Baby Boomers to say the issue might have at least some influence on their
decision to continue classes. The mean difference between Millennials and Gen Xers was also
significant for this issue (mean difference = .08, p = .00).
Millennials were significantly more likely than Gen Xers (mean difference = .07, p = .00)
and Baby Boomers (mean difference = .12, p = .00) to say that experiencing anxiety/stress about
money spent on school-related expenses might have at least some influence on their decision to
continue classes.
Millennials (mean difference = .13, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference = .1, p = .00)
were significantly more likely than Baby Boomers to say that worrying about their intellectual
ability to successfully complete schoolwork might have at least some influence on their decision
to continue classes.
50
Millennials were significantly more likely than Gen Xers (mean difference = .1, p = .00)
and Baby Boomers (mean difference = .15, p = .00) to say that feeling unclear about their goal
for returning to school might have at least some influence on their decision to continue classes.
Millennials and Gen Xers differed significantly from Baby Boomers on issues related to
the disruption of normal routine and proving competence to others. Millennials (mean difference
= .12, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference = .11, p = .00) were significantly more likely than
Baby Boomers to say that stress caused by classes interfering with their normal routine might
have at least some influence on their decision to continue classes. Millennials (mean difference =
.24, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference = .13, p = .00) were also significantly more likely
than Baby Boomers to say that feeling fearful about earning a degree to prove to others they are
competent might have at least some influence on their decision to continue classes. The mean
difference between Millennials and Gen Xers was also significant for this issue (mean difference
= .11, p = .00).
Millennials (mean difference = .25, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference = .14, p =
.00) were significantly more likely than Baby Boomers to say that feeling they must earn a
degree to meet the needs of others, as opposed to meeting their own needs, might have at least
some influence on their decision to continue classes. The mean difference between Millennials
and Gen Xers was also significant for this issue (mean difference = .11, p = .00).
Research Question 2: Psychosocial Issues and Past Educational Experience
Research Question 2 examined any relationship that existed between past educational
experience and psychosocial issues experienced as an adult learner. Respondents’ past
educational experience was measured two different ways. Respondents were asked to indicate
their past experience based on the highest level of education they had previously completed and
51
the length of time that had elapsed since their last enrollment in a degree program prior to their
current enrollment (computed in months and transformed to ranges).
Similar to Research Question 1, chi-square tests compared the expected and observed
distributions, whereas ANOVA compared the mean scores of students with no previous college
experience, some completed college classes, associate’s, and master’s degrees. Due to the low
number of respondents with doctoral degrees, they were excluded from the analysis. For each
measurement of past educational experience, the null hypothesis—that there is no difference in
the experience of psychosocial issues—can be rejected.
Extent of psychosocial issues by past educational experience. As indicated in Table 9,
the psychosocial issues experienced by adult learners differed significantly depending on
the extent of their past educational experience. Comparisons were made based on the
highest level of education students had previously completed, and highly significant
differences (p ≤ .01) were found for 9 of the 16 issues.
52
Table 9
Adult Learners Reporting the Extent of Psychosocial Issues Experienced by Past
Educational Experience
Percentage experiencing the issue
to at least some extent by previous educational
experience
2
Psychosocial issue
F
p
No previous
college
experience
Some
college
classes
Associate's
degree
Bachelor's
degree
Master's
degree
Feeling anxious about not
spending enough time with
friends and loved ones
57.4%
54.2%
65.4%
61.1%
66.0%
37.33
7.52
0.00
Not spending enough time on
work related activities
38.5%
35.0%
42.1%
43.7%
60.1%
59.40
12.03
0.00
Lack of support or active
discouragement from friends
& loved ones
31.3%
31.2%
33.5%
28.0%
32.4%
6.63
1.33
0.25
Lack of support or active
discouragement from my
primary supervisor and/or
other employees at work
21.6%
19.7%
24.1%
23.1%
29.3%
20.45
4.10
0.00
Experiencing anxiety/stress
about money spent on
school-related expenses
64.7%
70.4%
73.7%
74.9%
77.7%
27.07
5.44
0.00
Worrying about my
intellectual ability to
successfully complete
schoolwork
57.9%
52.7%
52.4%
43.9%
44.1%
34.02
6.85
0.00
Feeling unclear about my
goal for returning to school
38.8%
38.2%
40.3%
34.7%
37.8%
5.56
1.11
0.35
Feeling resentment about
having to do schoolwork
instead of doing something
36.4%
37.7%
46.3%
45.3%
44.7%
32.58
6.56
0.00
53
more interesting
Thinking that being back in
school was too big of a risk
for me to take
30.9%
31.1%
29.2%
27.8%
33.5%
6.46
1.29
0.26
Experiencing stress while
taking classes because they
interfered with my normal
routine
46.6%
48.8%
51.8%
49.5%
51.6%
4.51
0.90
0.48
Feeling unable to develop
collaborative relationships
with other students
31.8%
35.1%
38.5%
35.4%
31.9%
9.27
1.86
0.10
Feeling fearful that I must
earn a degree to prove to
others I am competent.
39.1%
44.3%
44.3%
36.1%
39.9%
19.36
3.88
0.00
Resisting new information
presented in classes because
it conflicted with what I
already knew
20.3%
17.4%
20.4%
19.8%
28.2%
20.32
4.08
0.00
Feeling angry or depressed
about feedback given by an
instructor on my work
27.3%
25.7%
27.7%
28.2%
35.6%
11.17
2.24
0.05
Feeling I must earn a degree
to meet the needs of others,
as opposed to earning a
degree for my own needs
29.9%
33.3%
35.7%
28.2%
30.9%
13.46
2.70
0.02
Feeling that my practical
experience is not valued in
the academic world
39.1%
39.8%
40.8%
33.8%
38.3%
15.09
3.02
0.01
Figure 15 displays the issues for which significant differences existed and 40% or more
of one subgroup experienced the issue to at least some extent. Respondents with master’s
degrees were most likely to experience anxiety about not spending enough time with a
spouse/significant other, not spending enough time on work, and school-related expenses.
54
Participants who had previously earned associate’s degrees most frequently reported feeling
resentment about doing schoolwork instead of something more interesting and feeling their
practical experience was not valued. Those with no previous college experience were most
frequently likely to report worrying about their intellectual ability. Respondents who had taken
some classes but not earned a degree were most likely to report feeling fearful about earning a
degree to prove their competence.
90.0%
80.0%
70.0%
60.0%
50.0%
40.0%
30.0%
20.0%
10.0%
0.0%
No previous college experience
Some college classes
Associate's degree
Bachelor's degree
Master's degree
Figure 15. Experience of psychosocial issues to some extent, by previous educational
experience.
Responses to the nine issues that varied significantly by past educational experience were
further analyzed using Tukey HSD post hoc testing. Table 10 displays the means for each
psychosocial issue, by previous educational attainment, in cases where at least 40% of one of the
subgroups involved in the significant difference had experienced the issue. Tables showing
ANOVA results and complete post hoc comparisons can be found in Appendix C.
55
Table 10
Comparison of Adult Learners’ Mean Scores for Experience of Psychosocial Issues by
Past Educational Experience
No previous
college
education (n
= 686)
Some
college
classes (n =
1,931)
Associate's
degree (n =
784)
Bachelor's
degree (n =
758)
Master's
degree (n =
188)
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
1.57
0.49
1.54
0.50
1.65
0.48
1.61
0.49
1.66
0.48
Not spending enough time on
1.38
work related activities
0.49
1.35
0.48
1.42
0.49
1.44
0.50
1.60
0.49
Experiencing anxiety/stress
about money spent on
school-related expenses
1.65
0.48
1.70
0.46
1.74
0.44
1.75
0.43
1.78
0.42
Worrying about my
intellectual ability to
successfully complete
schoolwork
1.58
0.49
1.53
0.50
1.52
0.50
1.44
0.50
1.44
0.50
Feeling resentment about
having to do schoolwork
instead of doing something
more interesting
1.36
0.48
1.31
0.46
1.29
0.46
1.28
0.45
1.34
0.47
Feeling fearful that I must
earn a degree to prove to
others I am competent
1.39
0.49
1.44
0.50
1.44
0.50
1.36
0.48
1.40
0.49
Feeling that my practical
experience is not valued in
the academic world
1.39
0.49
1.40
0.49
1.41
0.49
1.34
0.47
1.38
0.49
Psychosocial issue
Feeling anxious about not
spending enough time with
friends and loved ones
56
Note. Means collapsed to a 2-point scale, with 1 = Not at all or A slight extent and 2 =
Some extent, A moderate extent, or An extreme extent.
Respondents with associate's degrees (mean difference = .11, p = .00), bachelor's degrees
(mean difference = .07, p = .013), and master's degrees (mean difference = .12, p = .02) were
significantly more likely than those who had taken some college classes to experience feeling
anxious about not spending enough time with friends and loved ones to at least some extent.
Those with associate's degrees were also more likely to experience this issue than those with no
previous college experience (mean difference = .08, p = .02).
Respondents holding master’s degrees were significantly more likely to experience stress
from not spending enough time on work-related activities than those with bachelor’s degrees
(mean difference = .16, p = .00), associate’s degrees (mean difference = .18, p = .00), those with
some college classes (mean difference = .25, p = 00), and those with no previous college
experience (mean difference = .22, p = .00). Those with bachelor’s degrees (mean difference =
.09, p = .00) and associate’s degrees (mean difference = .07, p = .01) also reported experiencing
this issue more often than those who had taken some college classes.
Those with master’s (mean difference = .13, p = .01), bachelor’s (mean difference = .1, p
= .00), and associate’s (mean difference = .09, p = .00) degrees were more likely than those with
no previous college experience to report anxiety about money spent on school-related expenses.
Respondents with bachelor’s degrees were least likely to worry about their intellectual
ability to successfully complete schoolwork. Those with associate’s degrees (mean difference =
.09, p = .01), some college classes (mean difference = .09, p = .00), and no previous college
experience (mean difference = .14, p = .00) were more worried about this issue. A significant
57
difference also existed between those with a master’s degree and those with no college
experience, who were more likely to worry (mean difference = .14, p = .01).
Those with associate’s degrees reported feeling more resentment about having to do
schoolwork instead of doing something more interesting than those with some college classes
(mean difference = .09, p = .00) and those with no previous college experience (mean difference
= .1, p = .02). Respondents with bachelor’s degrees were also more likely to report this issue
than those with some college classes (mean difference = .08, p = .00) and those with no college
experience (mean difference = .09, p = .01).
Those with associate’s degrees (mean difference = .08, p = .02) and those with some
college classes (mean difference = .08, p = .00) were more likely than those with bachelor’s
degrees to feel fearful that they must earn a degree to prove their competence.
Those who had taken some college classes were more likely than those with bachelor’s
degrees to feel that their practical experience is not valued in the academic world (mean
difference = .06, p = .04).
Extent of psychosocial issues by time elapsed since last enrollment. A second factor
related to past educational experience is the amount of time that has elapsed since a student was
last enrolled before their current enrollment in a degree program. As indicated in Table 11,
highly significant differences (p ≤ .01) were seen in the experience of 13 of the 16 psychosocial
issues based on the time elapsed since past enrollment.
58
Table 11
Adult Learners Reporting the Extent of Psychosocial Issues Experienced by Elapsed
Time Since Last Enrollment
Percentage experiencing the issue to at least some
extent, by elapsed time since enrollment.
2
Psychosocial issue
F
p
0
1 mo–
1 yr
1–2
yrs
2–5
yrs
5–10
yrs
Over
10 yrs
Feeling anxious about
not spending enough
time with friends and
loved ones
50.8%
59.8%
62.0%
63.9%
58.4%
52.8%
35.08
7.06
.00
Not spending enough
time on work related
activities
36.2%
38.5%
43.3%
45.6%
39.4%
34.0%
35.18
7.08
.00
Lack of support or active
discouragement from
friends & loved ones
29.2%
30.0%
36.2%
35.0%
30.0%
27.0%
23.37
4.69
.00
Lack of support or active
discouragement from my
primary supervisor
and/or other employees
at work
20.8%
20.7%
25.8%
26.9%
22.1%
16.6%
40.03
8.07
.00
Experiencing
anxiety/stress about
money spent on schoolrelated expenses
70.0%
70.4%
74.0%
77.3%
74.0%
64.6%
49.64
10.03
.00
Worrying about my
intellectual ability to
successfully complete
schoolwork
44.6%
52.4%
51.7%
52.6%
49.3%
51.6%
4.72
0.94
.45
59
Feeling unclear about my
goal for returning to
school
33.1%
39.8%
41.3%
42.4%
36.7%
32.8%
27.44
5.52
.00
Feeling resentment about
having to do schoolwork
instead of doing
something more
interesting
40.8%
41.4%
44.6%
48.3%
42.7%
30.7%
80.98
16.48
.00
Thinking that being back
in school was too big of a 20.0%
risk for me to take
26.3%
31.6%
30.4%
29.4%
32.5%
15.80
3.17
.01
Experiencing stress while
taking classes because
44.6%
they interfered with my
normal routine
47.3%
53.4%
50.3%
50.9%
46.8%
9.81
1.96
.08
Feeling unable to
develop collaborative
relationships with other
students
32.3%
35.5%
40.8%
38.9%
35.0%
29.8%
29.01
5.83
.00
Feeling fearful that I
must earn a degree to
prove to others I am
competent
38.5%
42.0%
48.8%
46.7%
44.3%
34.4%
50.63
10.23
.00
Resisting new
information presented in
classes because it
conflicted with what I
already knew
17.7%
15.7%
22.7%
25.3%
17.9%
16.3%
41.18
8.30
.00
Feeling angry or
depressed about feedback
28.5%
given by an instructor on
my work
27.4%
31.1%
30.5%
28.0%
21.5%
30.47
6.13
.00
60
Feeling I must earn a
degree to meet the needs
of others, as opposed to
earning a degree for my
own needs
29.2%
32.5%
38.2%
39.2%
32.4%
24.0%
68.86
13.97
.00
Feeling that my practical
experiences is not valued
in the academic world
34.6%
37.6%
44.4%
41.3%
37.9%
36.3%
13.63
2.73
.02
Figure 16 displays the eight issues for which significant differences existed and 40% or
more of one subgroup experienced the issue to at least some extent. Responses approximated a
normal curve for each issue. Those who had been out of school for 1 to 2 years or 2 to 5 years
were always more likely to experience each issue than other groups. Participants who had no
enrollment lapse or who had been out of school for more than 10 years were always least likely
to experience the issue.
61
90.0%
80.0%
70.0%
60.0%
50.0%
40.0%
0
30.0%
1
20.0%
1
10.0%
2
.0%
Feeling
Not spending
anxious about enough time
not spending
on work
enough time
related
with friends
activities
and loved
ones
Experiencing
Feeling
Feeling
Feeling
Feeling
anxiety/stress unclear about resentment
unable to
fearful that I
about money my goal for about having
develop
must earn a
spent on
returning to
to do
collaborative degree to
school-related
school
schoolwork relationships
prove to
expenses
instead of
with other
others I am
doing
students
competent
something
more
interesting
Feeling that
my practical
experiences is
not valued in
the academic
world
Figure 16. Experience of psychosocial issues to some extent, by time elapsed since
previous enrollment.
Responses to the eight significant issues that were experienced by at least 40% of one of
the subgroups were further analyzed using Tukey HSD post hoc testing, as reflected in Table 12.
Tables showing ANOVA results and complete post hoc comparisons can be found in Appendix
D.
5
o
62
Table 12
Comparison of Means for Adult Learners’ Experience of Psychosocial Issues, by Time
Elapsed Since Last Enrollment
0
(n = 130)
1–12
(n = 764)
13–24
(n = 453)
25–60
(n = 951)
61–120
(n = 820)
>120
(n = 1,298)
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
Feeling anxious
about not spending
enough time with
friends and loved
ones
1.51
0.50
1.60
0.49
1.62
0.49
1.64
0.48
1.58
0.49
1.53
0.50
Not spending
enough time on
work related
activities
1.36
0.48
1.38
0.49
1.43
0.50
1.46
0.50
1.39
0.49
1.34
0.47
Experiencing
anxiety/stress
about money spent
on school-related
expenses
1.70
0.46
1.70
0.46
1.74
0.44
1.77
0.42
1.74
0.44
1.65
0.48
Feeling unclear
about my goal for
returning to school
1.33
0.47
1.40
0.49
1.41
0.49
1.42
0.49
1.37
0.48
1.33
0.47
Feeling resentment
about having to do
schoolwork instead 1.41
of doing something
more interesting
0.49
1.41
0.49
1.45
0.50
1.48
0.50
1.43
0.49
1.31
0.46
Feeling unable to
develop
collaborative
0.47
1.35
0.48
1.41
0.49
1.39
0.49
1.35
0.48
1.30
0.46
Psychosocial Issue
1.32
63
relationships with
other students
Feeling fearful that
I must earn a
degree to prove to
others I am
competent
1.38
0.49
1.42
0.49
1.49
0.50
1.47
0.50
1.44
0.50
1.34
0.48
Feeling that my
practical
experience is not
valued in the
academic world
1.35
0.48
1.38
0.48
1.44
0.50
1.41
0.49
1.38
0.49
1.36
0.48
Note. Means collapsed to a 2-point scale, with 1 = Not at all or A slight extent and
2 = Some extent, A moderate extent, or An extreme extent.
As indicated in Table 12, those who have been out of school between 1 month and 5
years had significantly more anxiety about not spending enough time with friends and loved ones
than those who had been out of school more than 10 years. (For up to 1 year, mean difference =
.07, p = .02; for 1–2 years, mean difference = .09, p = .03; for 2–5 years, mean difference = .11,
p = .00.)
Adult students who have been out of school between 1 and 5 years had significantly more
anxiety about not spending enough time on work activities than those who had been out of
school more than 10 years. (For 1–2 years, mean difference = .1, p = .01; for 2–5 years, mean
difference = .12, p = .00.) Learners who were not enrolled for between 2 and 5 years also had
more anxiety in this area than those who were out of school for one year or less.
Those who have been out of school between 1 and 10 years had significantly more
anxiety about money spent on school-related expenses than those who had been out of school
64
more than 10 years. (For 1–2 years, mean difference = .1, p = .00; for 2–5 years, mean difference
= .13, p = .00; for 5–10 years, mean difference = .1, p = .00.) In addition, those who had been out
of enrollment for 1 month to 1 year were more anxious about school expenses than those who
had been away for 2 to 5 years (mean difference = .07, p = .02).
Students who have been out of school between 1 month and 5 years expressed
significantly greater lack of clarity about their goal for returning to school than those who had
been out of school more than 10 years.(For up to 1 year, mean difference = .07, p = .02; for 1–2
years, mean difference = .09, p = .02; for 2–5 years, mean difference = .1, p = .00.)
Those who have been out of school between 1 month and 10 years felt significantly more
resentment about having to do schoolwork instead of doing something more interesting than
those who had been out of school more than 10 years. (For up to 1 year, mean difference = .11, p
= .00; for 1–2 years, mean difference = .14, p = .03; for 2–5 years, mean difference = .18, p =
.00; for 5–10 years, mean difference = .12; p = .00.) In addition, those out of school for 1 month
to 1 year felt more resentment than those out of school for 2 to 5 years (mean difference = .07, p
= .04).
Adult students who have been out of school between 1 and 5 years were significantly
more likely to experience an inability to develop collaborative relationships with other students
than those who had been out of school more than 10 years. (For 1–2 years, mean difference =
.11, p = .03; for 2–5 years, mean difference = . 1, p = .00.)
Table 12 indicates that those who have been out of school between 1 month and 10 years
were significantly more fearful about earning a degree to prove their competence to others than
those who had been out of school more than 10 years. (For those out of enrollment for 1 month
65
to 1 year, mean difference = .08, p = .01; for 1–2 yrs, mean difference = .14, p = .00; for 2–5
years, mean difference = .12, p = .00; and for 5–10 years, mean difference = .1, p = .00.)
Research Question 3: Learner’s Decision to Continue Their Education by
Psychosocial Issues Experienced
To answer the research question about the nature of the relationship, if any, between an
adult student’s decision to continue or discontinue their education and the extent to which they
experienced psychosocial issues, chi-square tests were first conducted to compute the similarity
or dissimilarity of distributions. Both variables used ordinal-level response scales, so a
Spearman’s rho was computed to measure the existence and direction of any correlation between
the responses to experience of psychosocial issue and decision to continue. Response scales were
collapsed into two groups: for psychosocial issues, respondents either experienced the issue not
at all/a slight extent, or some/moderate/extreme extent. Likelihood of continuing was collapsed
into definitely will not/unlikely and somewhat likely/likely/extremely likely.
As shown in Table 13, both statistical tests indicated there were highly significant
relationships (p ≤ .01) between the decision to continue/discontinue education and the experience
of 11 of the 16 psychosocial issues. The results support rejecting the null hypothesis for the third
research question that no relationship exists between adult students’ experience of psychosocial
issues and their decision to continue or discontinue their education.
For each significant correlation, the relationship was negative: The more a respondent
experienced the issue, the less likely they were to continue taking classes. Even though
significant statistical relationships were found for 11 variables, each of the relationships was
weak (< .3). The issues with the weakest significant correlations (–.04) with decision to continue
were feeling resentment about having to do schoolwork instead of doing something more
66
interesting, experiencing stress while taking classes because they interfered with my normal
routine, and feeling that my practical experience is not valued in the academic world. The
strongest correlation was found between decision to continue and lack of support or active
discouragement from my primary supervisor and/or other employees at work, at –.09.
Table 13
Statistical Comparison of Adult Learners’ Experience of Psychosocial Issues by
Likelihood of Continuing Classes
Percentage who experienced the
issue to at least some extent, by
likelihood of continuing classes.
Psychosocial issue
2
r
p
Definitely will
not or Unlikely
to
Somewhat, Likely
or Extremely likely
to
Feeling anxious about not
spending enough time with
friends and loved ones
62.1%
57.9%
3.94
–0.03
0.05
Not spending enough time on
work related activities
42.8%
38.9%
3.55
–0.03
0.06
Lack of support or active
discouragement from friends &
loved ones
39.5%
29.6%
24.99 –0.08
0.00
Lack of support or active
discouragement from my
primary supervisor and/or
other employees at work
31.3%
31.3%
38.65 –0.09
0.00
Experiencing anxiety/stress
about money spent on schoolrelated expenses
72.4%
71.1%
0.41
–0.01
0.52
67
Worrying about my intellectual
ability to successfully
complete schoolwork
53.1%
51.2%
0.75
–0.01
0.39
Feeling unclear about my goal
for returning to school
46.4%
36.3%
23.70 –0.07
0.00
Feeling resentment about
having to do schoolwork
instead of doing something
more interesting
44.9%
39.7%
6.01
–0.04
0.01
Thinking that being back in
school was too big of a risk for
me to take
37.6%
28.9%
19.43 –0.07
0.00
Experiencing stress while
taking classes because they
interfered with my normal
routine
54.0%
48.3%
7.17
–0.04
0.01
Feeling unable to develop
collaborative relationships with
other students
42.2%
33.8%
16.77 –0.06
0.00
Feeling fearful that I must earn
a degree to prove to others I
am competent
37.3%
31.2%
3.73
–0.03
0.05
Resisting new information
presented in classes because it
conflicted with what I already
knew
24.6%
18.4%
13.50 –0.06
0.00
Feeling angry or depressed
about feedback given by an
instructor on my work
32.5%
26.1%
11.30 –0.05
0.00
Feeling I must earn a degree to
meet the needs of others, as
opposed to earning a degree
37.3%
31.2%
9.20
–0.05
0.00
68
for my own needs
Feeling that my practical
experience is not valued in the
academic world
43.9%
37.9%
8.38
–0.04
0.00
Research Question 4: Perceptions of Sources of Support by Generational Cohort
The fourth research question was asked to determine if perceptions of the effectiveness of
different sources of support varied based on membership in generational cohorts. Chi-square
tests compared the expected and observed distributions, whereas analysis of variance (ANOVA)
compared the mean scores of Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Millennials.
As shown in Table 14, both statistical tests indicated there were highly significant
differences (p ≤ .01) in the perceptions of Baby Boomer, Generation X, and Millennial adult
learners about the effectiveness of eight sources of personal support. Respondents from the Silent
generation were not included due to their low response rate. The null hypothesis that perceptions
of effectiveness of sources of support do not vary based on generational cohort can be rejected.
Respondents were also asked to rate the importance of each source of support. Because
the results for that item were not used to answer any of the study’s main research questions,
inferential tests were not applied to that data. Descriptive data summarizing the responses are
reported in Table 14.
69
Table 14
Statistical Comparison of Adult Learners’ Perceptions of Effectiveness of Sources of
Support by Generational Cohort
Source of Support
Type of
Support
Percentage of each generational
cohort rating the source of support
as at least somewhat effective
Baby
Boomer
Gen X
2
F
p
Millennial
Spouse or significant other
Personal
71.9%
77.4%
80.2%
12.72
4.25
.01
Children
Personal
70.6%
70.3%
58.4%
32.84
11.07
.00
Personal friends also taking
college classes
Personal
60.9%
65.1%
74.3%
45.01
15.17
.00
Personal friends not taking
college classes
Personal
44.1%
46.7%
49.5%
5.22
1.74
.16
Academic counselor
School
67.9%
64.4%
61.5%
7.30
2.44
.06
Financial aid counselor
School
62.5%
61.0%
55.1%
13.04
4.36
.00
Faculty members
School
82.7%
75.7%
74.0%
17.56
5.87
.00
Other students in my classes
who are not personal friends
or co-workers
School
55.9%
51.9%
46.7%
17.19
5.75
.00
Staff from Non-Traditional or
Adult Student Services Office
School
53.0%
45.7%
39.0%
24.94
8.38
.00
Staff from academic
department office
School
60.2%
55.5%
52.7%
8.15
2.72
.04
70
Staff from Dean of Students
or Student Activities Office
School
52.7%
48.7%
46.8%
4.06
1.35
.26
Your primary supervisor
Work
61.0%
59.6%
63.9%
7.42
2.48
.06
Co-workers at your
organization
Work
50.0%
50.3%
57.1%
15.79
5.28
.00
The significant differences among generational cohorts regarding their perceptions of the
effectiveness of various sources of support are shown in Figure 17. Baby Boomers were most
likely to rate the following five sources of support as effective as compared to Gen Xers and
Millennials: children (70.6%), financial aid counselor (62.5%), faculty members (82.7%), other
students in classes who are not friends or coworkers (55.9%), and staff from non-traditional or
adult student services offices (53%). The three sources of support most likely to be named
effective by Millennials were spouse/significant other (80.2%), personal friends also taking
classes (49.5%), and coworkers (57.1%).
71
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
Bab
10%
Gen
0%
Mil
Figure 17. Percentage of generational cohort members rating a source of support as at
least somewhat effective (showing significant results only).
To determine where significant differences existed between each generational cohort,
post hoc tests were conducted for all items that yielded p values ≤ .01. Mean scores for each
generational cohort are reported in Table 15. Tables showing ANOVA results and complete post
hoc comparisons can be found in Appendix E.
72
Table 15
Mean Scores for Adult Students’ Perception of Effectiveness of Support, by Generational
Cohort
Source of Support
Type of
Support
Baby
Boomers
(n = 559)
Gen X
Millennials
(n = 2,140)
(n = 1,664)
Spouse or significant other
Personal
1.68
1.76
1.78
Children
Personal
1.60
1.62
1.50
Personal friends also taking college
classes
Personal
1.47
1.49
1.58
Financial aid counselor
School
1.63
1.59
1.50
Faculty members
School
1.79
1.72
1.69
Other students in my classes who are
not personal friends or co-workers
School
1.45
1.41
1.35
Staff from Non-Traditional or Adult
Student Services Office
School
1.44
1.37
1.29
Co-workers at your organization
Work
1.36
1.39
1.40
Note. Means collapsed to a 2-point scale, with 1 = Very ineffective, Somewhat ineffective,
or Neither effective nor ineffective and 2 = Somewhat effective or Very effective.
As indicated in Table 15, generational cohorts’ perception of effectiveness was different
for two of the four sources of personal support. Millennials were significantly more likely to
report receiving effective support from a spouse or significant other than Baby Boomers (mean
difference = .08, p = .00). In contrast, Millennials were least likely to report receiving effective
support from children when compared to Gen X (mean difference = –.12, p = .00) and Baby
Boomers (mean difference = –.12, p = .00).
73
Millennials were significantly more likely to report receiving effective support from
personal friends also taking college classes than either Baby Boomers (mean difference = .13, p
= .00) or Gen X (mean difference = .09, p = .00).
Four of the seven sources of school-related support were given significantly different
ratings of effectiveness by generational cohorts. Millennials were less likely than Gen X (mean
difference = –.06, p = .01) and Baby Boomers (mean difference = –.07, p = .04) to report
receiving effective support from a financial aid counselor. However, Baby Boomers were most
likely to report receiving effective support from faculty members. The difference was significant
when compared to Millennials (mean difference = .09, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference =
.07, p = .01).
Baby Boomers (mean difference = .09, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference = .05, p =
.01) were significantly more likely than Millennials to report receiving effective support from
other students in their classes who were not personal friends or coworkers. Baby Boomers (mean
difference = .14, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference = .07, p = .01) were also significantly
more likely than Millennials to report receiving effective support from staff in the nontraditional
or adult student services office. Table 15 reports that Millennials were significantly more likely
than Gen Xers (mean difference = .07, p = .00) to report receiving effective support from one
work-related source: coworkers at their organization.
Research Question 5: Decision to Continue and Sources of Support
The final research question was concerned with any relationship that exists between adult
students’ perceptions of the effectiveness of sources of support and the likelihood they will
continue or discontinue taking classes. The expected and observed distributions were compared
using the chi-square statistic, and a Spearman’s rho test measured the existence and direction of
74
any correlation between the responses to decision to continue taking classes and effectiveness of
sources of support. Table 16 contains the descriptive statistics, chi-square results, Spearman’s
rho (r), and significance level for each source of support.
Highly significant relationships (p ≤ .01) were found between the decision to continue or
discontinue taking classes and the perceived effectiveness of 4 of the 13 sources of support.
Based on these results, the null hypothesis for the fifth research question can be rejected. Each of
the significant correlations was positive, indicating that greater perceived effectiveness ratings
were related to greater likelihood of continuing classes (and lower perceived effectiveness
ratings were related to reduced likelihood of continuing classes).
The strongest correlations (.06) were found for two sources of support: faculty members
and staff from academic department office. The r value for correlation between effectiveness of
support from spouse/significant other with likelihood of continuing was .05, and an r value of .04
described the correlation between effectiveness of support from other students in classes who are
not friends or coworkers and likelihood of continuing. Even at a high confidence level (p ≤ .01),
all significant correlations were less than .3, indicating weak effect sizes.
75
Table 16
Statistical Comparison of Adult Learners’ Perceptions of Effectiveness of Sources of
Support by Likelihood of Continuing Classes
Percentage rating the source of
support as at least somewhat
effective, by likelihood of
continuing classes
Source of Support
Definitely
not/
Unlikely to
continue
2
F
r
p
Somewhat,
Likely,
Extremely likely
to continue
Spouse or significant other
72.7%
78.5%
.00
8.73
.05
.00
Children
62.8%
67.9%
.05
3.92
.04
.05
Personal friends also
taking college classes
64.0%
69.2%
.02
5.70
.04
.02
Personal friends not taking
college classes
45.5%
47.8%
.31
1.03
.02
.31
Academic counselor
60.4%
64.4%
.07
3.33
.03
.07
Financial aid counselor
54.3%
59.9%
.02
5.53
.04
.02
Faculty members
70.0%
77.0%
.00
13.46
.06
.00
Other students in my
classes who are not
personal friends or coworkers
45.3%
51.2%
.01
6.78
.04
.01
Staff from Non-Traditional
or Adult Student Services
Office
42.8%
44.8%
.45
0.56
.01
.45
76
Staff from academic
department office
48.1%
56.3%
.00
10.54
.06
.00
Staff from Dean of
Students or Student
Activities Office
46.1%
49.2%
.23
1.45
.02
.23
Your primary supervisor
46.1%
49.2%
.20
1.67
.02
.20
Co-workers at your
organization
50.6%
53.3%
.28
1.17
.02
.28
Discussion
The purpose of the study was to investigate any relationships that might exist between
psychosocial issues experienced and generational cohort membership, between psychosocial
issues experienced and past educational experience, and between psychosocial issues
experienced and decision to continue taking classes. In addition, any relationships that might
exist between perceived effectiveness of sources of support and generational cohort membership,
and perceived effectiveness of sources of support and decision to continue taking classes, were
measured. In each case, the finding of significant relationships provided support for rejecting the
null hypothesis. However, study results that end with reports of significance are not considered
complete. A full understanding of relationships between variables must include consideration of
the magnitude of the effect for each significant finding and the historical and practical context
within which the study is situated. Considerations of effect sizes, literature related to the study’s
constructs, and implications for practice are explored in this section.
77
Psychosocial Issues and the Adult Student
Experiencing and resolving psychosocial issues is a lifelong process, according to many
theorists (Torres et al., 2003). The challenge of psychosocial dilemmas can sometimes interfere
with normal pursuits such as successful relationships, productive work, and lifelong learning.
Leaders in higher education recognized many years ago that providing appropriate support to
college students dealing with developmental issues could help ensure success in their educational
endeavors (Evans, Forney, & Guido-DeBrito, 1998).
For traditional college students, some degree of consistency exists in the developmental
process because they are a relatively homogenous population in terms of age; only 4 years may
separate the oldest from the youngest member of this cohort. As compared to traditional college
students, adult students may be 50 years or more apart in age and differ on many other
demographic variables as well. Although research indicates adults go through developmental
stages, the increased range of age and lifestyle diversity has made it more difficult to understand
the psychosocial issues that may hinder adults from successfully completing their degree
programs. Instead of attempting to differentiate the needs of specific subgroups of adults, it has
been more common to refer to “adult students” as if they were a homogenous group.
The results of this study show many significant differences in the experience of
psychosocial issues when adult students are subdivided into smaller groups based on
generational cohorts (Research Question 1), past educational experience (Research Question 2),
or the length of time that has elapsed since their last enrollment (Research Question 2). Although
variance does exist in the psychosocial issues experienced based on these characteristics of adult
learners, the differences in all cases were slight. Using only the significance statistic can be
78
misleading, because the statistic reflects the size of the effect and that of the sample. With a very
large sample such as the one used in this study, even a very small effect may be statistically
significant (Coe, 2002). A closer look at the results and how they fit with extant literature can
help determine implications for practice.
Research Question 1: Psychosocial Issues and Generational Cohort Membership
By separating results into demographic cohort groupings, evidence appears that adult
students do not share the same experience. Beyond looking at the small mean differences
between each cohort’s responses about each issue, some tentative observations can be made
about the differences as a whole. Figure 18 indicates that Millennials experienced 15 out of 16
psychosocial issues to a significantly greater extent than Baby Boomers; Baby Boomers
experienced every issue to a significantly lesser extent than Gen Xers and Millennials.
79
80.0%
70.0%
60.0%
50.0%
40.0%
30.0%
Baby Boomers
Gen X
Millennials
20.0%
10.0%
0.0%
Figure 18. Percentage of generational cohort members experiencing psychosocial issues
to at least some extent.
The same pattern was evident in responses about the influence each issue might have on
the decision to continue taking classes. Figure 19 reflects that Millennials much more frequently
thought an issue might have at least some influence on their decision to continue, and Baby
Boomers were always least likely to report that an issue might have at least some influence on
their decision to continue taking classes.
80
80.0%
70.0%
60.0%
50.0%
40.0%
30.0%
Baby Boomer
Gen X
Millennial
20.0%
10.0%
0.0%
Figure 19. Percentage of generational cohort members stating a psychosocial issue
might have at least Some influence on their decision to continue classes.
Parallels can be seen when comparing these results to previous theoretical work. Cavalli
(2004) suggested that to study generational culture, life stage and age group both must be
considered. Members of the Millennial cohort who participated in this study, currently age 23 to
29, are considered Rising Adults (Howe & Strauss, 1991) focused on serving institutions (such
as work, marriage, and church) and testing values. Similarly, Erickson’s developmental theory
would place them in the period of Intimacy vs. Isolation, during which they must determine how
they fit into the world of institutions and relationships around them (Merriam et al., 2007). In this
life phase, it seems possible that a number of psychosocial issues related to relationships,
identity, and self-confidence would appear.
In contrast, 51- to 68-year-old Baby Boomers are Midlifers, providing leadership and
direction to younger age groups (Howe & Strauss, 1991) and, according to Erikson, encountering
the challenge of generativity vs. stagnation, during which they must find some way to contribute
81
to society and to the next generation (Merriam et al., 2007). Boomers have reached some level of
comfort with their identity and their relationships with others. At the same time, they continue to
practice the strong work ethic for which their generation is known (Delahoyde, 2009).
Although the magnitude of the differences between these cohorts is small, it is clear that
assuming all adult students are the same can result in misunderstanding the issues they face when
returning to school. For instance, Millennial learners may need support for determining how they
“fit” with the institution and how their role as a student may affect other relationships in their
life. In contrast, Baby Boomers may find their niche in the academic community by finding ways
to support and help others in the classroom.
As each generational cohort ages, members also have more years of opportunity to
continue their educational pursuits. Two measures of past educational experience were used to
determine if past educational experience might be related to psychosocial issues experienced in
their current enrollment (and be masked by the more obvious age variable).
Research Question 2: Psychosocial Issues and Past Educational Experience
Significant differences existed about the prevalence of certain psychosocial issues based
on past educational attainment. For four of the issues—anxiety about not spending enough time
with loved ones, not spending enough time on work, anxiety about school-related expenses, and
resentment about doing schoolwork—people with higher degrees were generally more likely to
experience each issue. All of these issues related to juggling priorities: school and loved ones,
school and work, school and money, or school and routine. These competing priorities seemed to
grow with each degree earned. A downward trajectory was indicated for one issue: People with
more educational experience seemed least likely to worry about their intellectual capability, and
82
this source of worry was progressively more common at each lower level of educational
experience.
These general trends may indicate that students in advanced degree programs need more
assistance in balancing priorities, and people in less advanced programs need more assistance in
strengthening their cognitive skills. Again, adult college students experience different kinds of
issues and need different types of support depending on certain key subgroup characteristics.
Significant differences also existed in the experience of psychosocial issues based on the
amount of time that had elapsed since adult students’ last enrollment. The greatest significant
difference in means was seen around the issue of feeling resentment about having to do
schoolwork instead of doing something more interesting. The mean difference between those
who had been out of school for 2 to 5 years and those who had been out more than 10 years was
.18. This one result may indicate that those who decide to return to school after being out for a
long period of time are more dedicated to earning their degree and less resentful about sacrificing
other activities.
Overall, participants who had been out of school for 1 to 5 years were always more likely
to experience each significant psychosocial issue. These issues were least likely to be
experienced by participants who had no enrollment lapse or who had been out of school for more
than 10 years. Because these results were not cross-tabulated with age, it is unknown whether
time lapse corresponds with age or generational cohort. However, the results may echo
differences in life stage seen in the experience of psychosocial issues by generational cohorts. If
those who had been out of school from 1 to 5 years are young adults balancing new careers, new
long-term relationships, and perhaps young children, they may also be more susceptible to
experiencing psychosocial issues when returning to school.
83
Research Question 3: Psychosocial Issues and Decision to Continue Taking Classes
Any relationship between the experience of psychosocial issues and the decision to
continue taking classes was measured in two different ways. An item on the ASCRS asked
respondents to estimate the likelihood that they would continue taking classes in the future.
Statistical tests were used to measure any relationship between responses to this item and
responses to their experience of psychosocial issues. The results indicated that although the
magnitude of the effects was very weak, there were significant negative correlations linking
experience of psychosocial issues and likelihood of continuing.
Descriptive data shed light on adult students’ perceptions of the influence psychosocial
issues might have on their decision to continue. Sizeable gaps existed in respondents’ ratings of
their experience of an issue and the extent to which that experience might affect their decision to
continue. For the five issues experienced to at least some extent by more than 40% of the
respondents (anxiety about school-related expenses, not spending enough time with friends/loved
ones, interference with normal routine, intellectual ability to be successful, and resentment about
doing schoolwork instead of something more interesting), the percentage of respondents who
thought the issue might influence their decision to continue was at least 20 points lower. The
issue thought to be most influential was anxiety about school-related expenses (40.8% thought it
might influence their decision to continue), which may be a reflection of negative economic
events occurring since 2008. These data suggest participants possess an optimistic, resilient
attitude toward completing a degree program.
This optimism flies in the face of most studies of retention for adult college students.
Milam (2008) is just one of many researchers who reported a high noncompletion rate for adult
and nontraditional students, noting that the 18-month retention rate for full-time enrollment was
84
only 28.9% and 47.9% for part-time enrollment. The lack of alignment between the results of
this study and other research may have occurred for several reasons. Perhaps, as Fogerson (2001)
reported, adults are not likely to admit that they experience psychosocial issues, even in a study
isolated to just such issues. Perhaps students do not withdraw from a degree program due to the
effect of psychosocial issues—although this explanation runs contrary to many previous studies
(Bean & Metzner, 1985; Boulanger, 2009; Cross, 1981; MacKinnon-Slaney, 1994; Müller, 2008;
Park & Choi, 2009). Or perhaps experiencing the issue is not the main motivator to discontinue
enrollment; rather, it is a life event that causes a dramatic uptick in the experience of the issue.
For instance, lack of enough time with one’s spouse or significant other may be a constant, lowlevel concern; when a partner becomes ill or demands more time, that specific event may
magnify their concern to an intolerable level leading to a decision to discontinue taking classes.
There is support for this possibility from Pleskac et al. (2011), who found that a student’s
sensitivity to a critical event or “shock” may predict the likelihood that they will drop out of
school. The relationship between experiencing a shock and deciding to discontinue classes may
explain why most adult students in this study were at least somewhat likely to continue their
education; experiencing some chronic level of psychosocial discomfort is not as upsetting as an
unexpected and critical event. A follow-up study in 6 to 12 months might elicit more data about
students in this sample who decided to discontinue classes to determine if an unexpected shock
event precipitated their leaving. Further, comparing reported experience of psychosocial issues in
the current study to reasons for eventually deciding to discontinue classes may yield patterns
suggesting which adult students are more likely to be sensitive to or more resilient to unexpected
shocks.
85
If there is truth in the idea that adult students experiencing psychosocial shocks are more
likely to withdraw, leaders in higher education may want to clearly understand what sources of
support are effective for and important to adult students. Leveraging adult students’ support
network may positively affect their adjustment to the shock and enable them to continue their
education.
Sources of support for the adult student. The ASCRS included 13 sources of support an
adult student might access: 4 personal sources, 7 school-related sources, and 2 work-related
sources. Similar to the results for psychosocial issues, many significant differences were found in
the ratings among members of generational cohorts of the effectiveness and importance of
different sources of support. In each case, the magnitude of the difference was very weak and
may have been due to the large sample size. Descriptive data for the entire sample and for
generational groups indicates additional trends related to student support.
Data indicated that over half of the respondents rated 7 sources of support as at least
somewhat important. In contrast, 10 sources of support were rated as at least somewhat effective.
The indication that importance was rated lower than efficacy overall may indicate that adult
students assume a high degree of control for their own fate on their educational journey and do
not see external sources of support as important as internal resources. Only two sources of
support, spouses/significant others and faculty members, were seen as highly important, as
evidenced by more than 70% of respondents rating them important.
Research Question 4: Effectiveness of Sources of Support Among Generational
Cohorts
The ratings of effectiveness of sources of support by members of different generational
cohort members were significantly different in eight cases, although the magnitude of the effects
86
was very small. The largest mean difference was .13, signifying that Millennials were
significantly more likely than Baby Boomers to report receiving effective support from personal
friends also taking college classes.
The significant differences between generational cohorts regarding their perceptions of
the effectiveness of various sources of support seem to indicate a trend. Millennials were the
least likely to rate as effective the five sources of support that Baby Boomers most frequently
rated as effective. In turn, Millennials most frequently rated the remaining three sources of
support as somewhat effective; Baby Boomers were least likely to rate them as effective. For
each source of support with significant generational differences, Baby Boomer and Millennial
scores were significantly different, and Gen Xers’ ratings were between the other two
generations. For six issues, Gen Xers were significantly different from Millennials; they were
significantly different from Baby Boomers in the extent to which they thought faculty provided
effective support.
Because Gen X results were almost always in between the results for Millennials and
Baby Boomers, the differences may be the effect of age/maturation instead of the cultural
differences between generational cohorts. As Cavalli (2004) noted, some differences that appear
to be generational may differ based on the life experience or life stage of the individuals
involved. Gen X responses were most often aligned with the responses of Baby Boomers,
isolating Millennials as a particularly unique generation or age group with unique needs for
support.
Overall, Millennials were much less likely to rate any source of support as effective.
Hershattler & Epstein (2010) noted that Millennials have high expectations of others to meet
their needs, which may help explain this trend. They noted that Millennials have come to expect
87
people and organizations to cater to their needs ever since the Baby Boomer generation matured
and realized that the nation had failed Generation X. For that reason, Millennials tend to need
more hand holding and structure. Being aware of this need should spur institutions to provide
sufficient structure throughout the education cycle—from enrollment to graduation—to this
increasingly large subgroup of adult students.
Research Question 5: Correlation Between Effective Sources of Support and
Likelihood of Continuing.
A significant positive correlation existed between estimates of the likelihood of
continuing and ratings of effectiveness for three sources of support: spouse/significant other,
faculty members, and staff from academic department office. The more effective a respondent
rated the source of support, the more likely they were to indicate the intention to continue taking
classes. The magnitude of the effect was weak in each case, but these sources of support were
also those rated at least somewhat effective by more than 50% of the sample. The data seem to
indicate there is a slight tendency for those who experience effective support from these sources
to also be more likely to continue their education. Greater differentiation was limited by the high
percentage of respondents who indicated they were at least somewhat likely to continue taking
classes.
Educational institutions have a unique opportunity, these results suggest. Because faculty
received high ratings for effectiveness and importance, and their effectiveness is positively
correlated to adult students’ decision to continue, opportunities to leverage their influence might
be considered, such as having them provide information about campus support services.
Institutional leaders should also maximize the benefit of support received from academic
department staff by making them more available and accessible to adult students, whose visits to
88
campus are limited to their classrooms and occur only when offices are closed (Karp & Hughes,
2008; Rosenbaum, Deil-Amen, & Person, 2006). Last, educational institutions may need to find
ways to reach out to adult students’ loved ones and gain their support. If spouses and significant
others become more familiar with and affirming of the campus and its personnel, their support
for their loved ones’ educational efforts may become even more effective.
A final note about sources of support: One source may be conspicuous in its absence
from reports of significance. Even though adults spend many hours of their waking lives at their
job, the influence of the primary supervisor was noticeably absent from the results. The
descriptive results indicate that only a little more than half of respondents (53%) thought their
supervisor was at least somewhat important as a source of support, and almost 40% thought their
supervisors were ineffective (39%). These moderate ratings indicate that support from a
significant entity in the lives of adult students is neither nonexistent nor particularly compelling.
Even though many organizations offer some kind of educational assistance to employees,
such as tuition assistance (Society for Human Resource Management, 2009), money for fees and
supplies (International Foundation for Employee Benefits Programs, 2006), and childcare and
scholarships (Woodward, 2005), organizational assistance may not be the same as supervisor
support. To realize the benefits accrued by more educated employees, business leaders may need
to exploit the supervisor–employee relationship so that stronger visible support is offered. For
supervisors to offer sincere support, organizational leaders must do their part to faciliate an
atmosphere in which continued education is encouraged and rewarded, from executive leaders to
human resources to individual work units.
89
Study Limitations and Future Research Recommendations
Confidence in the results of the study may be affected by several variables related to the
characteristics of the respondents and the design of the study. The sample was skewed in terms
of gender, race, and number of dependent children. Women constituted 72% of the sample, 75%
of the respondents were White, and 55% reported having no dependent children. Because these
demographics may be important differentiators in the experience of psychosocial issues and
perceptions of effectiveness of support, further data analysis may be required to determine if the
skewness had an effect on the results.
A second limitation may be self-selection bias. Those who choose to participate in
ZoomPanel and completed the survey may have done so to earn the small incentive offered, and
it is unknown if this group of people might have responded differently from other adult students.
Similarly, it is unknown if students from the Zoomerang sampling frame differed in some
substantive way from the sampling frame of the nine institutions who agreed to participate in the
study.
Asking participants to self-report the likelihood that they would continue taking classes
could also be a limitation of the study. More valid results related to retention might have been
obtained if students who had withdrawn from classes were actively sought out as respondents,
and if results from students who were retained and those who withdrew were compared.
A final potential limitation relates to the terminology and sequencing used in the ASCRS.
Providing specific definitions for effectiveness and importance might have yielded more valid
results, and refraining from asking about importance of support directly after respondents rated
effectiveness of support may avoid a source of item bias.
90
This study focused on differences between subgroups of adult students as defined by their
generational cohort, their past educational attainment, and the time that had elapsed since their
last enrollment. Although significant differences were found in response to each research
question, those differences were slight and may have resulted from the large sample size as much
as from actual differences between groups. Further research should focus on additional
subgroupings of adult students according to other demographic characteristics to determine if
other significant differences of greater magnitude exist.
Respondents were asked to rate the effectiveness of different sources of personal, schoolrelated, and work-related support in this study. Further research should be done to determine how
adult students define effectiveness and if different types of effectiveness are available or desired
from different sources of support.
Some of the results from this study were based on self-reported predictions about the
likelihood of continuing to take classes. A follow-up study to determine if participants actually
continued or discontinued classes, and to explore the reasons why some students did not
continue, could lead to the development of profiles that might help to predict retention and
attrition.
Conclusion and Recommendations for Practice
Without an increase in degree-prepared citizens, 3 million jobs may go unfulfilled by
2018 due to lack of qualified candidates (Carnevale, Smith, & Strohl, 2010). President Obama
underscored the need for more U.S. adults to possess academic degrees, and he has challenged
the nation to have the highest proportion of college graduates in the world by 2020. To reach this
goal, not only must more adults enroll in college; a much greater percentage must persist in
college through degree attainment.
91
Previous research has focused on a variety of barriers and threats to adult degree
persistence. The purpose of this study was to use a large, nationwide sample to measure
differences that existed among adult college students relative to the psychosocial issues they
experienced while taking classes, the sources of support they found effective on their educational
journey, and the likelihood that they would continue taking classes. The null hypothesis was
rejected for each of the five research questions, indicating that significant differences exist
among adult students based on their generational cohort, their past educational experience, the
time that had elapsed since their last enrollment, and their perceptions of sources of support.
Understanding these differences and their implications for practice may help improve the
educational attainment of the more than 8 million adults currently enrolled in higher education
institutions across the United States. Several trends that emerged from the data lead to
recommendations for action.
Adult students need targeted assistance, responsive to their particular needs and issues.
To offer targeted assistance, educational institutions should:
•
Institute a form of new student orientation that is accessible and tailored to adult students.
Younger adult students (Millennials) need assistance to determine their fit with the
institution, and older adult students (Baby Boomers) can be encouraged to explore ways
they can use their leadership and experience to support other students within the
classroom and outside of it.
•
Provide a full range of services, including academic/cognitive support services for people
in lower-level degree programs and priority-balancing support services for those in
higher-level degree programs, to help all adult students develop increased agency with
their educational efforts. Make sure those who work most closely with adult students
92
understand the range of life situations they represent, and the concomitant diversity of
issues and needs they experience.
•
Institute an “early alert” system for students who experience an unexpected and possibly
insurmountable shock, so instant assistance is mobilized to make it easier for students to
continue their education. University personnel who have the most frequent and direct
contact with adult students—faculty and academic counselors—should be considered
“first responders” in the system.
•
Recognize the unique characteristics of the Millennial generation by bringing appropriate
services to adult students wherever possible, instead of expecting students to identify and
find the appropriate office or person.
•
Leverage the importance and effectiveness of faculty member support, perhaps by having
them provide students with information about other support services on campus.
•
Encourage staff from academic departments to make themselves available after normal
office hours, and perhaps from a satellite location near to evening classrooms.
•
Provide opportunities for spouses/significant others to build their loyalty to the institution
and support for the adult learner in their lives.
Although reducing the job responsibilities of adult working learners may not be possible,
organizations may provide instrumental and moral support in several important ways:
•
Make concrete educational assistance available in the form of tuition assistance, grants or
loans for books and supplies, and flexible work schedules, and encourage employees to
take advantage of the benefits to further their education.
•
Establish work climates in which supervisors and coworkers encourage, support,
and recognize employees who are in school.
93
•
Acknowledge the added value educated employees bring to the workplace in the
presence of the students, their coworkers, and their loved ones when appropriate.
Degree-holding citizens will be more important than ever as America slowly recovers
from the recession. As the fastest-growing population of college students, adults can no longer be
treated as all of a kind. By recognizing the range of substantive differences among adult students,
leaders of education, industry, and government can better facilitate their success in earning
academic degrees—thus not only meeting the President’s goal, but moving our society forward.
94
References
Bean, J. P., & Metzner, B. S. (1985). A conceptual model of nontraditional undergraduate
student attrition. Review of Educational Research, 55(4), 491.
doi:10.3102/00346543055004485
Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. (2009). Postsecondary success. Seattle, WA: Author.
Retrieved from http://www.gatesfoundation.org/learning/Documents/postsecondaryeducation-success-plan-brochure.pdf
Carnevale, A. P., Smith, N., & Strohl, J. (2010, June). Help wanted: Projections of jobs and
education requirements through 2018. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Center
on Education and the Workforce. Retrieved from
http://www9.georgetown.edu/grad/gppi/hpi/cew/pdfs/FullReport.pdf
Cavalli, A. (2004). Generations and value orientations. Social Compass, 51(2), 155–168.
Coates, J. (2007). Generational learning styles. River Falls, WI: LERN Books.
Coe, R. (2002, September 12–14). It’s the effect size, stupid: What effect size is and why it is
important. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the British Educational Research
Association, University of Exeter, England. Retrieved from
http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00002182.htm
Cross, K. P. (1981). Adults as learners: Increasing participation and facilitating learning. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Darkenwald, G. G., & Valentine, T. (1985). Factor structure of deterrents to public participation
in adult education. Adult Education Quarterly, 35(4), 177–193.
doi:10.1177/0001848185035004001
95
Delahoyde, T. (2009). Generational differences of baccalaureate nursing students' preferred
teaching methods and faculty use of teaching methods (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved
from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3360175)
Eduventures. (2008). The adult learner: An Eduventures perspective. Retrieved from
https://www1.vtrenz.net/imarkownerfiles/ownerassets/884/Eduventures_WP_AdultLearn
ers.pdf
Evans, N. J., Forney, D. S., & Guido-DiBrito (1998). Student development in college: Theory,
research, and practice. San Francisco, CA, Jossey-Bass.
Fogerson, F. J. (2001). Employees' perceptions of deterrents to participation in an employerprovided educational assistance program (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from
ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (AAT 3010319)
Gallacher, J., Crossan, B., Field, J., & Merrill, B. (2002). Learning careers and the social space:
Exploring the fragile identities of adult returners in the new further education.
International Journal of Lifelong Education, 21(6), 493–509.
doi:10.1080/0260137022000016172
Hansman, C., & McAtee, K. (2009). The multiple generations in adult and higher education
classrooms: What we assume, what we know, what we can learn, and what may be
missing. 2009 Adult Education Research Conference Proceedings. Retrieved from
http://www.adulterc.org/Proceedings/2009/roundtables/hansman_mcatee.pdf
Howe, N., & Strauss, W. (1991). Generations. New York, NY: Quill.
International Foundation of Employee Benefits Programs. (2006, June 16). New survey finds
94% of organizations offer education assistance to employees. Retrieved from
http://www.ifebp.org/AboutUs/PressRoom/Releases/Archive/061506.htm
96
Karp, M. M., & Hughes, K. L. (2008, Winter). Information networks and integration:
Institutional influences on experiences and persistence of beginning students. In P.
Schuetz & J. Barr (Eds.), New Directions for Community Colleges (pp. 73–82).
DOI:10.1002/cc.347
Kasworm, C. E. (2008, Winter). Emotional challenges of adult learners in higher education. In J.
Dirx (Ed.), New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education (pp. 27–34). doi:
10.1002/ace.313
Kittrell, D. (1998). A comparison of the evolution of men's and women's dreams in Daniel
Levinson's theory of adult development. Journal of Adult Development, 5(2), 105–115.
Retrieved from http://www.springerlink.com/content/1068-0667/5/2/
Kupperschmidt, B. R. (2000). Multigeneration employees: Strategies for effective management.
The Health Care Manager, 19(1), 65–76. Retrieved from
http://www.ovid.com/site/catalog/Journal/1080.jsp
Lawshe, C. H. (1975). A quantitative approach to content validity. Personnel Psychology 28(4),
563–575. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1975.tb01393.x
MacKinnon-Slaney, F. (1994).The adult persistence in learning model: A road map to counseling
services for adult learners. Journal of Counseling & Development, 72(3), 268–275.
Retrieved from http://www.counseling.org/Publications/Journals.aspx
MarketTools, Inc. (2011a). Customer satisfaction and market research software: MarketTools
TrueSample. Retrieved from http://www.markettools.com/products/
MarketTools. Inc. (2011b). Online sample overview. Retrieved from
http://www.zoomerang.com/sample-size/sample-faqs.shtml#about
97
MarketTools, Inc. (2011c). Zoomerang success stories. Retrieved from
http://www.zoomerang.com/success-stories/
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A
comprehensive guide. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Morris, L. V. (2005). Challenges of access, affordability, and persistence. Innovative Higher
Education, 30(3), 147–148. doi:10.1007/s10755-005-6299-y
Milam, J. (2009). Nontraditional students in public institutions: A multi-state unit record
analysis. Retrieved from
http://highered.org/docs/NontraditionalStudentsinPublicInstitutions.pdf
Mugo, F. W. (n.d.). Sampling in research. Retrieved from
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/tutorial/Mugo/tutorial.htm
Müller, T. (2008). Persistence of women in online degree-completion programs. International
Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 9(2), 1-18. Retrieved from
http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/455
National Center for Education Statistics. (2010). Table 199. Total fall enrollment in degreegranting institutions, by sex, age, and attendance status: Selected years, 1970 through
2019. Retrieved from
http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d10/tables/dt10_199.asp?referrer=report
Park, J. -H., & Choi, H. J. (2009). Factors influencing adult learners' decision to drop out or
persist in online learning. Educational Technology & Society, 12(4), 207–217. Retrieved
from http://www.ifets.info/journals/12_4/18.pdf
RaoSoft. (2011). Sample size calculator. Retrieved from
http://www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html
98
Sheehy, G. (1995). New passages: Mapping your life across time. New York, NY: Random
House.
Soares, L. (2009). Working learners: Educating our entire workforce for success in the 21st
century. Retrieved from
http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2009/06/working_learners.html
Society for Human Resource Management. (2009, August 11). Education assistance benefits
SHRM poll. Retrieved from
http://www.shrm.org/Research/SurveyFindings/Articles/Pages/Educationalassistancepoll.
aspx
Tinto, V. (1993). Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of student attrition (2nd ed.)
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Torres, V., Howard-Hamilton, M. F., & Cooper, D. L. (2003). Identity development of diverse
Populations: Implications for teaching and administration in higher education. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Walker, J. T., Martin, T., White, J., Elliott, R., Norwood, A., Mangum, C., & Haynie, L. (2006).
Generational (age) differences in nursing students' preferences for teaching methods. The
Journal of Nursing Education, 45(9), 371–374. Retrieved from
http://www.slackjournals.com/article.aspx?rid=34911
Wheeler-Scruggs, K. S. (2008, Winter). Do lesbians differ from heterosexual men and women in
Levinsonian phases of adult development? Journal of Counseling & Development, 86,
39–46. Retrieved from http://www.counseling.org/Publications/Journals.aspx
Woodward, N. H. (2005). Helping workers pay college costs. HR Magazine, 50(8). Retrieved
from
99
http://www.shrm.org/Publications/hrmagazine/EditorialContent/Pages/0805woodward_S
R.aspx
© 2011 University of Phoenix Research Institute