PROMOTING HUMAN DEVELOPMENT THROUGH PLAY
by
Jane Khaytin
An Abstract
of a research paper submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science in Library Science and Information Services
in the Department of Educational Leadership and Human Development
University of Central Missouri
August, 2015
ABSTRACT
by
Jane Khaytin
This review of literature was designed to show that play is an essential part of childhood
and learning. Play is integral to human development because it contributes to the
cognitive, physical, social, and emotional well being of children (Ginsberg 182). Play
comes in several forms such as pretend play, free play, rule bound play, explorative
play, gaming, and information seeking. Through play, learners can “Inquire, think
critically, and gain knowledge” (AASL 3). When students play, they utilize critical
thinking skills as they solve problems. Play offers several benefits; however, many
barriers need to be overcome as well. The school librarian can integrate strategies in an
effort to restore and bring play into the library.
PROMOTING HUMAN DEVELOPMENT THROUGH PLAY
by
Jane Khaytin
A Research Paper
presented in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science in Library Science and Information Services
in the Department of Educational Leadership and Human Development
University of Central Missouri
August, 2015
© 2015
Jane Khaytin
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
PROMOTING HUMAN DEVELOPMENT THROUGH PLAY
by
Jane Khaytin
August, 2015
APPROVED:
Advisor: Dr. Patricia Antrim
Committee Member: Dr. Jennifer Robins
UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL MISSOURI
WARRENSBURG, MISSOURI
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Robins
for her guidance, insightful comments, and intuitive questions in writing this research
paper. Dr. Robins’ special interest and knowledge of play in the library provided me
with a source of inspiration, authority, and reference. I would like to thank my advisor,
Dr. Patricia Antrim for her encouragement, support, and feedback not only in the
completion of this paper but throughout my academic journey at University of Central
Missouri as well. I would like to thank my parents for always being supportive of my
education and believing in me. I would like to thank my husband, Gary, for his support
and encouragement. I would like to thank my wonderful daughters, Jasmine and
Shaina, for being understanding, self-sufficient, and for reading and playing together
while I focused on my research paper. Last but not least, I would like to thank God for
giving me wisdom, strength, and guidance in the completion of this paper and
throughout my life.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................. 1
Statement of the Problem ................................................................ 1
Purpose of the Study ....................................................................... 2
Research Questions ........................................................................ 3
Limitations of the Study ................................................................... 3
Definition of Terms .......................................................................... 4
Research Design ............................................................................ 4
Conclusion ...................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .......................................... 6
Introduction ...................................................................................... 6
Play and Play Therapy .................................................................... 6
American Association of School Librarians Standard 1 and Play .. 13
Benefits and Barriers ..................................................................... 16
Strategies to Incorporate and Restore Play in the School Library . 22
Conclusion ..................................................................................... 27
CHAPTER 3: CONCLUSIONS ................................................................. 28
Introduction .................................................................................... 28
Benefits of Play.............................................................................. 28
Barriers to Play .............................................................................. 29
Play in the School Library .............................................................. 30
WORKS CITED ........................................................................................ 32
vii
Human Development and Play
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Play has several definitions, but there are some characteristics of play that are
typical. Intrinsic motivation to participate is a key aspect. Active involvement from the
players and nonliteral meanings of the activity are also prevalent. Play stresses
participation rather than the final outcome. Additionally, the players give meanings to
objects and activities while the rules are adaptable (Riley and Jones 146).
Play is an activity not merely for enjoyment and recreation, but it is also an
educational tool. Play is an avenue of exploration and experimentation where
individuals can learn, make sense of the world around them, and discover how to
interact with it. Play is fundamental in enabling students to develop critical thinking skills
needed to solve academic problems in all subjects. When playing, individuals discover
and build knowledge from their environment and develop social skills. Through play,
individuals use their imaginations and reflect on their experiences (Ortlieb 241). Play
allows children to use creativity while developing their imagination, dexterity, and
physical, cognitive, and emotional strength. Play promotes healthy development
(Ginsberg 183). Play is essential to childhood and learning.
Statement of the Problem
With the push towards school readiness and improved test scores, play is often
overlooked and undervalued. Children have less time to play as a result of the stress
on academics. Education is becoming so focused on benchmarks, data, accountability,
and adequate yearly progress that play is being set aside. Play is a well-documented
aspect of education; however, an emphasis on accountability and quantifiable measures
Human Development and Play
2
of learning has led to a decline in the understanding of the impact that high-quality play
can have on a child’s cognitive development (Powell 847).
Despite the numerous benefits, there are additional barriers to play. Families
living in poverty may not experience the same opportunities to play because they fear
for their child’s safety. Children may not be able to explore, make friends, or have free
play outside. On the other hand, children from affluent families may be so inundated
with activities and hectic schedules that they too have little time for play. Children with
disabilities may have several doctor appointments and scheduled therapies that take
time away from play.
Children have less time to play than they did generations ago. Play has been
eliminated in nearly all kindergartens in the United States and is also being removed
from preschools due to the focus on academic instruction and school readiness. Taking
play away in favor of early education is a loss. School librarians can implement
strategies in order to bring play into the library.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to review the literature in order to show that play
promotes human development. This literature review discusses the various types of
play as well as play therapy. Different theorists’ perspectives on play are discussed.
This literature review also looks at how play aligns with American Association of School
Librarians Standard 1. Through play, learners can “Inquire, think critically, and gain
knowledge (American Association of School Librarians 3). This literature review
identifies the benefits of play and its link to the development of several domains,
including social, emotional, cognitive development, and literacy. The study also takes a
Human Development and Play
3
look at the barriers to play that need to be overcome. Finally, strategies for school
librarians to implement play in the library are examined. The results of this study show
that play is an essential part of childhood and learning.
Research Questions
Play is an essential aspect of childhood and learning. Play has been linked to
the development of several domains including social, emotional, cognitive development,
and literacy (Zigler, Singer, and Bishop-Josephs 9). Play has been an important
educational tool, and school librarians can utilize strategies to implement play in the
library. The following research questions guided this study:
1. What are the benefits of play?
2. What are the barriers to play?
3. How can school librarians support play in the library?
Limitations of the Study
Various limitations encumbered this research. First, a limited number of articles
focus on play in the library. Second, it was challenging to find scholarly journal articles
on the topic. Since this study is based on existing literature and no research was
conducted, it was necessary to rely on peer-reviewed journal articles. Due to
geographic constraints and inability to physically access the James C. Kirkpatrick
Library, this research was limited to full text online. Finally, time constraints bound by
the allotted course were a factor that limited the study.
Human Development and Play
Definitions of Terms
Constructivism: a theory, which posits that people construct their own understanding
and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those
experiences.
Information seeking: also referred to questing, is the process of trying to obtain
information in both human and technological contexts.
Intrinsic motivation: motivation derived from inside an individual rather than from any
external or outside rewards.
Play therapy: psychotherapy in which a child is encouraged to reveal feelings and
conflicts during play rather than through verbalization.
Research Design
Research for this study was guided by the aforementioned research
questions. Research was based upon previously published peer-reviewed
journal articles on the subject of play and human development. No new
independent research was conducted.
Articles referenced for this literature review were retrieved from the
following databases: ProQuest Central, Education Research Complete, Library
Literature & Information Science Full Text, Academic Search Elite, PsycArticles,
and Library, and Information Sciences & Technology Abstracts with Full Text.
Search terms included “play in the library,” “play and education,” “importance of
play,” “play and early education,” “learning through play,” “play therapy,” and
“video games and play.”
4
Human Development and Play
5
Conclusion
Play is one of the initial ways that children make sense of the world around
them. Play has been identified as an educational tool and has been linked to the
promotion of human development. Play is an essential part of childhood and
learning.
This paper consists of three chapters. The next chapter is a review of
literature and covers the meaning of play, play therapy, and theorists’
perspectives on play. Additionally, play and its alignment with American
Association of School Librarians Standard 1, “Inquire, think critically, and gain
knowledge,” is explained. Benefits along with barriers to play are explored.
Finally, strategies for the school librarian to incorporate play in the library are
discussed. Chapter 3 addresses the research questions that guided this study
and were posed in Chapter 1.
Human Development and Play
6
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
Play is an essential part of childhood and learning. Play has been linked to the
development of several domains including social, emotional, cognitive development,
and literacy (Zigler et al. 9). In the first section of this literature review, the meaning of
play, types of play, play therapy, and theorists’ perspectives are discussed. Through
play, learners can “Inquire, think critically, and gain knowledge” (American Association
of School Librarians 3). The second section of this paper will explore how American
Association of School Libraries (American Association of School Librarians) Standard 1,
aligns with certain aspects of play. Section three will cover the benefits and barriers to
play. Play has been used as an educational tool for years. However, now with the push
towards school readiness and improved test scores, play is often overlooked and
undervalued. The final section of this paper will show ways that the school librarian can
incorporate play in the school library.
Play and Play Therapy
Play is one of the initial ways that children make sense of the world around them
and learn how to interact with it. Play takes on a number of forms, from pretend play,
video games, questing, and more (Powell 836). This section will discuss the meaning of
play, types of play, play therapy, and different theorists’ perspectives regarding play.
Play is typically thought of as an activity engaged in for enjoyment and recreation,
especially by children. Edwards and Cutter-Mackenzie draw upon a child-centered view
and define play as allowing opportunities for children to learn as they create, discover,
imagine, and invent. Contemporary research shows the need for active involvement
Human Development and Play
7
from the educator to support children’s learning. Early childhood educators undertake
several roles in play with children and adopt a range of strategies to support learning.
Educators engage in shared conversations with children to extend their thinking. They
also provide a balance between child-led, child-initiated and educator-supported
learning (qtd. in Edwards and Cutter-Mackenzie, 53). “Intentional Teaching” is teaching
that is accomplished in a deliberate, purposeful, and thoughtful way. Intentional
teaching also focuses on the role of the teacher in play-based learning in which children
are encouraged to create their own learning and understanding through open-ended
and primarily self-directed play. Teachers take an active role in play-based learning by
including modeling, demonstrating, and engaging in shared thinking and problem
solving (Edwards and Cutter-Mackenzie, 53). Play is an essential part of childhood and
learning.
Although play is generally thought of as an activity occurring solely during early
childhood, it is actually important to all learners at all levels. Play is fundamental in
allowing students to develop critical thinking skills needed to solve academic problems
in all subjects (Ortlieb 241). Play is a minimally scripted, open-ended exploration where
the participant is immersed in the spontaneity of the experience.
Play can have various definitions, but some characteristics of play are
commonplace. Riley and Jones note that although different meanings are associated
with play, researchers have discovered certain characteristics that are typical of play.
Play involves intrinsic motivation to participate, active involvement from its players,
nonliteral meanings of the activity, stress on participation instead of outcome, meaning
of objects and activities given by players, and adaptability of its rules (146).
Human Development and Play
8
There are several types of play. Included among these are pretend play, free
play, and rule-bound play. Additionally, there is explorative play, gaming, and
information seeking.
One type of play that is very common is pretend or symbolic play. Pretending is
actually a method of thinking and learning and a means to play. Pretending may seem
effortless, but it is instead an intellectually demanding activity. Concentration and
inspiration are needed to pretend. “As children pretend, they transpose their knowledge
into symbolic form, and in the process, they begin to make the distinction between what
is real and what is pretend” (Zigler, Singer, and Bishop-Josef 42). An example of
symbolic play is when a child acts out a scene from Little Red Riding Hood. The boy
says, he will be the woodchopper and pretend that his hand is the axe. This type of
play demonstrates representation of an absent object and results in make believe
representation. Chaillé and Silvern note that it is impossible to represent or make
believe without applying active thought (275). Consequently, symbolic play may be
considered a prime example of active interest. Children would not be able to manipulate
something that is not present, nor can an object be substituted for another without some
mental effort. Interest is prevalent when children engage in symbolic play.
Two types of play that are best suited for the library are free play and rule-bound
play. These two types of play cultivate student learning (Crow and Robins 36-37). Rulebound games are structured, organized play bound by rules. These may include board
games, computer games, and video games. Participation is voluntary. There are rules,
goals, and feedback.
Human Development and Play
9
In free play, rules can be made up while students are playing. Examples of free
play include daydreaming, playfulness, and humor. This type of play is improvisational.
Playfulness is seen as interactive, dynamic, transformative, and imaginative. It can also
involve humor and lightheartedness (Crow and Robins 37).
One more type of play is explorative play. Comenius contends that play is a
significant instrument for learning in young children. Children need a natural
environment that allows them to learn from their exploration and play. Exploration and
play are essential ways in which young children learn. Encouraging play provides
children with experiences that teach them how to solve or overcome obstacles (Platz
and Arellano 57). Play is an essential part of childhood and learning.
Gaming is another form of play that has become quite popular. According to
Elzen and Roush, games are not only a regular part of daily life but they are quickly
becoming a more common tool in education (802). Nicholson notes that a central way
in which games differ from other types of media is that they are participatory. This
allows an opportunity for the library to establish connections between users through
creating shared experiences (12).
Information seeking is a type of play. This form is also known as questing.
Information seeking thrives within environments such as the learning commons where
there are many resources and ways for students to solve problems. Additionally, many
solutions can be discovered or created. Because information seeking is propelled by
personal interest, its navigation is imbued by playfulness. Questing depends on
seekers utilizing tacit knowledge in order to make associations among search results.
Human Development and Play
10
Seekers do this to establish which results align best with the quest (Crow and Robins
41).
Not only is play fundamental to learning but play can be used for therapy.
Studies in child centered play therapy focus on delving into play therapy’s impact on
children’s intelligence scores, reading measurements, and language development.
Studies by Newcomer and Morrison (666-669) and Siegel (32) reported that children
with learning disabilities who engaged in play therapy showed improvements in motor
functions and in overcoming learning difficulties. Recent studies by Quayle and
Schectman, et al. reported that participation in play therapy resulted in improved
academic performance in children (qtd. in Blanco, Ray, and Holliman 1-2).
Blanco, Ray, and Holliman discuss a follow up study, which was conducted with
eighteen academically at-risk elementary students. Researchers analyzed the use of
child centered play therapy from pre-intervention to mid-intervention (16 sessions) to
post-intervention (26 sessions). The instrument used was the Young Children’s
Achievement Test (YCAT), which measures achievement levels for children from 4-8
years old, presenting composite scores across five content domains. The YCAT allows
clinicians to view academic progress of students over time. The YCAT formulates the
Early Achievement Composite, which is an overall achievement score stemming from
five subtests, which measure specific content areas, related to academic achievement.
This composite scale shows the child’s school related achievement across the five
major areas of academic subtests, which are general information, reading,
mathematics, writing, and spoken language (Blanco, Ray, and Holliman 4-5). The
results of this study showed that a greater number of play therapy sessions provide a
Human Development and Play
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greater impact of treatment. Additionally, strong evidence supported the conclusion that
child centered play therapy may allow for a significant positive impact on children’s
academic achievement (11).
Not only have several studies been conducted, but theorists have analyzed play.
The early writings of John Amos Comenius, 17th Century Czech philosopher and
theologist, set the stage for rhetoric and theories on how best to raise and educate
young children. Comenius advocated a more child-centered, natural approach to the
development of and education for children (Platz 54). Prior to the time of Comenius,
there was little thought to the development and education of children. Most children
were ignored, with the exception of harsh discipline, until they could go to work and
contribute to the family. There was little parent-child interactions or education taking
place in the home (Platz 55).
In the centuries to follow, Fröebel and Dewey created educational programs,
which had a major influence on early childhood curriculum in the United States.
Friedrich Fröebel, the founder of the kindergarten, stressed the importance of play in the
education of children. Manning contends that Fröebel regarded the teacher’s role as
that of a guide to children’s activities. The educator assists children in forming
connections with their experiences with each other. Fröebel postulates that play is the
highest phase of child development. Play is a spiritual and pure activity. Play provides
happiness, liberties, contentment, rest, and peace in the world. Fröebel believes play is
the source of all that is good (qtd. in Manning 372). He expounds that play is the
method in which the child works to achieve inner harmony. Play enables children to gain
knowledge and skills needed as a human being (373). Fröebel used play as a teaching
Human Development and Play
12
strategy by creating games and songs to enhance children’s participation with one
another. Fröebel believed that play, along with games and songs, helped to shape
attitudes of cooperation and self-control in children (qtd. in Platz and Arellano 58).
According to Fröebel, play is a means for children to express their inner spiritual nature
to the external world. Play gives children experiences to convey their innermost
thoughts, needs, and wants to the outside world (Gutek 277).
Johann Pestalozzi, a Swiss educational reformer, also stressed the importance
of play. He believed that learning and education should be aligned with the natural
growth stages of children. He believed that children were individuals and the best
approach for learning was through self-discovery (qtd. in Platz and Arellano 58).
Furthermore, Pestalozzi, along with Fröebel, believed that play was instrumental in
advanced learning in young children.
Jean Piaget and John Dewey were both constructivists. One of the main
principles of this philosophy is that learners construct their own meaning from new
information, as they interact with reality or others with different perspectives.
Constructivist learning environments encourage students to utilize their prior knowledge
and experiences to generate new concepts in learning.
Jean Piaget, a Swiss developmental psychologist and philosopher, postulates
that learning happens when children are curious and interact with materials in their
environment. Their curiosity inspires them to select activities that have meaning for
them and about which they want to learn more. By exploring their environment, children
gain and construct knowledge of the world around them. Piaget noted that primary-aged
children are in transition between a preoperational stage and the concrete stage. While
Human Development and Play
13
in this transitional stage, available materials for children can aid in their early
understanding of mathematical and scientific concepts. For example, a child who plays
with puzzles learns spatial concepts, and play with pattern blocks assists children in
making discoveries about geometric shapes (qtd. in Riley and Jones 148).
John Dewey, an American philosopher and educational reformer, believed that
children mature and grow as a result of their life experiences (qtd. in Platz and Arellano
56). Dewey felt that young children should be viewed as active learners. He concurred
with many of his predecessors and supported play in education. He was cognizant of
play’s emotional and psychological benefits for children. Dewey realized that play is not
only fun but it also gives children many natural learning experiences that are age
appropriate and promote their development (qtd. in Platz and Arellano 56). Dewey
asserts that when children have the opportunity for physical activities, it enhances the
natural tendencies to play and it is easier to learn. Therefore, in order for children to
reach their potential to learn they should be engaged (qtd. in Ortlieb 243). Play is both
engaging and fun. Play is a fundamental part of learning and childhood.
American Association of School Librarians Standard 1 and Play
Through play, learners “Inquire, think critically, and gain knowledge” (American
Association of School Librarians 3). When students play, they gain critical thinking skills
as they solve problems. They become more creative and ultimately learn from their
own experiences (Ortlieb 241). This section will examine how certain aspects of play
align with Standard 1 and how play increases the ability to think and problem solve.
Furthermore, play’s link to knowledge gain will be discussed.
Human Development and Play
14
Inquiry is a very compelling aspect of learning. When students ask more
questions during play, they become better at becoming immersed in their imaginations
(Crow and Robins 40). Because much of play is inquiry-based, children are granted the
opportunity to explore, construct their own meaning, and learn for themselves (Emslie
and Mesle 6). Play, imagination, inquiry, and exploration are all vital to a child’s
development.
Ahart, Miller, Rominiecki, Smith and Yates note that in Standard 1, students
develop inquiry-based questions, exercise critical thinking tasks, and broaden their own
knowledge base as a result of their research. This standard can assist school librarians
in the effort to teach students how to use questions and inquiry to help evaluate their
research. Standard 1 necessitates that students reflect on their own processes as well
as obtain feedback from their peers and teachers (13). While students quest, a type of
play, their actions align with Standard 1. As seekers, students require the assistance of
school librarians to engage in clear thinking, discrimination, and to express themselves
accurately. Seekers discriminate by evaluating the authority and credibility of the
sources as well as to determine the best answer (qtd. in Crow and Robins 41 & 42).
Through play students can expand their problem-solving skills and adaptive
abilities. Crow and Robins contend that play can increase the ability to think, pose
questions, and seek answers (36). Learning while playing can expand the ability of
students because it allows teachers and students to explore, work in collaboration,
experiment, and share the knowledge they have gained (36). Standard 1 is supported
through play as learners “Inquire, think critically, and gain knowledge.”
Human Development and Play
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Gaining knowledge, which is the final part of American Association of School
Librarians Standard 1, can also be achieved through play. There are different types of
knowledge development that are enhanced through play. To begin, there is play and
physical knowledge. Physical knowledge is knowledge about objects and the world
around them. Individuals learn when they interact with the physical environment.
Chaillé and Silvern note that a number of interesting problems arise in the context of
play that lead to experimentation, creative problem solving, and cooperation. These
behaviors result in the construction of understanding and knowledge development
(276). An example is of two second graders constructing marble ramps using cardboard
tubes. They will come across problem-solving tasks that will lead to active
experimentation and consequent knowledge construction. They will discover that the
steeper the ramp, the faster the marble will roll.
Language is another content area where play and knowledge gain can occur.
Some of the most interesting oral developments occur in the context of play. In spoken
language, children have the opportunity to explore language without being afraid of
correction or constraint. Garvey notes that one of the characteristics of play, called the
“suspension of belief,” makes it possible for a 5-year old girl to “become” an old lady
through her speech and mannerisms. She employs experimentation with language
patterns and sounds in her dramatic play (Chaillé and Silvern 277).
Finally, play and knowledge gain is apparent during curricular integration. The
curriculum can be segmented according to what students are learning. That learning
can be monitored in the classroom so that an analysis of play and understanding can be
broken down, for example, by language, mathematics, and science. One of the most
Human Development and Play
16
notable characteristics of the play environment is that it facilitates the blending of ideas
and connections across content areas. For instance, when a child builds a set of gears,
labeling each part to keep track of where they belong, then literacy and spatial relations
come to play. When children play an exciting card game and debate how to keep
score, mathematics and oral communication are being used (Chaillé and Silvern 277).
Play is a fundamental part of childhood and learning. Inquiry, thinking critically, and
knowledge gain can be facilitated by encouraging students to engage in all types of
play.
Benefits and Barriers
Today children have less time for play than they did generations ago. Piaget
stated that a child enjoys play and takes it seriously. Through play learning happens
(Emslie and Mesle 1). This section will first detail the many benefits of play. It
concludes by presenting barriers to play.
There are numerous benefits to play. Ortlieb believes that discovery learning is
part of play. In discovery learning, students develop critical thinking skills to solve
academic problems in every subject area. Reflection is also necessary in individual and
group play. Students reflect on their play experiences to determine what went right,
what went wrong, and what improvements can be made. Reflection enables students to
critically analyze their own and others’ actions. Brown and Kasper note that video
games allow gamers to think visually and laterally. When students play video games,
critical thinking is encouraged (756). One of the most intuitive aspects of play is how it
transforms students into critical thinkers and more able individuals (Ortlieb 245).
Human Development and Play
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Play inspires the use of imagination, discovery, and knowledge building from
their environment, and the development of social skills. Through play, students gain
critical thinking skills as a result of problem solving. Students become more creative
and learn from reflecting on their experiences (Ortlieb 241).
Play is a means for exploration, experimentation, and engagement with the world
around them. Kaufman notes that “A child’s play is a way of exploring and
experimenting with building relations with the world and self. At play, a youngster learns
to learn, discovers how to come to terms with others, cope with tasks, and master skills.
A playing child is self-directed, involved, and absorbed” (11). Play is such a powerful
tool for learning because it enables participants to engage in experimentation (Thomas
and Brown p. 97). Play is central to childhood and learning.
Another benefit of play is that it is a form of active education. When children are
engaged and applying attention to their play, they are partaking in active education.
Piaget (1962) classifies four kinds of play, which are practice play, symbolic play,
games with rules, and construction. Active education takes form in each of these types
of play where mental activity occurs (Chaillé and Silvern 275).
Learning and cognitive development is fostered through play. Ginsberg writes
that play assists in the cognitive, physical, social, and emotional well being of children.
Benefits of play include that children increase their creativity and develop their
imagination as well as physical, cognitive, and emotional strengths. Ginsberg purports
that play helps children develop more competencies. These competencies are
instrumental in boosting self-esteem and building self-resiliency so that children are
better equipped to face future challenges (183).
Human Development and Play
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Crow describes research, which was conducted to better understand children’s
experiences in order to provide information for school librarian’s practice in fostering
intrinsic motivation geared towards information seeking. The participants included fifth
graders who were selected from three diverse schools. Data collection consisted of
information collected through interviews as well as drawings. Students spoke of a
variety of family happenings and school experiences. They showed an affinity for play
and a tendency for creativity (Crow ii). Participants in the study described many types
of play experiences from outdoor activities such as biking and hiking to sports to video
game usage. Research indicates that play is an important component in the
development of healthy individuals (Crow). “It increases affiliation with peers, releases
tensions, advances cognitive development, increases exploration, and provides a safe
haven in in which to engage in potentially dangerous behavior” (25).
Additionally, certain aspects of play are linked with intrinsic motivation. Berlyne
refers to play as a way to satisfy curiosity and the desire for exploration, which is at the
root of intrinsic motivation (qtd. in Crow 183). The participants, in the study noted by
Crow, all described their experiences with play as being a factor in fulfillment of their
needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. All of these aspects are factors of
the Ryan and Deci’s Self Determination Theory that foster intrinsic motivation (25). The
students in the study spoke of play with zest and some students relayed accounts of
play that involved information seeking. These findings indicated that the play life of
children is an important factor in their intrinsic motivation for information seeking (183).
Play continually energizes, engages, and motivates. Those who play are usually
intrinsically motivated to complete a task, which is crucial for creativity. Dansky and
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19
Lieberman contend that the power of play as a motivational tool may arise from its link
with positive emotional states, such as joy, pleasure, optimism, and excitement. These
are all important factors in the creative process (qtd. in Kurt, Kurt, and Medaille 13).
Another advantage provided for by play is that it provides a safe space for
students to grow and create. Almon describes the play arena as opening a door into a
space we otherwise may not enter. There is no high-stakes competition. This is an area
where there are deep feelings of safety and goodwill, where children can grow and
create. Reality is quite different (11). Ortlieb explains that since many students have a
fear of failing, especially in today’s test-driven society, the implementation of play allows
students to learn through their own experiences without fear of negative consequences
(244).
In gaming, for example, the part of play that is an essential method of problem
solving and learning is that it lowers the emotional stakes of failing. There is trial and
error, but players are prompted to set aside real world consequences of the represented
action and to take risks and learn from them (Jenkins 38). “Games construct compelling
worlds for players to move through. Players feel a part of those worlds and have some
stake in the events unfolding. Games do not only provide a rationale for learning; what
players learn is put to use immediately to solve compelling problems with real
consequences in the world of the game” (Jenkins 38).
Play also has a social aspect to it. Parten discusses an extensive observational
study of social behavior conducted with preschool children at the Institute of Child
Welfare, of the University of Minnesota. Thirty-four children were observed on a daily
basis each morning for one minute during the free play hour. Sixty observation samples
Human Development and Play
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were obtained. Playgroups differed in size from two to fifteen children with smaller
groups being more common. Findings included that 81% of five favorite playmates
were girls with girls while among the boys 62% were other boys. Of all the activities,
acting out home life was the most popular activity. The samples revealed three types of
play. First, the younger children were passive participants, letting the older students
lead them around as they played mommy and daddy roles. The second type of play was
imitating home life, which included dressing and undressing dolls, rocking them to
sleep, and putting them to bed. The third type of play involved playing house. Some
activities included setting the table for a party, packing suitcases for a trip, or going
grocery shopping (Parten 144). Play is seen as a social activity where children interact
with one another and form friendships.
A final benefit of play is that it can provide a relaxed classroom environment.
David Elkind states that society, including school, rushes children toward adulthood at
the detriment to their childhood. Because adults within the school system often
pressure children to conform to standards that are not child-friendly, children are not
able to be children and often succumb to stress (qtd. in Riley and Jones 147). When a
child is under stress, his or her brain’s ability to perform well is decreased. Classrooms
can be changed to decrease children’s stress levels. An instrument for providing a more
relaxed classroom is play. Teachers who design environments that are more playful
impose less stress by letting children make choices about their activities. Giving
children the freedom to make decisions about what and how they learn helps them find
the enjoyment that stems from learning. In addition, when students are allowed to make
Human Development and Play
21
decisions about play, they grow in confidence of their emerging abilities. This
developing confidence plays a part in developing self-efficacy (Riley and Jones 147).
Despite all of the numerous benefits of play, barriers exist as well. DiamantCohen et al. point out that many children experience barriers to play. Families living in
poverty may not have the same opportunities to play due to concern for their children’s
safety. Children may not have the opportunities to explore, make friends, or have free
play outside. Ironically, children who come from affluent families may be too busy with
activities and have such hectic schedules that they, too, have little time for free play.
Children with disabilities may have numerous doctor appointments and scheduled
therapies that detract from free play (3).
Emslie and Mesle state that children have less time to play in comparison to
previous generations as a result of stress on academics and a push towards improved
test scores throughout the nation. Gmitrova and Gmitrov contend that “Education is
becoming so focused on benchmarks, data, accountability, and adequate yearly
progress that even at the preschool level, intense, structured, and direct learning is
taking time away from the spontaneous, imaginative play that used to dominate
preschool classrooms” (qtd. in Emslie and Mesle 1).
With the push towards school readiness, play is often undervalued and
overlooked. Play has been eliminated in nearly all kindergartens in the United States
and is furthermore being removed from preschools. Instead, there is a focus on
academic instruction and school readiness. This early focus on academic instruction
deprives children of their time to play. Moreover, it shifts their attention to learning
standards and concerns that do not meld with open-ended creative play. Deep, pretend
Human Development and Play
22
play necessitates a feeling of freedom and self-direction. When children are urged out
of those spaces to be taught numbers and letters it weakens the child’s capacity to
enter into play. Taking play away in favor of early education is quite a loss. A recent
international study found that children showed increased gains in cognitive ability and in
language development at age seven if their preschools incorporated child-initiated
learning rather than instruction by a teacher (Diamant-Cohen et al. 13).
An additional barrier to play is that the pressures of standardized testing and
mandated instructional programs may prompt educators to forgo playtime. There is a
national trend centering on reading and arithmetic, which was inspired by the No Child
Left Behind Act of 2001 as a result of unacceptable educational performance of children
in the United States in some educational settings. Consequently, time for recess,
creative play, and even physical education has been decreased. Additionally, many
after-school childcare programs set precedence on extending academics and
homework completion rather than delegating time for organized play, free play, or
physical activity (Ginsberg 185). Although significant barriers to play exist, they can be
overcome. The next section will provide ideas for incorporating and restoring play. Play
is an essential part of learning and childhood.
Strategies to Incorporate and Restore Play in the School Library
Children are quickly becoming deprived of play. Almon posits that a steady rise
in academic pressure on young children and a steady decline in children’s health and
well-being have taken place. Almon believes these occurrences are interrelated.
Although changing the patterns of early education and restoring play in this country may
not be easy, Almon is encouraged by the renewed interest in play and by the report of
Human Development and Play
23
the American Academy of Pediatrics (2007) encouraging parents to let their children
play (14). This section will provide strategies and examples of how play can be
incorporated and restored in the school library. Bringing back and incorporating play is
crucial because play is an essential part of childhood and learning.
The best place in school where learning through play can be initiated is at the
library. By integrating play, library activities can be focused at increasing the ability for
students to learn because it is a place where students and teachers alike explore, work
together, experiment, show what they have learned, and engage with the ever-changing
world (Crow and Robins 36). Crow and Robins assert that play is a means by which
children make sense of the world they will inherit. When children play with information,
they are able to handle the great amount that is available. When educators and school
librarians focus more on the experience, play, and questions instead of efficiency,
products, and answers, then the library becomes a playground for the mind (Crow and
Robins, 36).
Ginsberg contends, “The challenge for society, schools, and parents is to strike
the balance that allows all children to reach their potential without pushing them beyond
their personal comfort limits and while allowing them personal free play-time” (185).
Play is an essential part of childhood and learning. School librarians restore and
promote play in the school library through various methods. To begin, school librarians
incorporate the use of storytelling. This includes fairy tales and nature tales. Children
may also become involved through puppetry and the arts (Almon 13). Play in the library
connects with learning about the world, listening and telling of stories, and the transition
Human Development and Play
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to the world of abstract learning. For the youngster, the early stages of these activities
are based in play (Diamant-Cohen 52).
In a 24-hour observational study at the public library, the usage of the children’s
section was explored in a small Northern Arizona city (Becker). Family story time
consisted of a 45-minute session replete with early literacy learning through the use of
rhyming along with poetic stories and song that show the rhythm of language.
Additionally, vocabulary and skill development linked literacy with enjoyment. The
librarian led the children in songs, games, and chants and read picture book stories
aloud (Becker 111). Prior to and during the read aloud, the librarian questioned children
about the book, including open-ended prompts about what was happening in the
pictures, along with relating words and pictures to the children's own personal
experiences.
Programs at the library are a wonderful way to incorporate play. Bane writes
about a program called “Let’s Pretend” which is held at the Hughes Main Library in
Greenville, South Carolina. This program is focused on children aged 2-5 years old. It
is held once a month and brings the world of make believe to the library. Books are the
stepping-stones for play experiences. Books are used to guide children through play
that focuses on the imagination and cultivates the development of thinking, language,
social, and physical skills. Also in this program, parents learn how to convert everyday
household items into playthings. Each month a different theme is presented. The
facilitators start with books, songs, and flannel board stories. This story time is an
introduction to the pretend play that will follow (44). School librarians can implement a
program such as “Let’s Pretend” to incorporate play in the library.
Human Development and Play
25
Playing games at the library is not a new idea. The oldest chess club in the
United States that still exists today began in 1854 at the Mechanic’s Institute Library in
San Francisco. Throughout the last 160 years, the number, variety, and availability of
games has expanded, but the underlying concept of the library embracing structured
play still prevails. Libraries support recreational gaming by circulating games as they
would other materials, such as books, and creating opportunities for patrons to play
games in the library (Nicholson 12).
Public libraries typically use games in a few ways. First, many librarians create
public spaces for chess, Scrabble, or other traditional games in either the children’s or
general sections. Second, many librarians allow players to use library computers for
either purchased or web-based games. Internet bandwidth is available for online
games. Additionally, summer reading programs may create games such as “who can
read the most books.” Small prizes awarded for completing summer book logs are
incentives. Lastly, public libraries host game competitions with chess, bridge, GO,
Mario Kart, and more.
Hosting open play events where community members get together to participate
in board or video games is an event to enjoy with friends and family and to get to know
others (Nicholson 14). Gaming programs support many libraries’ missions and goals.
These programs lead underserved patron groups to the library and augment existing
library programs. Gaming forges connections between community members, and
patrons learn that the library is still relevant to their needs and interests. Finally gaming
programs provide a more positive relationship between library staff and patrons if the
Human Development and Play
26
staff plays and facilitates positive game experiences (Nicholson 15). The promotion of
games and gaming events is another way to support play in the library.
Academic and school libraries also utilize recreational games. Some school
libraries host student gaming events geared towards specific types of tabletop or video
games prior to or following a class. This provides opportunities for students from
different social groups to interact with each other centering on a common interest. Also,
academic and school libraries may promote games for special events such as during
student orientation or finals week. For the most part, about half of gaming in school
libraries is recreation while the remainder is designed to support the curriculum
(Nicholson 14).
Finally, play incorporated in the library through online games is used to teach
library research and information literacy skills. In a study by Old Dominion University,
incorporating gaming and active learning elements into library instruction has been
effective for engaging millennials and improving their knowledge retention. In Fall 2013,
Rush developed a game based on the board game, Candy Land, to assist students in
learning information ethics. Candy Land was chosen for its simplicity. The rule sheet
was altered, renaming different aspects and characters in the game to relate them to
information ethics and learning outcomes from the session. This study found that
games address the different learning styles of millennials and foster active participation
by including social elements, being fast-paced, competitive, and student-centered. Rush
concluded that playing the Candy Land-based game enabled students to laugh and
have fun, while developing a good rapport with other students and the librarian.
Additionally, students achieved the learning outcomes for the class (Rush 11). Play is
Human Development and Play
27
proven to be an essential part of childhood as well as learning and can be supported in
the library.
Conclusion
Play is not only fundamental to childhood and learning but has numerous
benefits. Yet, there are many barriers to play that need to be overcome. Play is critical
in school environments because children may have fewer opportunities to participate in
high quality, active, playtime at home. Although there has been a shift to focus on
academics instead of play, these teacher-directed practices may teach fewer skills and
concepts than play. Appropriate and effective play is fundamental for students to gain
the skills necessary to grow and successfully develop. Emslie and Mesle contend that
“No other single teaching practice integrates and positively impacts children’s physical,
social, emotional, and cognitive development to the extent that facilitated play does”
(15). Play is an essential part of childhood and learning. However, play has been
undervalued and overlooked. Librarians restore and bring play back into school by
implementing activities and programs within the library to revitalize play.
Human Development and Play
28
CHAPTER 3
CONCLUSIONS
Introduction
Play is an essential part of childhood and learning. Play has been associated
with the development of several domains, including social, emotional, cognitive
development, and literacy (Zigler et al. 9). The three questions guiding the research of
this study are as follows: What are the benefits of play? What are the barriers to play?
How can school librarians support play in the library?
Benefits of Play
Play offers many benefits. Discovery learning is part of play. When students play,
they develop critical thinking skills that they use to solve academic problems in every
subject area. Reflection is also part of play. Students reflect on their play experiences
and figure out what went right, what went wrong, and what they can do to make things
better. Reflection allows students to take a look at their own and others’ actions and to
analyze them. Play transforms students into critical thinkers and more able individuals
(Ortlieb 245).
Learning and cognitive development is cultivated through play. Play also aids in
the physical, social, and emotional well being of children. Play inspires creativity and
develops imagination. Play assists children in developing competencies that are key to
increasing self-esteem and building self-resiliency so that they are better equipped to
face future challenges (Ginsberg 183). Play is also an avenue for exploration,
experimentation, and engagement of the world around them (Kaufman 11).
Human Development and Play
29
Play has a social aspect. Children play together in forms of free play with small or
large groups or with groups playing rule-bound games. Play is a social activity where
individuals interact with each other and form friendships.
Lastly, play provides a relaxed classroom environment to decrease stress levels.
Environments designed by teachers to make them more playful and less stressful allow
children to make choices about their activities. This freedom to make decisions helps
them find the enjoyment that stems from learning. Children are enabled to make
decisions during play and thus grow in confidence of their emerging abilities (Riley and
Jones 147).
Barriers to Play
Today, children have less time to play compared to previous generations. This is
due partially to the stress of academics and the push towards improved test scores
throughout the nation. Gmitrova and Gmitrov note that education is focused on
benchmarks, data, accountability, and adequate yearly progress. This focus detracts
from the time children are allowed for spontaneous, imaginative play (qtd. in Emslie and
Mesle 1).
The pressures of standardized testing and mandated instructional programs may
also prompt educators to forgo play. Many after-school childcare programs set a priority
on extending academics and completing homework rather than setting aside time for
organized play, free play, or physical activity.
Families living in poverty may not have the same opportunities to play due to
concern for their children’s safety. Consequently, these children may not have the
opportunities to explore, make friends, or have free play outdoors. Ironically, children
Human Development and Play
30
who come from affluent families may have such hectic schedules and are too busy with
activities that they too have minimal time for play. Children with disabilities may have
doctor appointments and scheduled therapies that detract from play (Diamant-Cole et
al. 3).
Play in the School Library
School librarians implement several strategies to bring play to the library. To
begin, school librarians incorporate the use of story telling, which include fairy tales and
nature tales. They use puppetry and the arts to involve children in play.
School librarians implement programs, which bring the world of make, believe to
the library. Story time may be used as an introduction with pretend play to follow.
School librarians lead children in songs, games, and read stories aloud. Afterwards, the
school librarian asks questions, including open-ended questions, about the books or
stories read, games played, and songs.
Games are a popular way to bring students into the library and to promote play.
School librarians support recreational gaming by circulating games as they would other
materials (Nicholson 12). Online games have been developed by librarians that are
used to teach research and information literacy skills within the school library.
School librarians create a space where traditional board games are played.
Computers are made available for players to use for either purchased or free webbased games. School libraries host gaming events and competitions where students
interact with others. By promoting games and gaming events, school librarians support
play in the library.
Human Development and Play
31
Emslie and Mesle purport that no other single teaching practice has such a
positive impact on children’s physical, social, emotional, and cognitive development as
facilitated play (15). Play is an essential part of childhood and learning. School librarians
work to support play and human development in the school library.
Human Development and Play
32
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