Chapter 2.3
The Potential of IT to Foster Literacy Development in Kindergarten
Judy van Scoter
Portland Public Schools
Portland, USA
[email protected]
Abstract: Technology is increasingly part of the lives of young children. This article explores
the role of technology to support and advance literacy development in kindergarten. Relevant
studies support the use and effectiveness of computers in early childhood, when the software
is designed and used in ways that address children's developmental needs. Topics
discussed include use of technology for literacy in play and exploration, hypertext and
electronic books to support emergent readers, integrating technology in the classroom, and
the value of IT in the inclusion classroom.
Keywords: Literacy, Young children, Early childhood, Reading, Writing, Inclusion classroom,
Kindergarten
Introduction
Controversy has always been part of the discussion surrounding young children's use
of computers and other forms of technology. Critics such as Healy (1999) express concerns
that children's time spent at a computer puts their physical and emotional health at risk, and
even threatens the loss of childhood itself (Cordes & Miller, 2000). At the same time,
computers are increasingly part of preschoolers' lives (Vernadakis, Avgerinos, &
Zachopoulou, 2005). While some continue to raise concerns, a consensus has formed that
technology can be used appropriately in ways that support meaningful learning for children
(Plowman & Stephen, 2003). Research over three decades refutes the claims of harmful
effects and provides evidence of IT's potential to benefit young children (see for example
Clements & Sarama, 2003; Plowman & Stephen 2003). The evidence is clear that computers
can help young children learn; the task now is to understand how best to assist children's
learning, and which types of learning will benefit from computer facilitation (Clements &
Swaminathan, 1995).
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This chapter examines uses of IT within the classroom and curriculum that have
demonstrated impact or the potential to foster literacy skills. Information Technology has
generally referred largely to computers. With rapid changes taking place in technology,
newer tools from digital cameras to “smart toys” are increasingly common in early childhood
settings. While some suggest the need for a broader definition of IT and recognition of the
access young children now have to a range of devices with their potential impact (Labbo,
2005; Plowman & Stephen, 2003), the main body of research continues to focus on
computer-based technology (Plowman & Stephen, 2003).
Literacy Development
Literacy has its beginnings in a child's earliest interactions with others, hearing and
absorbing language, and responding to the tone of the parent or caregiver. Literacy develops
over time through these countless social interactions and everyday experiences with
language. Children's language takes place in a social environment, prompted by their
involvement, communicating for a purpose. Language development is closely tied to
relationships and to the child's early experiences–the social aspects of reading and writing
activities are interesting and meaningful to young children. Positive experiences with literacy
from an early age, such as singing nursery rhymes or being read to, provide a basis for
successful literacy development (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998).
Pretend play is a valuable part of early literacy and provides important opportunities
to practice and experiment with language and thus acquire skills. Young children first write by
drawing; their ability to draw and to represent actions symbolically in dramatic play are part of
early literacy development (Bowman, Donovan, & Burns, 2000). In addition, the physical
environment influences children's opportunities to interact and to engage in literacy-rich play
(Shilling 1997). Oral language, representational play, and experimentation with written
language are all part of developing literacy. Interactive activities such as storybook reading,
language games, and communicative writing can also have significant influence on children's
oral and written language (Segers & Verhoeven, 2002).
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Written and oral language skills develop over time, and are interwoven with learning
to read (Fasting & Halaas Lyster, 2005). To support this development, there is a consensus
that the environment of young children should be rich in language, with a wide variety of
words used in extended conversations, interesting stories, and explanations (Snow, Burns, &
Griffin, 1998). Similarly, just as children learn oral language by using it for authentic
purposes, they learn about written language in an environment rich with meaningful
messages and functional print, surrounding children with words (Warash, Strong, & Donoho,
1999).
Playful exploration of reading and writing fosters communication in all forms. Early
childhood settings promote literacy by offering frequent opportunities for children to engage
in pretend play incorporating the tools of literacy; to experiment with language, using nonconventional forms of writing at first; and to express themselves through writing in many
kinds of texts for a variety of purposes (IRA & NAEYC, 1998). In such an environment
children encounter literacy as they pursue expression and communication for their own
purposes (Labbo, 2005).
IT and Literacy Development
Technology offers new, additional opportunities for language use and development. A
long history shows computers to be beneficial for encouraging language, interaction, and
conversations. Indeed, language development and emerging literacy are the most frequently
studied areas with young children (Plowman & Stephen, 2003; Shilling, 1997). Contrary to
initial concerns that computers would isolate children, computers and software can serve as
catalysts for social interaction and enhance language development. Children share
leadership roles and initiate interactions more frequently when using computers (Haugland &
Wright, 1997). They have more and different types of social interactions than during more
traditional activities such as play with blocks or puzzles, and researchers have consistently
observed high levels of verbal communication and cooperation as young children interact at
computers, (e.g. Clements, Nastasi & Swaminathan, 1993).
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Technology can take a positive role during children's play. Computer play elicits
language, encourages longer, more complex speech, and can increase language fluency
(Davidson & Wright, 1994). Graphics software allows children to draw pictures or geometric
shapes to represent their stories with greater ease (Davis & Shade, 1999) and to revise as
desired. As when drawing on paper, children tend to narrate what they are doing as they
draw on the computer, or move characters around on the screen (Davidson & Wright, 1994).
With computer graphics children often write and tell more detailed, elaborate stories than
they do about static pictures (Clements & Nastasi, 1993).
In kindergarten considerable attention is devoted to children's emergent literacy to
provide a sound base for reading and writing. There is increasing interest in emergent
reading and writing skills, along with the awareness that performance in these areas is an
important determinant of later academic success (Voogt & McKenney, 2007). Reading and
writing are important skills learned in school, with problems in these areas accounting for a
large number of students requiring special education services (Fasting & Halaas Lyster,
2005). Use of computers can help to teach young children about symbol systems and
communicative tools (Segers & Verhoeven, 2002), while children at high risk for learning
difficulties may benefit from intervention with computer materials, making significant
improvement in phonological awareness, word recognition, and letter-naming skills
(Mioduser, Tur-Kaspa, &Leitner, 2000). Van Daal & Reitsma (2000) suggest that use of
computer-assisted learning activities may provide an alternative to intensive one-to-one
intervention with struggling students that may also be more cost effective.
Word Processing
Research in the 1980's found that talking word processors provide a different and
effective approach for children to learn to write. Especially important with young children and
emergent readers, the tool can be used naturally in play and experimentation. Beginning
writers with access to support through synthesized speech feedback for their early efforts
show increases in risk taking, hypothesis testing, focused participation, and persistence as
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they explore written language (Rosegrant, 1988). As they become more skilled as writers,
children reduce their use of the support they request. Research also suggests that
computers, with and without speech-synthesized feedback, contribute to learning about
functions and features of print, when placed in an environment that fosters written language
exploration (Segers & Verhoeven, 2002; Shilling, 1997).
Children benefit from the guidance of adults and more able peers, making it possible
for them to accomplish what they could not otherwise do on their own (Vygotsky, 1978). In a
similar manner computers and appropriate software can provide scaffolding that supports
children and allows them to perform in their zone of proximal development. Word processors
provide critical support that lets young writers experiment more easily with the process of
writing, allowing them to focus on ideas and content rather than on the mechanics of stilldeveloping small motor skills (Silvern, 1988). Children write more, revise more, and are less
concerned about making mistakes when using these tools (Hoot & Silvern, 1988). Word
processing facilitates positive attitudes toward writing, increases children's confidence in their
writing, and can be used with preschool-aged children to explore written language and
successfully integrated into process-oriented writing programs as early as kindergarten.
(Clements & Nastasi, 1993).
Hypertext and Reading Potential in the Classroom
Hypertext, highlighted text that links to support materials, illustrates how IT can
respond to the needs and interests of individual readers as they interact with text (Labbo,
2000; Reinking & Bridwel-Bowles, 1991). Linked materials, which may include digitized text,
video, or other media forms, provide support for beginning or struggling readers, or those
with little background knowledge to bring to the text (Anderson-Inmann & Horney, 1998;
Labbo, 2000). These features allow for differentiation through offering the child the ability to
select needed support, such as word pronunciation, and thus some control of the
presentation of the text as the reader selects the path to navigate (Hasselbring & Williams
Glaser, 2000). Talking books, or interactive storybooks on CD-ROM, are a form of hypertext
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familiar in many classrooms. These hypermedia texts offer digitized pronunciation of words
and larger sections of text, and may also include such features as illustrations and
animations (Leu, 2000). Use of these tools can help reinforce skills and contribute to
comprehension.
While most of the research on multimedia software involves students age eight or
older, results with younger readers with access to support from digitized speech generally
show increases in comprehension (Leu, 2000; McKenna, 1998). Kindergarten and grade one
children (5-6 year olds) using electronic books show increases on sight words (McKenna,
1998; Lewin, 2000), though younger students may not make significant gains. A minimal
level of literacy skills may be needed to lead to the increase (McKenna, 1998). Different
types of support may also be appropriate for different levels of readers (Lewin, 2000). While
electronic books increase word recognition in context and students' ability to make meaning
of the text, a combination of reading both the electronic and the print version of the text
appears to provide the greatest benefit to students (Grant, 2004).
Research further suggests that computer-assisted software can be valuable for both
those experiencing difficulties with reading, and those who are progressing normally. Talking
book software can support an integrated-literacy approach by providing the text in an
alternative format, but research also notes the potential of possible reliance on the computer
for unknown words, with the child not developing alternative strategies (Lewin, 2000).
The educational value of interactive storybooks depends on the relevance of the
interactive features to the storyline. Similar stories matched for number of “pages” or
screens, and number of linked features per page lead to differing results when used with
children. Children's experiences reflect the relationship between the linked hypertext
materials and the story being presented. Hypermedia links that are congruent, that
supplement and are relevant to the story line, support involvement and understanding for the
child, while access to linked features that are predominantly illogical or incidental detract
from the text, impede student comprehension, and result in more passive viewing (Labbo,
2005; Leu, 2000; Trushell & Maitland, 2005), particularly for children at an early stage of
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understanding stories (de Jong & Bus, 2004). Current research shows value in the use of
hypertext in reading, and sounds a caution that the materials used be well-designed, and
used along with other resources to ensure development of the variety of strategies necessary
for skilled readers.
Given the impact of learning difficulties, it is not surprising that the needs of children
with disabilities is a continuing area of interest in the research on IT and literacy. Indeed, this
area accounts for a significant portion of the recent research relating to young children and
technology (see also the section Technology in the inclusion classroom). A review of recent
studies on literacy and technology found a scarcity of studies identified in the areas of
literacy and technology. Of the studies identified, only a small fraction dealt with children from
0-8 years of age (Lankshear & Kobel, 2003). Moreover, the early childhood studies revealed
that a large majority of the small body of studies related to decoding and encoding skills.
While the authors note that a portion of the studies focus on learners with mild to moderate
disabilities, they and others question whether new technologies are being used to full
advantage. New technologies have the potential to go beyond the current definition of
literacy, focused on text in print, and consider a future quite different from the past.
Interactive storybooks may offer significant changes in the way young children
experience reading. Before children are able to read and decode fluently, they have a large
vocabulary, as well as familiarity with print conventions, and working knowledge of the
structure of language; they may, however, recognize only a small number of words in print.
With support from digital text, electronic books may offer children the potential to read
independently long before they reach automaticity (McKenna, 1998). And while electronic
books may not be a satisfactory replacement for adults reading aloud to children, they can
provide another way to listen to stories, allowing children with the ability to understand stories
to engage in independent reading before they are able to read conventional text (de Jong &
Bus, 2004). As electronic forms of literature become more commonplace, new definitions and
understandings of what literacy means will need to be developed.
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Integrated Learning Systems and Drill and Practice
Integrated learning systems (ILS) or computer-assisted instruction (CAI), available for
many years, are receiving increased attention. The appeal of a software package that may
improve academic performance, together with the availability of affordable, high speed
computers, has raised new interest in the use of computerized instruction. Research on ILS
has produced mixed results, however, and does not provide compelling evidence of positive
outcomes (Cassady & Smith, 2004; Leu, 2000; Van Daal & Reitsma, 2000).
Although ILS may be moderately successful in improving basic skills (Davis & Shade
1999), this type of software is less likely to include the characteristics identified by NAEYC
(1998) as developmentally appropriate, such as open-ended, active learning, with children in
control of the pacing and the path of the action. Some express concern that ILS, with its
sequence of lessons based on prior performance, diminishes teacher and child control over
young children's development (Clements, 1994). Newer programs allow some control to
teachers and children through authoring options, an important feature if teachers wish to
adapt the program to address the needs of students (Bauserman, Cassady, Smith, & Stroud,
2005). This feature offers the potential to individualize instruction, and to allow various
modes of presentation, such as text, audio, and graphics, to support the curriculum.
While research is limited on the effective use of ILS for increasing emergent literacy
skills, ILS are found to be most effective when the program can be adapted to meet
individual needs, and is integrated into and consistent with the curriculum (Bauserman et al.,
2005; Davis & Shade, 1999). ILS should not be used to replace teacher-led instruction, but
may be used as a supplement in the classroom (Davis & Shade, 1999; Ferguson, 2001). To
receive the greatest benefits, the software must align with the literacy goals, and with
students' individual instructional needs (Labbo, et al., 2003). As with any computer program,
learning with computers can be effective only with the teacher's attention to the critical
features of quality of the software, the amount of time children work with the software, and
the way in which they use it (Clements, 1994).
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Integrating IT in the Kindergarten Classroom
Having a variety of literacy tools available in the classroom encourages developing
skills as children practice and experiment with language. Center areas can provide literacy
props for dramatic play, such as office play, grocery store, or restaurant, and offer frequent
opportunities for children to read and write for their own purposes. Working in collaboration
with others increases a child's understanding and success, and builds language skills as they
talk together about their activities. Children might use paper, pencils, and crayons for writing
and drawing, along with computers and software, pursuing their pretend play. With ready
access, children reap the benefits of IT as an integral part of the curriculum, supporting and
enhancing the literacy program. Computer-based technologies embedded in the learning
environment, are perceived to be available for children to use in accomplish their own goals
(Clements, Nastasi & Swaminathan, 1993). Research (e.g. Roschelle, Pea, Hoadley, Gordin
& Means, 2000) confirms that computer-based technologies offer four key characteristics of
effective learning environments: active engagement, collaborative learning, frequent and
immediate feedback, and connections to real world contexts. In this section we discuss how
IT might be integrated in the kindergarten classroom and which conditions are necessary to
facilitate IT integration.
Print-Rich Environment
Children's words displayed in the classroom encourage reading of meaningful text.
Technology can serve as an excellent exposure to print by offering other ways to record and
display text. Banners, posters, or charts that students create reinforce language skills, and
surround them with words. Children may choose to write with paper and crayons, or use
software programs that let them experiment with languages or create stories. They may type
words to accompany photos, or create stories. IT makes it easy for children to tell their
stories in a variety of ways, responding to individual needs and preferences. Emergent
writers might tell a story in pictures through paper and pencil drawings, drawings on a
computer, or capturing images with a camera. They may then choose to add a caption, or to
9
record their own words as they relate the story that goes along with the pictures.
Technology Center
A technology center can be arranged to have children work together, and to
encourage students to experiment and explore language. Word processing provides
opportunities for child-directed exploration and experiences with written language. The
talking word processor with digitized speech allows children to hear the sounds of letters or
words as they are entered on the keyboard. Children working together may type in a word,
then perhaps change one letter to make rhyming words as they play with the sound and
rhythm of language. They receive immediate spoken feedback that can lead to further
attempts, or refinement of the text to more closely match what was intended. Digital or
synthesized speech can also provide independent learning experiences for young readers as
they listen to text read aloud–their own or that of others–while viewing it on the screen. The
reading–writing connection is strong, and children benefit in each area as they read and
revise their own words. Word processing encourages writing, increases motivation, and
improves writing skills. Writing for an audience engages students and gives authenticity to
the work. With computers and printers commonly available, publishing within the school or
classroom is an option.
IT and the Classroom Reading Corner
A classroom reading corner may have interactive story books nestled alongside print
books , both a regular part of reading activities. In addition to children reading for their own
pleasure, interactive story books can also be easily integrated into the interactive reading
commonly practiced in the classroom and blend into existing literacy practices with little
disruption (Trushell & Maitland, 2005).
Connection with Real Worlds
Children learn a language best, whether first language or second, by using it to
10
communicate. Sending home photographs of classroom activities enhances communication
and home–school connections, and fosters oral language as children and families talk about
the activities. With digital cameras it is easy to print and send home photos the same day. No
captions are needed, so when children share pictures with their families they can be
discussed in the home language. Alternatively, including children's captions provides
opportunities for children to practice reading meaningful text.
For young authors another option is to write as a group. Using a large monitor for
display, a teacher can record children's words, then guide them through revising for the
finished product. The record of class activities, stories, and projects can be shared and
enjoyed by families and the community.
Products and Presentations
Visual representations offer rich opportunities for learners at all levels and speaking a
variety of languages. Practitioners find that digital cameras motivate and engage students,
thus encouraging language skills, with even young children able and eager to be the
photographer. Their experiences echo the finding of Roschelle et al. (2000) of the power of
involvement. Children love to take photos that record and document activities. Photos keep
the activity fresh as children revisit the learning. Pictures become a springboard for language
as small groups of children combine images and words into a slide show. Software allows for
revision of images and recordings at any time, and the creator receives immediate feedback
when viewing the revised version. The ease of revision encourages students to return and
improve on their original efforts (Duling 1999).
Presentation software is a useful tool for children to elaborate on a topic and show
their learning in words and pictures. With a child-friendly program–Kid Pix
(http://www.learningcompany.com/jump.jsp?itemID=87&itemType=CATEGORY) is one wellknown example–children can combine pictures with written text or oral language. The result
may be a single screen, with a title or description of what is happening in the picture. With
the student in control, the slide show may contain any number of slides, adapting to the
11
ability of the child, with narration, captions, and text growing as the child's oral and written
language skills develop.
Technology and Literacy in the Inclusion Classroom
In addition to the opportunities for differentiation afforded to students by technology,
applications can be of particular value in the inclusion classroom. Computers and other
technologies can provide critical support to students with special needs. Children who
struggle with difficulties comprehending text can benefit from supported text, electronic
modifications that give the reader access to support materials that may include additional
text, sound, or graphics as well as synthesized speech (Anderson-Inman & Honey, 1998).
Children can access the type of support they need, thus providing autonomy and
individualized learning.
The characteristics and features of word processing that make it an effective tool for
all students also make it a valuable tool for students with special needs (Hasselbring &
Williams Glaser, 2000). By giving children more control over their work, word processors can
improve confidence, motivation, and writing ability, and may enhance self-esteem of children
with learning disabilities (Clements, Nastasi, & Swaminathan, 1993).
Computer use can also contribute to social interaction for young children with
disabilities, enhance interpersonal interactions, and lead to significant gains in
communication and other emergent literacy behavior. The use of involving, interactive
software programs encourages communication, even for children who tend not to
communicate (Hutinger, 1996).
Children learning a second language engage in language learning and linguistic
practice in response to software that provides support through visual clues and animations
(Brooker & Siraj-Blatchford, 2002). Children learning a second language can have access to
reading materials in both languages, with or without audio versions, or spoken text, thus
supporting both the home and the second language. (Anderson-Inman & Horney, 1998;
Labbo, 2000).
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When composing on word processors students read and re-read their words on the
screen as the make changes to improve their text, providing valuable practice. Students with
limited English tend to experiment more with language when using word processors due to
the ease of revision, particularly important for students learning a language who may be
hesitant to put words on paper (Johnson, 1988). Johnson quotes a first grader on the appeal
of technology: “I love to write on the computer cuz the eraser (delete key) doesn't make holes
in my paper.”
Implementation Concerns
Of course, learning is not solely a matter of software and hardware. To implement
technology in the kindergarten classroom one needs to be aware that:
- As with all instructional materials, software should be consistent with best practice in
literacy instruction and with classroom curriculum goals, complementing rather than
supplanting effective teaching or curriculum (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998).
- Children are more interested and less frustrated when an adult is present, and computer
use, especially at first, may be facilitated or mediated by the teacher, consistent with best
practice at this age (Clements & Nastasi,1993; Voogt & McKenney, 2007).
- Modelling technology in real life activities—printing digital photographs or making labels—
shows children the value of the tools and how they are used (Plowman & Stephen, 2007).
- Despite the fact that there is a large selection of edutainment software available for the
home market, high quality educational software for emergent and beginning readers is in
short supply (Segers & Verhoeven, 2002).
- To be effective, the kindergarten program must provide a balance of open-ended and
more closed learning activities ( Segers & Verhoeven, 2002),
- Computer interaction can be helpful in supporting young children's early reading skills (
Segers & Verhoeven, 2002); regular and frequent use of technology can have a positive
effect on the literacy development of four and five year olds (Voogt & McKenney, 2007).
- Technology is used within a social environment, and mediated by interaction with teachers
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and peers. The teacher plays a critical role in determining the manner in which the tools
are used, indeed, whether they are used at all (Segers & Verhoeven, 2002; Clements &
Nastasi, 1993). Teaching through computers is an interactive process requiring teacher
involvement. The teacher is key in integrating technology, encouraging collaboration
among students and student independence in activities.
While a number of factors contribute to the growth of IT use in early childhood,
including increased awareness of what IT can offer, and greater familiarity and comfort with
technology among adults, evidence suggests that teachers are more likely to adopt
technologies that fit their current practices or can be easily adapted. Leu (2000) posits that
teachers with constructive beliefs, in which students actively construct their understandings
rather than passively absorbs information, may be more comfortable with hypermedia, and
therefore less resistant to the technology because it aligns with teachers' beliefs.
Technology as a Benign Addition
The presence of technology in early childhood education is becoming more and more
a physical reality, with hardware available and in place. The next step, beyond the necessary
infrastructure, is to create the robust pedagogical solutions to learning problems ( Mioduser,
Tur-Kaspa, &Leitner, (2000; Plowman & Stephen (2003). Plowman & Stephen note that, at
present, the widespread use of technology with children of this age is as a supplement to
classroom practice, rather than fundamentally transforming the environment. Others point out
that most teachers continue to use technology in traditional ways, such as drill on basic skills,
and instructional games (Clements, 1994; Haugland 1999). Technology used for its own
sake, or as an add-on, does not take advantage of the potential for IT to contribute to student
involvement and deep learning. For children to actively engage in learning, software and
contexts for learning must support and encourage authentic, creative, and meaningful
opportunities for children (Yelland, 1999).
Although many questions are still to be answered as to the most promising
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approaches, clearly IT offers additional and valuable means to engage in learning. While
technology is too frequently used as an add-on it can have significant impacts on language
and literacy development. Research over decades records the benefits that computers and
appropriate software afford young readers and authors. Computers encourage social
interactions and language as children work together. Graphics software provides beginning
writers with additional ways to tell their stories in pictures. Word processors support early
efforts at writing and, with synthesized speech, provide immediate feedback to children
experimenting with language. Hypertext gives the reader access to support responding to the
needs of the individual at that time. Talking books allow children to read independently with
the support of electronic text, and to read text in two different formats. IT offers students
more control over their work and provides critical support for struggling readers and students
with special needs.
The number of educators incorporating technology into their literacy curriculum
continues to increase with awareness of the new forms of support it offers children. Access
to the many tools of literacy, including technology, can foster reading and writing skills and
increase opportunities for success for all students.
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