Animal Behavior
OVERVIEW
INSTRUCTOR:
UNIT: Explanation of Animal Anatomy and Physiology Related to Nutrition, Reproduction,
Health, and Management of Domesticated Animals
LESSON: Animal Behavior
IMS REFERENCE: IMS #8817-C
TOPIC NOTES
“You can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make him drink”
A youth club took horses from south Florida to a state horsemanship clinic in north Florida. All of
the horses seemed to be adapting to the new stable fairly well after their long trip, munching on
hay and grain and sipping water as they rested in their stalls. One horse, however, would not
drink the water and began to develop a bellyache, or colic. The owners were very concerned and
ready to haul the horse home, but they were also afraid that would make the horse even sicker.
The veterinarian suggested placing Kool-Aid in the water to disguise the unfamiliar mineral taste
of the water. In doing so, the owners found the horse back to normal the following morning.
The situation described illustrates several principles of animal behavior, including those of
feeding behavior and habituation, which are discussed in this topic.
INTRODUCTION
The behavior of an animal represents the
interface between the animal and its
environment. Behavioral responses are
usually the most flexible and are a rapid
way for the animal to promote survival.
Ethology* is the study of animal behavior
in the animal’s natural habitat. Livestock
and poultry producers need to be
knowledgeable of animal behavior
patterns. They then can more effectively
and efficiently manage and train livestock.
The technique of management a producer
employs for a particular animal influences
the animal’s economic production.
FACTORS DETERMINING BEHAVIOR
Each animal has a personality, or disposition, that differs from other animals. Its genetic makeup
and environmental situation are two major factors that determine or influence its disposition.
Instinct and genetics are unalterable. However, producers know they can do something about the
environmental situation. They can improve animal production by catering to particular livestock
and poultry needs by modifying the local environment in which the animals live.
Many animal behaviors are a result of the interactions between genetics of an animal and its
environment. Environmental influences that affect behavior after birth consist of imprinting,
photoperiod, and social group.
* Underlined words are defined in the Glossary of Terms.
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Animal Behavior
Instinct
Instinct is a reflex and response that an animal has at birth. Instinctive behaviors are those an
animal exhibits without any chance to learn them. The central nervous system seems
preprogrammed to respond to a specific stimulus in a certain way. At birth, all mammals have the
instinct to nurse. A mother has an instinct to care for her young.
Habituation
Habituation is when an animal learns to respond without thinking. It is the gradual adaptation to a
stimulus or to the environment. Response to a certain stimulus is established as a result of
habituation.
Conditioning
Conditioning is when an animal learns to respond in a particular way to a stimulus and a producer
provides a reward for making the proper response. An example is when cattle come to feed
(reward) at feeding time when called (stimulus).
Reasoning
Reasoning is the animal’s ability to respond correctly to a stimulus when presented with a new
situation.
Intelligence
Intelligence is the animal’s ability to learn to adjust successfully to certain situations
Imprinting
Imprinting is the process where the young
animal learns who its mother is, bonds to
its mother or parents, and learns to what
species it belongs. A sow builds a nest,
and this aids in the bonding of a sow to
her pigs. Imprinting is a type of learning
whereby the animal associates with
members or its own species or even with
humans or another species.
Imprinting has a critical period, which is
different for different species. Exposing
animals to humans during this critical
period decreases stress on the animals
during their future contacts with people.
Lambs should be first handled two days after birth by humans. For horses, the first 42 days of life
are the most important for initial human contact. Extended contact over the first nine months of
life is the best time to accustom cattle to humans. Poultry do not appear to have a critical period
for association with humans.
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Animal Behavior
TYPES OF BEHAVIOR
A producer can often determine the most adequate management practices for an animal enterprise
by knowing types of animal behavior. Understanding animal behavior helps a producer analyze
the results of animal nutrition, physiology, breeding, and management. An animal under stress
may consume a smaller amount of feed and be less productive. Comprehending behavior
increases the efficiency of labor, limits handling problems, decreases accidents to humans and
other animals, and increases well-being and productivity of livestock.
The following behaviors are the most influential to an animal’s welfare, productivity, and
profitability. They are the most crucial ones to observe.
Sexual Behavior
Observing a female’s behavior helps in determining proper breeding programs. For example,
cows that are in heat allow themselves to be mounted by other females. This condition is
observed as “standing heat,” or estrus. A producer who observes this behavior can then identify
the cows to be bred artificially. In a sexually active group of cows, the bull normally is visually
attracted to a cow in heat by viewing cow-to-cow mounting. Bulls are also attracted to cows by
olfactory cues. Pheromones, chemical substances that attract the opposite sex, are present in the
vaginal secretions and in urine of females. Males detect these pheromones by the sense of smell.
When a cow reaches full heat, she allows a bull to mount. Females are receptive for varying
lengths of time. Cows are usually in heat for approximately 12 hours, ewes and nannies for 24 to
36 hours, and mares for 5 to 7 days. Ewes may show silent heat, that is, they have no outward
signs to indicate that they are in heat. A boar does not seem to detect a sow that is in heat by
smelling or seeing. If a boar is introduced into a group of sows, he will chase any sow, whether
she is in heat or not. A sow that is in heat
will seek out the boar for mating.
Livestock tend to be polygamous, that is,
they breed freely without a particular mate.
Poultry, however, do exhibit preferential
mating. Cockerels and tom turkeys show
preferences for certain females and may
even refuse to mate with other females.
Female poultry may refuse to mate with
certain males as well.
Behavioral patterns are related to the sex of
the animal and also changes resulting from
castration. Non- castrated, or intact, males
are more aggressive in behavior. Castrates
are more docile.
Maternal Behavior
When the young of cattle, sheep, goats, and horses are born, the mothers clean their young by
licking them. This stimulates blood circulation. It also encourages the young to stand and nurse.
A sow does not clean her newborn young, but she encourages her young to nurse by lying down
and moving her feet. Cows, sows, and mares normally become very aggressive in protecting their
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young. The ewe and lamb, as well as the cow and calf, have particularly strong attachments.
About 100 to 120 days after birth, beef cows decrease their milk output; ewes do the same at 60
to 75 days. This forces the young to search for forage. Care giving declines at this time.
Communication Behavior
Communication can occur with the use of any of the senses. A
mother decides to accept or reject her young by the smell of
the offspring (olfactory cue). Young use a distress call when
separated from their mothers, and adults employ this call when
under stress (auditory cue).
Many farm animals respond to the calls or whistles of the
producer when it is feeding time. The animals learn that the
stimulus of the sound relates to being fed.
Social Behavior
Social behavior includes both aggressive and passive behaviors. Livestock exhibit these behaviors
when they are in physical contact with other animals or when humans are present.
Interaction with other animals
Male farm animals fight when they meet other unfamiliar males of the same species, unless they
are castrated. A producer thus runs one male with a group of females during the breeding season.
Females fight less than do males, but they generally develop a pecking order, or social ranking.
Social rank normally exists in herds of cows, goats, sheep, and horses, as well as in flocks of
poultry. Horned cows usually outrank polled or dehorned cows, especially when space is limited.
Factors affecting social rank include differences in age, size, strength, genetic background, and
previous experience. Social rank remains the same after the group of animals establishes the rank.
Interaction with humans
Animals have a disposition ranging from docile to wild. The way an animal responds to human
interaction or handling determines the animal’s disposition. Disposition of an animal is a result of
inherited characteristics and also previous human treatment of the animal. Producers should treat
animals with care to promote a positive disposition. Animals with extremely wild dispositions
should be culled from the herd. These animals are a threat to personal safety. They may damage
facilities and also excite/injure other animals. Nervous, excitable cattle have lower weight gains
and greater incidence of dark cutters and tough meat than do calmer cattle.
A livestock producer should know an animal’s disposition before making initial contact with the
animal. The producer should imagine oneself in the animal’s place and view the situation from
the animal’s perspective.
Behavior during handling and restraint
Knowledge of animal behavior is important for safety and for decreasing stress for both the
producer and the animal. The ease of handling animals depends on disposition and size of animal,
previous experience with the animal, and design of the handling facilities. Most animals have a
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flight zone, or personal space. When another animal or a person moves inside this zone, the
animal normally moves away.
An animal also has a point of balance, which is the shoulder. An animal moves forward if a
handler stands behind the point of the shoulder. Conversely, the animal moves backward if the
handler is in front of the point of balance.
Cattle have orbital vision (their field of view ranges from 310 to 360 degrees). This makes them
sensitive to shadows and abrupt movements. Cattle also have blind spots directly in front and
behind, and may charge or kick if approached from the front or rear. Curved chutes with solid
sides are appropriate for cattle. When working cattle, a producer should eliminate strange odors
and noises (especially high-pitched noises) and refrain from waving the arms and hands. Cattle
and horses do not like to enter darkened areas. That is why it is important to open a window or
side door on a trailer when loading an animal. Livestock follow the leader in single file in a
partially empty chute, and they will move forward to fill in a vacant space.
Feeding Behavior
Ruminants swallow food as soon as it is well lubricated, rather than chewing it first. Sheep and
goats graze 9 to 11 hours a day, and cattle graze 4 to 9 hours a day. Normally, animals graze more
heavily near a water source. Rest and rumination conventionally follow each grazing period.
Sheep ruminate 7 to 10 hours per day; cattle ruminate 4 to 9 hours per day. Age of animal and
weather conditions affect the animal’s grazing behavior. Animals usually eat less during
extremely hot or cold temperatures.
Animals develop feed preferences by identifying nutritious feeds and avoiding toxic materials.
They do this by being around their mothers and other animals. Mothers remember their
experiences with certain feeds for up to three years. The young offspring, however, will try new
feeds. They relate their experiences with novel feeds and gradually adapt to new feeds that create
positive experiences. Young foragers spend more time looking for feed, but less time actually
eating it.
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Shelter-Seeking Behavior
Livestock differ greatly in this behavioral trait. Sheep and cattle prefer shady areas for rest and
rumination when it is hot. Hogs try to find a wet area. During cold weather, sheep and cattle tend
to crowd together. Pigs also crowd together, especially when they are lying down.
Investigative Behavior
Animals tend to be curious, but cautious, when approaching humans. Horses, dairy goats, and
pigs are extremely curious about strange objects. When investigating a strange object, they
usually approach slowly and carefully. Cattle are also investigators, but sheep are generally more
timid and less curious.
Allelomimetic Behavior
Animals of the same species, and
especially of the same herd, are
allelomimetic. That is, they tend to do the
same thing and at the same time.
Ruminants normally graze and then rest
and ruminate together. Cattle grazing on
large range areas gather together at a
watering place at the same time of day.
This is helpful for a producer needing to
monitor all the animals at onetime. It is
also useful with artificial breeding systems, because the producer can easily identify females in
heat.
Fear Mechanisms
Fear is a survival emotion that motivates animals to flee from predators. Fear memory is recorded
in the amygdala, a center in the lower brain. Livestock may develop permanent fear memories.
Fear memory problems usually occur in flighty, excitable horses and cattle. Producers should
ensure that an animal’s first experience in a new situation is pleasant, so that the fear memory
does not prevent the animal from being handled in a calm manner at a later time. For example, a
cow that hit her head on a head gate yesterday may not want to enter a chute today.
ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR
Knowledge of the normal behavior of livestock permits an alert producer to detect abnormalities
and use them as diagnostic clues to illness, stress, inadequate nutrition, and other problems. Stress
and sickness are two of the main causes of inappropriate or unusual behavior. Stress is any
environmental factor that causes major changes in the animal’s physiological processes. Physical
sources of stress include low and high environmental temperatures, nutritional deficiencies, dust,
fatigue, weaning, transportation, dehorning, docking, castration, and abusive or excessive
handling. Stress can also occur because of social aggression or overcrowded living conditions.
In routine handling of livestock, the producer can reduce stress by making physical contact with
the animals, such as stroking, scratching and patting, and using voice and social gestures specific
to a particular species to create social identification with the animals. The producer can create a
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stable environment by expressing consistent and confident actions and developing observational
skills to better relate to the animals. A producer can even join the social system of the animals.
Prolonged stress is detrimental to the body’s immune system, causing reduced resistance to
diseases. The producer should detect sick animals and isolate them from the healthy animals,
because animals treated in the early stages of sickness are more likely to recover.
Symptoms of a Sick Animal
Loss of appetite.
Restless and depressed.
Ears droop or not in an alert position.
Humped back with a lowered head.
Isolation (stays away from the herd).
Coughing, wheezing, or labored breathing.
Vital signs differ from the normal ranges.
NORMAL VITAL SIGNS OF LIVESTOCK
Producers should know the normal vital signs of their livestock. Drastic extremes above or below
the normal ranges are serious threats to an animal’s health. The following chart provides normal
ranges for various livestock species.
Body Temperature (Rectal)
An elevated body temperature is normal with most infectious diseases. Other causes of high body
temperature include excitement, exercise, digestion, rest, and high environmental temperature.
Chilling or a body temperature below the normal range in a sick animal is a more serious
situation.
Respiration Rate
The respiration, or breathing, rate of an animal varies with excitement, exertion, and size of the
animal. An increase in the respiration rate becomes a concern if it is caused by fever, pain,
weakness, infection, or a lung ailment.
Pulse (Heart) Rate
The pulse rate of an animal also varies, generally with the size of the animal. A mouse may have
a pulse rate of 600, whereas an elephant’s rate may be 40 beats per minute. Age also influences
the pulse rate. Younger animals tend to have more rapid pulse rates. Exercise, excitement,
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digestion, and an elevated body temperature can also cause acceleration in pulse rate.
SUMMARY
Livestock producers can be more efficient in livestock production if they have a knowledge of
animal behavior. Knowledge of the origin of the animal’s disposition and what to expect from a
particular animal create a safer and more productive enterprise.
To recognize and correct abnormal behavior, a producer should ask the following questions:
Are the animals producing normally?
Are the animals healthy and free from injury?
Are the animals showing normal behavior? If not, -
What is the animal doing? How is it behaving?
Would this behavior be expected at this time and place?
Why is the animal acting this way?
Are the animals handled/housed without undue stress?
Are the animals handled according to their specific behavior patterns?
If the system is adversely affecting the animals, can it be changed or made more
acceptable?
If the system should be abandoned, what are the alternatives?
If problems occur with behavior and health of the animals, the producer can often correct them by
observing and evaluating the situation. Visual observation and evaluation of vital signs help the
producer identify health problems in early stages.
The producer should recognize and reduce stressful conditions to minimize health problems.
Early recognition of an unhealthy animal dictates the need for prompt treatment, which prevents
serious losses. Most adverse situations can be corrected by simply altering the environmental
conditions of the animal.
Selected Web sites for information on animal behavior:
http://cricket.unl.edu/Internet.html http://www.academicpress.com/anbehav
http://www.animalbehavior.org/ http://www.idealibrary.com/servlet/toc/ar
http://www.indiana.edu/~animal/bulletin.html http://www.isab.org/journal/
http://www.vet.purdue.edu/depts/vad/cae/
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Sabrina Tuttle, Graduate Technician, Department of Agricultural Education, Texas A&M
University, researched and developed this topic.
Larry Ermis, Curriculum Specialist, Instructional Materials Service, Texas A&M University,
reviewed this topic
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Vickie Marriot, Office Software Associate, Instructional Materials Service, Texas A&M
University, prepared the layout and design of this topic
Christine Stetter, Artist, Instructional Materials Service, Texas A&M University, prepared the
illustrations for this topic
REFERENCES
Acker, Duane and Merle Cunningham. Animal Science and Industry. Prentice Hall, Inc.: Upper
Saddle River, NJ, 1998.
Grandin, Temple. Livestock Behaviour, Design of Facilities and Humane Slaughter. Retrieved
from http://www.grandin.com/ on May 6, 2002.
Keeling, L.J. and H.W. Gonyou. Social Behaviour in Farm Animals. CABI Publishing: New
York, NY, 2001.
Kilgor, R. and D.C. Dalton. Livestock Behavior. Granada Publishing Limited: Herts, Alabama,
1983.
McBride, Tom. “Livestock Behavior,” The Windmill Crew Newsletter, Vol. 2, No. 1, Colorado
State University. Retrieved from http://64.225.44.77/toolbox/windmill3.htm#behavior on May 6,
2002.
Stufflebeam, C.E. Principles of Animal Agriculture. Prentice Hall, Inc.: Upper Saddle River, NJ,
1984.
Taylor, R.E. and T.G. Field, Scientific Farm Animal Production. Prentice Hall, Inc.: Upper
Saddle River, NJ, 1998.
Zyan, R. and R. Dantzer. Social Stress in Domestic Animals. Kluwer Academic Publishers:
Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1990.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Estrus – The period of female mating activity.
Ethology – The study of animal behavior.
Flight zone – An area in which the animal feels uncomfortable if another animal or human
enters it; personal space of the animal.
Genetic – Hereditary; inherited.
Olfactory – Relating to the sense of smell.
Photoperiod – Length of daylight or artificial light provided.
Preferential mating – The preference and selection of one mate.
Rumination – The regurgitation and re-chewing of undigested food.
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TOPIC ACTIVITIES
SHORT ANSWER/LISTING: Answer the following questions or statements.
1. Cite an example of an environmental factor in a production enterprise that may
influence an animal's disposition. Discuss its negative effect and how that effect can
be reversed.
2. List and describe two major factors that determine or influence animal behavior.
3. List three of the main factors determining social rank. How and why do you think
they affect social ranking?
4. If you are herding sheep into a trailer, should you get into their flight zone to make
them move? Explain your answer.
5. Explain one reason why knowledge of a cattle herd's allelomimetic behavior is
beneficial to the producer.
6. Why is knowledge of normal behavior important?
7. What are three of the causes of physical stress in livestock?
8. List four of the symptoms of a sick animal.
9. Should you be concerned if a horse's respiration rate is 12 and its rectal temperature is
93ºF? Why or why not?
10. Should you be concerned if a cow's pulse rate is 55 after she has eaten? Why or why
not?
11. List four factors that can cause variations in an animal's heart rate (pulse rate).
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