Chapter 2 Individual Behavior Values, and Personality
2
INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR
VALUES, AND PERSONALITY
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
Diagram the MARS model.
Describe three basic ways to match individual competencies to job requirements.
Identify five types of individual behaviour in organizations.
Define values and explain why values congruence is important.
Define the six main values that vary across cultures.
Summarize the key features of First Nations values.
List four ethical principles.
Explain how moral intensity, ethical sensitivity, and the situation influence ethical behaviour.
Identify the “Big Five” personality dimensions.
Summarize the personality concepts behind the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.
Explain how personality relates to Holland’s model of vocational choice.
CHAPTER GLOSSARY
ability: Includes both the natural aptitudes and learned
capabilities required to successfully complete a task.
counterproductive work behaviours (CWBs)
Potentially harmful voluntary behaviours enacted on an
organization’s property or employees.
“Big Five” personality dimensions: The five abstract
dimensions representing most personality traits:
conscientiousness, emotional stability, openness to
experience, agreeableness, and extroversion.
distributive justice principle The moral principle
stating that people who are similar should be rewarded
similarly, and those dissimilar should be rewarded
differently.
collectivism The extent to which people value duty to
groups to which they belong, and to group harmony.
ethical sensitivity A personal characteristic that enables
people to recognize the presence and determine the
relative importance of an ethical issue.
competencies The abilities, values, personality traits,
and other characteristics of people that lead to superior
performance.
ethics The study of moral principles or values that
determine whether actions are right or wrong and
outcomes are good or bad.
conscientiousness A “Big Five” personality dimension
that characterizes people who are careful, dependable,
and self-disciplined.
31
Part 2 Individual Behavior and Processes
extroversion A “Big Five” personality dimension that
characterizes people who are outgoing, talkative,
sociable, and assertive.
power distance The extent to which people accept
unequal distribution of power in a society.
role perceptions A person’s beliefs about what
behaviours are appropriate or necessary in a particular
situation, including the specific tasks that make up the
job, their relative importance, and the preferred
behaviours to accomplish those tasks.
individual rights principle The moral principle stating
that every person is entitled to legal and human rights.
individualism The extent to which a person values
independence and personal uniqueness.
self-monitoring A personality trait referring to an
individual’s level of sensitivity and ability to adapt to
situational cues.
introversion A “Big Five” personality dimension that
characterizes people who are territorial and solitary.
job satisfaction A person’s attitude regarding his or her
job and work content.
task performance Goal-directed activities that are
under that individual’s control.
locus of control A personality trait referring to the
extent to which people believe events are within their
control.
uncertainty avoidance The degree to which people
tolerate ambiguity or feel threatened by ambiguity and
uncertainty.
moral intensity The degree to which an issue demands
the application of ethical principles.
utilitarianism The moral principle stating that decision
makers should seek the greatest good for the greatest
number of people when choosing among alternatives.
motivation The forces within a person that affect his or
her direction, intensity, and persistence of voluntary
behaviour.
value system An individual’s hierarchical arrangement
of beliefs.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) A personality
test that measures each of the traits in Jung’s model.
values Stable, long-lasting beliefs about what is
important in a variety of situations.
organizational citizenship Behaviours that extend
beyond the employee’s normal job duties.
values congruence A situation wherein two or more
entities have similar value systems.
personality The relatively stable pattern of behaviours
and consistent internal states that explain a person’s
behavioural tendencies.
CHAPTER SYNOPSIS
Individual behaviour is influenced by motivation,
ability, role perceptions, and situational factors
(MARS). Motivation consists of internal forces that
affect the direction, intensity, and persistence of a
person’s voluntary choice of behaviour. Ability includes
both the natural aptitudes and learned capabilities
required to successfully complete a task. Role
perceptions are a person’s beliefs about what
behaviours are appropriate or necessary in a particular
situation. Situational factors are environmental
conditions that constrain or facilitate employee
behaviour and performance.
Five types of behaviour are discussed most often in
the organizational behaviour literature. Task
performance represents physical behaviours as well as
mental processes that support the organization’s
objectives. Organizational citizenship refers to
behaviours that extend beyond the employee’s normal
job duties. Counterproductive work behaviours are
voluntary and potentially harm the organization by
directly affecting its functioning or property, or by
hurting employees in away that will reduce their
effectiveness. Joining and staying with the organization
32
Chapter 2 Individual Behavior Values, and Personality
(moral intensity), the person’s ethical sensitivity to the
presence and importance of an ethical dilemma, and
situational factors that cause people to deviate form
their moral values. Companies improve ethical conduct
through a code of ethics, ethics training, ethics advisors,
and the conduct of corporate leaders.
Personality refers to the relatively stable pattern of
behaviours and consistent internal states that explain a
person’s behavioural tendencies. Psychologists continue
to debate the origins of personality, but most believe it
is shaped by both heredity and environmental factors.
Most personality traits are represented within the ‘Big
Five’ personality dimensions (CANOE):
conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, and
openness to experience, and extroversion.
Conscientiousness is a relatively strong predictor of job
performance.
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator measures how
people prefer to focus their attention, collect
information, process and evaluate information, and
orient themselves to the outer world. Another popular
personality trait in organizational behaviour is locus of
control, which is a generalized belief about the amount
of control people have over their own lives. Another
trait, called self-monitoring, refers to an individual’s
level of sensitivity and ability to adapt to situational
cues. John Holland developed a model of vocational
choice that defines six personalities and their
corresponding work environments.
is a fourth category of work-related behaviour. The fifth
type of work-related behaviour is work attendance.
Values are stable, evaluative beliefs that guide our
preferences for outcomes or courses of action in a
variety of situations. They influence our decisions and
interpretation of what is ethical. People arrange values
into a hierarchy of preferences, called a value system.
Shalom Schwartz grouped the dozens of individual
values described by scholars over the years into 10
broader domains, which are further reduced to four
quadrants of a circle. Organizations need to pay
attention to values congruence – the similarity of values
across systems (such as individual with organizational
values).
Six values that differ across cultures are
individualism, collectivism, power distance, uncertainty
avoidance, masculinity-femininity, and long/short term
orientation. Recent research has significantly changed
our earlier knowledge about individualism and
collectivism. Canadians and Americans differ on some
key values, whereas values of Francophone and
Anglophone Canadians have converged in recent years .
First Nations people are more distinct from other
Canadians, having a strong collectivist value, low power
distance, low uncertainty avoidance, and a relatively
nurturing value orientation.
Four values that guide ethical conduct are
utilitarianism, individual rights, distributive justice, and
care. Three other factors that influence ethical conduct
are the extent that an issue demands ethical principles
POWERPOINT® SLIDES
Canadian Organizational Behaviour includes a complete set of Microsoft PowerPoint® files for each chapter. (Please
contact your McGraw-Hill Ryerson representative to find out how instructors can receive these files.) In the lecture
outline that follows, a thumbnail illustration of each PowerPoint slide for this chapter is placed beside the corresponding
lecture material. The slide number helps you to see your location in the slide show sequence and to skip slides that you
don’t want to show to the class. (To jump ahead or back to a particular slide, just type the slide number and hit the Enter
or Return key.) The transparency masters for this chapter are very similar to the PowerPoint files.
33
Part 2 Individual Behavior and Processes
LECTURE OUTLINE (with PowerPoint® slides)
INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR, VALUES AND
PERSONALITY
Individual Behaviour,
Values and Personality
Slide 1
Values Congruence at
MEC
Slide 2
OPENING VIGNETTE: CUSTOMER SERVICE AT
MOUNTAIN EQUIPMENT CO-OP (MEC)
MEC is an environmentally-friendly and democratic
company. These values have catapulted MEC into a
successful retail chain with outlets across Canada and 1.6
million members worldwide.
MARS MODEL OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR
AND PERFORMANCE
MARS Model of Individual
Behaviour (build)
Slide 3
Individual behaviour influenced by motivation, ability, role
perceptions, and situational factors (M.A.R.S.)
• Need to understand all four factors to diagnose and
change individual behaviour
[Note: Students in the Singapore Armed Forces coined the
acronym “MARS” to remember the four factors influencing
behaviour. Later, a colleague (Chris Perryer) coined the
terms “MARS BAR” to help students remember that
Motivation, Ability, Role perceptions and Situational factors
(MARS) are drivers of Individual Behaviour and Results
(BAR).]
34
Chapter 2 Individual Behavior Values, and Personality
Slide 4
Employee Motivation
Slide 5
Employee Ability
Slide 6
Employee Role
Perceptions
Slide 7
Situational Factors
1. Motivation
• Internal forces that affect the direction, intensity, and
persistence of a person’s voluntary choice of behaviour
- direction -- directed by goals
- intensity -- amount of effort allocated
- persistence -- amount of time that effort is exerted
2. Ability
• Natural aptitudes and learned capabilities required to
successfully complete a task
• Aptitudes -- natural talents that help people learn more
quickly and perform better
• Learned capabilities -- acquired skills and knowledge
• Competencies -- abilities, individual values, personality
traits and other characteristics of people that lead to
superior performance
• Person-job matching -- three ways to match people with
jobs
- select qualified people
- develop employee abilities through training
- redesign job to fit person's existing abilities
3. Role perceptions
• Beliefs about what behaviour is required to achieve the
desired results
- understanding what tasks to perform
- understanding relative importance of tasks
- understanding preferred behaviours to accomplish
tasks
• Clarifying role perceptions
- Provide information about tasks and priorities
- Provide frequent and meaningful performance
feedback.
- Provide training on preferred work processes
4. Situational factors
• Environmental conditions (eg. time, people, budget, and
work facilities) that constrain or facilitate behaviour
- Beyond the individual’s control in the short run
35
Part 2 Individual Behavior and Processes
FIVE TYPES OF WORK-RELATED BEHAVIOUR
Types of Behaviour in
Organizations
Slide 8
1. Task performance
• Goal-directed behaviours under person’s control
• Includes physical behaviours and mental processes
• Jobs have several performance dimensions, each requiring
specific skills and knowledge
2. Exhibiting organizational citizenship
• Performance beyond the required job duties – e.g.,
Avoiding unnecessary conflicts, helping others, tolerating
impositions, being involved, performing beyond normal
role requirements
3. Counter-productive work behaviours
• Voluntary behaviour that potentially harms the
organization – e.g., abuse of others, threats, work
avoidance, work sabotage, overt acts
• Includes acts of commission and acts of omission
4. Joining and staying with the organization
• Attracting and retaining employees – “War for Talent”
• Successful firms attract employee talent by applying many
OB topics
5. Maintaining work attendance
• Approximately 7 percent of the full-time Canadian
workforce is absent each week
• Caused by:
- situational factors – weather, traffic
- motivation – job dissatisfaction, stress, access to sick
leave
36
Chapter 2 Individual Behavior Values, and Personality
VALUES IN THE WORKPLACE
Values in the Workplace
Slide 9
Schwartz’s Values Model
Slide 10
Values
• Stable, evaluative beliefs that guide our preferences
• Define what is right or wrong, good or bad
• Defines what we “ought” to do to achieve our needs
• Influences our choice of goals

Values are important in OB – influence perceptions,
decision, leadership behaviour and orgn. Citizenship

Value system – each person has a unique value system
that arranges their values in a hierarchy of importance
Schwartz’s Values Model
• Groups personal values into 10 domains and 2 bi-polar
dimensions
• Also applies to organizations, professions, societies and
other entities
• Openness to change vs. Conservation
-- Openness to change – motivated to pursue innovative
ways (self direction, stimulation)
-- Conservation – preserve the status quo (conformity,
security, tradition)
• Self-enhancement vs. Self-transcendence
-- Self-enhancement – motivated by self-interest
(achievement, power)
-- Self-transcendence – motivated to promote the welfare
of others and nature (benevolence, universalism)
• Espoused values – values we want others to believe we
abide by to create a positive public image
• Enacted values – the values that actually guide our
decisions and actions
Values Congruence
• Situations where two or more entities have similar value
systems e.g. organization and employees – recent study
showed that 76 percent of managers surveyed believe that
a conflict exists between their ethical beliefs and their
company’s values
37
Part 2 Individual Behavior and Processes
Incongruent Values
Slide 11
Incongruent Values

Consequences of incongruence
-- employee decisions incompatible with organization’s
goals
-- lower job satisfaction and organizational commitment
-- increased stress and turnover

Benefits of incongruence
-- Better decision making due to diverse values and
perspectives
-- Conflict that can potentially enhance problem definition
-- Too much congruence can undermine creativity,
flexibility and business ethics (“corporate cults”)
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN VALUES
Slide 12
Collectivism-Individualism
Slide 13
Power Distance
Individualism-collectivism

Degree that people value duty to their group (collectivism)
versus independence and person uniqueness
(individualism)

Previously considered opposites, however, two concepts
are now viewed as unrelated i.e. can value high
individualism and high collectivism

Collectivists tend to:
-- Identify themselves by group membership
-- Value harmonious relationships with their groups
-- Located within the conservation range of values
(security, tradition and conformity)

Individualists tend to:
-- Value personal freedom, self-sufficiency, control
over themselves, being appreciated for unique
qualities
Power distance
 Extent that people accept unequal distribution of power in
a society
 High power distance cultures – employees are
comfortable receiving commands from their superiors and
resolving conflicts through formal rules and authority
 Low power distance cultures – employees prefer
participative management and resolving conflict through
38
Chapter 2 Individual Behavior Values, and Personality
personal networks and coalitions
39
Part 2 Individual Behavior and Processes
Uncertainty Avoidance
Slide 14
Uncertainty avoidance

Low uncertainty avoidance – tolerate ambiguity and
uncertainty

High uncertainty avoidance – feel threatened by
ambiguity and uncertainty. Value structured situations
and direct communication
Achievement-Nurturing orientation

Achievement – assertiveness, competitiveness,
materialism

Nurturing – valuing relationships, others’ well-being
Achievement-Nurturing
Slide 15
Long/Short-Term
Orientation
Slide 16
Long or Short-term orientation

Long-term -- Anchor thoughts more in the future than
past and present; value thrift, savings, and persistence

Short-term – emphasize the past and present, such as
respect for tradition and fulfilling social obligations
Canadian Values
Canadian vs American
Values
Slide 17
Canadian values are different from American values in subtle but
important ways:

Canadians:
- prefer egalitarianism rather than patriarchal authority
- more liberal
- higher value on collective rights, role of government,
diversity and tolerance, multiculturalism

Americans:
- embrace patriarchal authority
- more conservative and ideological
- more moralistic, individualistic, self-reliant and
materialistic
- support homogeneous melting pot
40
Chapter 2 Individual Behavior Values, and Personality
Canadian Subcultures
Slide 18
Canadian subcultures

Francophone values
Now more liberal and permissive than Anglophones e.g.
support for general equality, less traditional values toward
marriage and non-married parenthood
• First Nations Values
– Organizations with First Nations leaders tend to share a
strong collectivist value, low power distance, low
uncertainty avoidance and a relatively nurturing value
orientation
ETHICAL VALUES AND BEHAVIOUR
Ethics is the study of moral principles or values that
determine whether certain actions are right or wrong and
outcomes are good or bad.
Four Ethical Principles
Slide 19
1. Utilitariansim
• Seek the greatest good for the greatest number
• Focuses on the consequences of actions – problem:
ignores morality of means to end
2. Individual rights principle
• Personal entitlements to act in a certain way e.g. freedom
of speech

Problem of conflicting rights
3. Distributive justice principle
• People who are similar in relevant ways should receive
similar benefits and burdens e.g. two employees who
contribute equally should receive similar rewards
• Inequalities are acceptable where they benefit the least
well off in society
4. Care principle

Morally correct action is the one that expresses care in
protecting special relationships – favour those whom we
have special relationships
41
Part 2 Individual Behavior and Processes
Influences on Ethical
Conduct
Slide 20
Influences on Ethical Conduct
• Moral intensity
– degree that issue demands ethical principles
• Ethical sensitivity
– person’s ability to recognize the presence and
determine the relative importance of an ethical issue
-- ethically sensitive people have higher empathy, more
knowledge of the situation.
• Situational influences
– competitive pressures and other conditions affect
ethical behaviour
Supporting ethical behaviour
• Ethical codes of conduct, training, audits, committees and
advisors
PERSONALITY
Defining Personality
Slide 21
Relatively stable pattern of behaviours and consistent
internal states that explain a person’s behavioural tendencies
• Stable – do not change dramatically over time
• External traits – observable behaviours
• Internal states – thoughts, values and genetic
characteristics inferred from behaviours
• Behavioural tendencies – less apparent where environment
constrains behaviour
Personality shaped by both heredity and environment –
affected by social experiences
Personality and Organizational Behaviour

1960’s – evidence of very weak relationship between
personality and job performance

Personality now regained some credibility
-- certain personality traits predict certain work-related
behaviours, stress reactions and emotions
• Personality still considered a relatively poor selection test
but still used e.g. executive hiring
42
Chapter 2 Individual Behavior Values, and Personality
Big Five Personality Dimensions – five clusters represent
most personality traits
Big Five Personality
Dimensions
Slide 22
1. Conscientiousness – characterizes people who are careful,
dependable and self-disciplined
2. Agreeableness (vs. non-compliant/hostile) – includes
traits of being courteous, good-natured, trusting,
empathetic and caring
3. Neuroticism (vs. emotional stability) – characterizes
people with high levels of anxiety, hostility, depressed,
self-conscious
4. Openness to experience (vs. resistant to change) – refers
to the extent to which people are sensitive, flexible and
curious
5. Extroversion (vs. introversion) – characterizes people
who are outgoing, talkative, sociable and assertive
Customer service – people with high conscientiousness,
agreeableness, and emotional stability perform better
Jung’s Psychological Types

Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung
• Personality theory identifies preferences for perceiving the
environment and obtaining/processing information
Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator
Slide 23
Employees at Boston real estate firm completed the MBTI –
learned how their personalities can help them relate to each
other more effectively
43
Part 2 Individual Behavior and Processes
Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator
Slide 24
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) – personality test that
measures traits in Jung’s model

Extroversion versus introversion
-- general orientation
• Sensing versus intuition
-- collecting information through senses versus through
intuition, inspiration or subjective sources
• Thinking versus feeling
-- processing and evaluating information
-- using rational logic versus personal values
• Judging versus perceiving
-- orient themselves to the outer world
-- order and structure or flexibility and spontaneity
OTHER PERSONALITY TRAITS
Locus of Control and SelfMonitoring
Slide 25
Locus of control

Internal locus of control – individuals who believe that
they are very much in charge of their own destiny
• External locus of control – individuals who believe that
their life events are due mainly to fate or luck
• People with a moderately internal locus of control:
-- perform better, have more successful careers, more job
satisfaction, better leaders, more motivated by
performance-based reward systems
Self-Monitoring
• Level of sensitivity to situational clues, and ability to
adapt behaviour to that situation

Better at networking, interpersonal communications
44
Chapter 2 Individual Behavior Values, and Personality
HOLLAND’S OCCUPATIONAL CHOICE
THEORY
Holland’s Occupational
Choice Theory
Slide 26
Career success depends on the degree of fit between the
person and his or her work environment
• Occupational choice is an expression of the individual’s
personality
• Thus, people should have similar traits in the same
occupation
• Six types or “themes”
- represent characteristics of work environment and the
personality traits and interests of people working in
those environments
Differentiation
• Highly differentiated person is aligned with one category
– most people relate to two or more types
Consistency
• Highly consistent people are associated with adjacent
(rather than opposite) types in hexagon
Implications of Holland’s Theory

Individual’s personality should be congruent with the
work environment
45
Part 2 Individual Behavior and Processes
TRANSPARENCY MASTERS
Transparency 2.1: MARS Model of Individual Behaviour
Transparency 2.2: Employee Motivation
Transparency 2.3: Employee Ability
Transparency 2.4: Employee Role Perceptions
Transparency 2.5: Situational Factors
Transparency 2.6: Types of Work Related Behaviour
Transparency 2.7: Values in the Workplace
Transparency 2.8: Schwartz’s Values Model
Transparency 2.9: Incongruent Values
Transparency 2.10: Collectivism-Individualism
Transparency 2.11: Power Distance
Transparency 2.12: Uncertainty Avoidance
Transparency 2.13: Achievement-Nurturing
Transparency 2.14: Long/Short-Term Orientation
Transparency 2.15: Canadian vs. American Values
Transparency 2.16: Canadian Sub-cultures
Transparency 2.17: Four Ethical Principles
Transparency 2.18: Influences on Ethical Conduct
Transparency 2.19: Defining Personality
Transparency 2.20: Big Fiver Personality Dimensions
Transparency 2.21: Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Transparency 2.22: Locus of Control and Self-Monitoring
Transparency 2.23: Holland’s Occupational Choice Theory
SOLUTIONS TO DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1.
and/or environmental conditions prevent them from
attending work (situational factors).
An insurance company has high levels of
absenteeism among the office staff. The head of
office administration argues that employees are
misusing the company’s sick leave benefits.
However, some of the mostly female staff members
have explained that family responsibilities interfere
with work. Using the MARS model, as well as your
knowledge of absenteeism behaviour, discuss some
of the possible reasons for absenteeism here and
how it might be reduced.
In this incident, situational factors may explain
mostly why female employees are absent.
Specifically, family responsibilities interfere with
their work attendance. However, some absenteeism
among men and women may be due to sick leave
policies. It is known that generous sick leave
benefits reduce attendance motivation.
2.
The MARS model of individual behaviour states
that behaviour is a function of motivation, ability,
role perceptions, and situational factors. With
respect to absenteeism, employees may be away
from assigned work because they don’t want to
attend work that day (motivation), they don’t
realize that this is their work day (role perceptions),
46
You notice that sales representatives in Eastern
Ontario made 20 percent fewer sales to new clients
over the past quarter than salespeople located
elsewhere in Canada. Use the MARS model to
explain why his or her performance was lower than
others’ performances.
Chapter 2 Individual Behavior Values, and Personality
Motivation. One explanation is that the eastern
Ontario employees are not as motivated to perform
their job and, specifically, not as motivated to call
on new clients as are the sales representatives
elsewhere.
identified as a key competency in
organizational settings, however, the definition
of leadership may be so broad that it may be
difficult to accurately assess what effective
“leadership” looks like in practical application.
Ability. The eastern Ontario sales representatives
might lack the necessary skills to market the
company’s product to new clients. They might lack
persuasive communication or other interpersonal
skills.
Role Perceptions. The eastern Ontario sales
representatives might not be aware that the
company wants more effort placed in securing sales
from new customers. For example, they might be
putting more effort into increasing sales from
existing clients whereas sales representatives
elsewhere are spending more time finding new
clients.
4.
Situational Factors. Several factors beyond the
employee’s control might affect this performance
outcome. More sales reps from eastern Ontario than
elsewhere might have been ill for a large part of the
past quarter. The general economy or specific
demand for the company’s product might be
unusually low in eastern Ontario. Perhaps this
market is already saturated, meaning that most of
the potential clients are already using the product.
3.
Organizations tend to identify a cluster or set
of competencies that they believe relates to
superior performance, however, researchers
increasingly believe that alternative
combinations of competencies may be equally
successful.
-
Another issue that frequently arises in
organizations with respect to competency
identification is whether to consider personal
characteristics such as values and personality
as competencies.
What is the difference, if any, between an
“espoused” value and an “enacted” value? What
are the implications to individual behaviour in
organizations?
Espoused values are the values that we want others
to believe we live by.
Enacted values are the actual values-in-use, the
values that an individual uses to guide their
behaviours and decisions.
An individual may say they value teamwork in
order to create a favourable public or
organizational image. Individuals may find
themselves in organizational situations where their
job requires them to demonstrate behaviours that
run contrary to their individual values. This
incongruence may result in reduced job satisfaction
and organizational commitment as well as
increased stress and turnover. For example,
organizations increasingly require supervisors to
involve employees in decision making. For some
supervisors, this represents a values conflict—they
value supervisory authority. However, to be
viewed as an effective supervisor and receive a
positive performance rating, they are required to
demonstrate behaviours consistent with someone
who values participative management.
“Most large Canadian organizations spend a lot of
money finding out the key competencies for
superior work performance”. What are the
potential benefits and pitfalls associated with
identifying competencies?
Identification of competences provides an
organization with information about what is
required for superior work performance.
Competency identification may include several
groupings e.g. technical competencies,
analytic/conceptual competencies and interpersonal
competencies. This competency information can
assist organizations to facilitate optimal matching
between individuals and the requirements of jobs.
Competency identification also helps organizations
effectively provide training and development
tailored to the needs of individual employees.
5.
Potential pitfalls that may occur in competency
identification processes within organizations
include:
-
-
The tendency of describing competencies so
broadly that they become very difficult to
apply. For example, “leadership” is frequently
47
Your company is beginning to expand operations in
Japan and wants you to form working relationships
with Japanese suppliers. Considering only the
values of individualism and uncertainty avoidance,
what should you be aware of or sensitive to in your
dealings with these suppliers? You many assume
that your contacts hold typical Japanese values
along these dimensions.
Part 2 Individual Behavior and Processes
The textbook shows that American and Japanese
people generally have quite different levels of
individualism and uncertainty avoidance. Japanese
suppliers would tend to be more collectivist and
have much higher uncertainty avoidance than
Americans.
7. Compare moral intensity and ethical sensitivity.
Moral intensity and ethical sensitivity are two
concepts that students might easily confuse, yet
they are quite different. Moral intensity is a
characteristic of the situation. It refers to the
degree to which an issue demands the application
of ethical principles. “Who should be laid off?”
would have high moral intensity. This is because a
morally intense issue clearly produces good or bad
consequences, others in the society think it is good
or evil, the issue quickly affects people, the
decision maker feels close to the issue, and the
person is able to influence the issue.
With respect to their high collectivism, you should
be sensitive to the fact that the Japanese suppliers
would be more group-oriented. They would want a
team of people, rather than one person, to meet
with you. They would also show strong loyalty to
their company, rather than to their own personal
interests.
With respect to uncertainty avoidance, the Japanese
suppliers would want to have a clear sense of
protocol—doing these according to routines—
rather than enter chaotic relationships with no sense
of past pattern of behaviour. In other words, they
will probably act cautiously when entering the work
relationship. This does not mean that they insist on
contracts of formal agreement. Rather, Japanese
suppliers would want to develop a comfort level
and degree of certainty in their relationship with
you.
6.
Ethical sensitivity refers to a characteristic of the
decision maker, not the situation. Faced with the
same issue, two decision makers may be more or
less ethically sensitive. This means that people
differ in their ability to recognize the presence and
determine the relative importance of an ethical
issue.
Moral intensity and ethical sensitivity are different,
but they go hand-in-hand. An issue with high
moral intensity might be decided without the
required ethical consideration because the decision
maker doesn’t recognize its ethical importance (i.e.,
the person has low ethical sensitivity). Thus, both
concepts are important factors in the extent to
which we apply ethical principles to issues.
How do First Nations values potentially differ from
non-First Nations values?
First Nations leaders tend to have a strong
collectivist value, low power distance, low
uncertainty avoidance and a relatively nurturing
value orientation.
8. Look over the four pairs of psychological types in
the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and identify the
personality type (i.e. four letters) that would be best
for a student taking this course. Would this type be
appropriate for students in other fields of study (e.g.
biology, fine arts)?
People in First Nations organizations tend to have a
lower uncertainty avoidance than those in non-First
Nations Canadian companies as evidenced by
fewer rules and procedures in First Nations
companies. People in First Nations organizations
tend to favour the use of internalized beliefs about
respect, sharing, and wholeness to guide employee
behaviour rather than relying on documented or
formalized expectations. First Nations
organizations also tend to adopt a relatively more
nurturing value orientation emphasizing the wellbeing of employees and the importance of
maintaining positive relationships. First Nations
organizations also tend to place less emphasis on
material gain and goal accomplishment compared
with non-First Nations organizations.
This question provides an opportunity for debate
more than searching for the correct answer.
Organizational behaviour courses tend to require
elements of Jungian dimensions. It may be useful to
distribute a description of the 16 combinations
(ISTJ, ENTJ, etc.) that comes with the MBTI
instrument. You can see from these that almost
every category serves some value in an
organizational behaviour class. For example, an
ISTJ person is highly responsible, whereas an ENFJ
person is very persuasive.
If we had to choose just one of these combinations,
it might be INTJ because these people enjoy solving
problems. The least favourable MBTI type might be
48
Chapter 2 Individual Behavior Values, and Personality
ISFP because they do not readily share information
or ideas.
learning and problem solving. However, biology
assignments might require less social interaction, so
perhaps in ISTP person would fit well in that class.
AN ISTP person is very observant and practical, but
tends to be less sociable.
Students in a biology class might require the same
set of personality traits as in an organizational
behaviour class because there is considerable
PHOTO CAPTION CRITICAL THINKING
QUESTIONS
Remote Access Technology
Woodside Petroleum
Q: Which of the three person-job matching strategies
would be most effective for remote access technicians?
Q: What are the consequences of aligning
organizational values with the personal values of
employees?
A: The textbook describes three person-job matching
strategies. The selection strategy would work well for
RATs because they require specific competencies which
can be tested during the hiring process. Moreover, this
work activity seems to depend heavily on innate
aptitudes, so selection is particularly important. The
second person-job matching strategy is training. This
strategy is somewhat helpful because, as this program
attests, RATs require specific skill development.
However, training cannot develop the aptitudes required
here. The third strategy, job redesign, would be the
most difficult to apply to RAT jobs because the jobs
inherently require specific trades as well as working in
high places.
A: The textbook identifies a couple of improvements
resulting from alignment of organizational and personal
values. One improvement is that employees are less
likely to make decisions that conflict with
organizational goals. A second benefit is that
employees will likely experience less stress and
turnover.
Nunavut Legislative Assembly
Q: By adopting consensus values, how would Inuit
organizations operate differently from other
organizations in Canada?
A: Most organizations in Canada adopt a more
hierarchical and individualistic values system in which
managers make decisions, often without much
involvement from employees. Of course, some
Canadian organizations have high involvement, but this
is still the exception.
Nursing Shortage
Q: What actions would you recommend to a large
hospital that faces this shortage of nurses?
A: The textbook briefly notes that the more recent
McKinsey report concludes that successful companies
win the talent war by applying many of the ideas in this
book -- building trust and loyalty, having visionary
leaders, offering enriched jobs, financially rewarding
performance. Thus, many practices described in this
textbook can potentially attract nurses.
Thompson Doyle Hennessey &
Everest
Q: How is the MBTI being used here? Is this an
effective use of this instrument?
A: The MBTI is being used here to improve
interpersonal relations, which increases awareness. This
is probably one of the most effective uses of the MBTI
because there is no “correct” answer, just different
approaches to working in the organization.
49
Part 2 Individual Behavior and Processes
ACTIVITY 2.1: CASE ANALYSIS
HEADING FOR THE BIG APPLE
By Jeffrey Bagraim, University of Cape Town, South Africa
Case Synopsis
On his desk Julius Goodmanhad confirmation that he was being transferred to BigCo’s head office in New York for 5
years. Julius had been selected because he seemed to have all the attributes that would enable someone to work well
abroad. He remembered how he had returned home at 7 PM to tell his wife and two teenage sons about his good fortune
and he smiled when he remembered how excited they had been. It took several weeks for the reality of the impending
transition to sink in.
Julius began work in New York after a two week settling in period and soon realised that working life in the New
York office was very different from that in the Cape Town office. He found his American colleagues to be very brash and
aggressive, he was not used to their individualistic, independent approach to solving problems. He was not used to the
bluntness they displayed in meetings and the urgency with which they approached their work. The consultative, time
intensive decision-making approach he was used to was simply not going to be appropriate with his rather impatient and
assertive colleagues. He also wondered about their short-term orientation and the rationalistic manner they approached
issues. To add to his woes, his family seemed to be having an increasingly difficult time. His wife Stella found it difficult
to make friends and began to feel very isolated. Despite all their difficulties, Julius and his family remained convinced
that the transfer to New York had been a positive experience.
Suggested Answers to Case Questions
1.
In selecting someone for a foreign assignment,
what criteria would you set in the selection
process?
The following factors should be considered by an
organisation in an attempt to maximise the potential
success of their cross-cultural employee exchanges:
Typical selection criteria such as the ability and
skills to perform job functions effectively should
not be ignored but the following criteria should be
added or emphasised:
Selection process: should include the above criteria
Training process: predeparture training is
particularly important and should include diversity
training (including business etiquette), language
training, career planning, stress management
training, and personal development training
-- Strong desire to work overseas
-- Willingness to learn about a foreign culture
-- Relational ability (ability to get on with others)
-- Good language skills
-- Family support and a good family dynamics
-- Behavioural flexibility
-- Tolerance of ambiguity
-- Open mindedness and a willingness to share their
own culture
-- Stress management skills
2.
Compensation process: should ensure that
accepting a foreign assignment does not adversely
affect the assignee’s total remuneration package
(i.e. it should account for differing tax structures,
different cost of living levels, the possibility that
the assignee will need to maintain two homes for
the duration of their assignment, particularly if it is
a relatively short assignment)
What factors should organisations consider when
trying to facilitate the smooth cross-cultural
transitions of their employees?
Career system: the foreign assignment should be
perceived as a career boost and the organisation
should ensure that regular contact is retained with
the assignee so that they do not miss out on
promotional opportunities.
There is no magic formula for a smooth transition
to another culture. The degree of culture shock that
an assignee will experience will be related to the
degree of preparation they have made for the
transition, their personal characteristics and the
degree of difference between their own culture and
the culture to which they need to adapt.
Mentoring systems: the adoption of a mentoring
system could greatly enhance an employee’s
adaptation to a new culture and ease the stresses
association with such adaptation.
50
Chapter 2 Individual Behavior Values, and Personality
3.
Flexibility in organisational systems: the synergies,
understanding and global perspective gained
through employee diversity and cross-cultural
learning should result in greater organisational
flexibility and faster response times to change.
What are the cultural characteristics of American
national culture that affect organisational behaviour
in American organisations?
The United States is rapidly becoming a more
culturally diverse nation and the ‘melting pot’
philosophy is losing its grip on the national
consciousness. Nevertheless, the following may
still be said to be typical American cultural
attributes:
Effective marketing and business strategies: an
organisation with employees that have been
sensitised to cross-cultural differences, who
understand different markets and who are sensitive
to differences in assumptions and values are better
equipped than others to develop global initiatives
for product development, marketing, and customer
service.
-- High sense of individualism
-- High control orientation to the natural
environment:
-- Results-oriented approach to life and work
-- Informal style of personal interaction
-- Weak uncertainty avoidance:
-- Small power distance:
-- Hierarchically–oriented structure (but this is
changing and Americans are typically willing to
bypass hierarchical lines of authority)
-- Short-term perspective
-- General dislike of silence in interactions
-- High value placed on punctuality
-- High value placed on cleanliness
-- Foreigners may misinterpret the above
characteristics as evidence of American
egocentrism, arrogance, prejudice, and
machiavellianism.
4.
5.
In which countries are employees most like
employees in your country and in which countries
are employees the least like those in your country?
This questions presents students with the
opportunity to creatively explore the cultures of
other countries or to use established cross-cultural
models (e.g. Hofstede, Trompenaars, or Stodtbeck)
to compare and contrast different national cultures.
6.
How would you describe your own national culture
and why is it often very difficult to identify your
own national culture?
Every student could use the cross-cultural
dimensions raised in the case as the criteria to
evaluate their own culture or they could use an
established framework supplied by the instructor.
The difficulty students often find in describing their
own national culture can be explained in the
following manner:
What are the benefits to a global organisation of
encouraging their employees to accept foreign
assignments (cross-cultural exchanges)?
Many benefits can accrue to an organisation that
effectively manages the foreign assignments of its
employees. These include:
“If you have been born and raised in a particular
national culture then you have been “programmed”
in the ways of that culture since birth. You
understand how things are done; you follow
cultural norms, and you are comfortable with the
way things are done. These norms of behaviour that
you are used to are unwritten and therefore difficult
to explain, they are pervasive but concealed. For
example, we breathe air without thinking about it.
We only think about the air that we breathe when
there is a lack of it or when it seems very different
to the air we are used to.”
Motivating employees: transfer schemes are
motivational, as employees often perceive them as
a reward or special opportunity.
Attracting and retaining employees: Candidates
may be attracted to an organisation that gives them
the opportunity of living or travelling to a foreign
country. This can also help in the retention of
employees, waiting for their opportunity to take a
foreign assignment. This factor is particularly
important if the employee has scarce or highly
developed skills.
Decision-making that is more effective and
creative: a diversity of perspectives, insights and
experiences typically result in greater creativity, a
more critical evaluation of assumptions, and a more
rigorous evaluation of options.
51
Part 2 Individual Behavior and Processes
ACTIVITY 2.2: CASE ANALYSIS: PUSHING
PAPERS CAN BE FUN
Case Synopsis
The chief of police in a large city government describes the problem of getting his officers to do paperwork. The officers
enjoy working with the public and apprehending criminals, not sitting at a desk. The paperwork is boring, but can make
the difference in convictions. The Chief has no financial rewards (budget crunch) and promotions are determined by
seniority, not the quality of paperwork. Officers were trained to perform street work, not fill out forms. Arrests, not
paperwork, get noticed. Conviction success is due to too many factors to be a performance criterion.
Suggested Answers to Case Questions
1.
What performance problems is the captain trying to
correct?
job. At the same time, it may be possible that the
captain has not emphasized the importance of
report writing to the officers. Moreover, there is no
evidence that rookies have clear role perceptions
about this task when they first enter the department.
The captain is trying to resolve the problem that his
officers are doing paperwork inaccurately and
inadequately. The poor reporting is resulting in
more lost cases in court than any other factor in
police duties.
2.
Situational Factors. There is no information about
factors beyond the officers’ control that might
hinder or facilitate their job performance in report
writing. It may be possible that more time and other
resources are needed to complete the reports better,
but this information is not given in the case.
Use the MARS model of individual behavior and
performance to diagnose the possible causes of the
unacceptable behavior.
Motivation. There are several facts that suggest
that the poor paperwork is due to lack of
motivation. First, officers come into this profession
because they want to work with the public and
catch criminals, not sit in an office filling out
reports. Thus, the paperwork task does not fulfill
their needs for personal growth. Second, social
rewards (praise, recognition) result from the
outside activities, not paperwork. Third, financial
rewards do not encourage people to do paperwork.
Promotions are based on seniority, so they motivate
officers to stay with the force, not to complete
paperwork. Competitions did not work, either.
3.
Has the captain considered all possible solutions to
the problems? If not, what else might he do?
The captain has looked a variety of incentives to
motivate officers to complete the paperwork, but
other strategies might be considered. For example,
the Crown counsel might meet occasionally with
officers to describe examples where good or bad
paperwork influenced the success of their cases.
The captain might try to publicly recognize officers
who have contributed to a successful case mainly
due to their thorough reports.
The police chief might also consider the possibility
that some officers lack the competencies to perform
the report writing task. A needs assessment might
determine who should receive formal training in
report writing. A “train the trainer” approach might
be considered where officers who are most
effective at report writing receive special training
to teach other officers. This might add further
social esteem to performance in report writing.
Ability. It isn’t certain that officers are able to
complete the paperwork task well enough. They
don’t seem to receive any training in this area.
However, the captain’s discussion of the report
competition suggests that at least some officers are
able to perform this task well enough.
Role Perceptions. The captain seems to have
emphasized the importance of paperwork to the
officers, and they probably have learned that some
cases have been lost due to poor reports. Thus, it is
reasonable to conclude that many officers know
that the quality of reports is an important of their
52
Chapter 2 Individual Behavior Values, and Personality
ACTIVITY 2.3: TEAM EXERCISE
COMPARING CULTURAL VALUES
Purpose
Comments for Instructors
This exercise is designed to help students to determine
the extent that they hold similar assumptions about the
values that dominate in other countries.
The exhibit on the next page of this instructor’s guide
shows the correct answers; that is, the country that the
consulting group assigned to each of the labels. The
page after shows the results of this exercise in two of
MBA classes (40 students in each class). Students enjoy
sharing each other’s perceptions about the values held
by people in other countries, even when people from
those countries are in the class. (Our class included
students and instructors from more than a dozen
countries, including seven countries on the list.)
Keep in mind that the answers on the next page do
not necessarily reflect the cultural values held by most
people. Instead, they were labeled by the researchers
based on surveys of many business people in several
countries. Thus, some labels might not fit the actual
cultural values.
One of the most interesting features of this exercise
is the degree to which the entire class agrees on a
cultural value, as well as the extent to which people
agree on the same value for a particular country. In our
classes (in Singapore and Australia), Germany, the
United States, India, Taiwan, and China were assigned
to the correct label by at least 30 percent of the class.
In contrast, Brazil, Canada, and New Zealand had fairly
low agreement from students against the study’s list (see
class results two pages forward).
This exercise evoked lively debates among students
in teams, as well as in class when the correct scores
were presented. The message here is quite clear by the
end of the exercise: that people hold common opinions
(stereotypes) about the values held by people in some
(but not all) countries. The interesting question is why
some countries DON’T have a well-known cultural
values? Students are usually quick to offer several
explanations, but the correct answer remains elusive.
Instructions
The names in the left column represent labels that a
major consulting project identified with business people
in a particular country, based on its national culture and
values. These names appear in alphabetical order. In the
right column are the names of countries, also in
alphabetical order, corresponding to the labels in the
left column.
Step 1: Working alone, students will connect the labels
with the countries by relying on your perceptions of
these countries. Each label is associated with only one
country, so each label will be connected to only one
country, and vice versa. Draw a line to connect the
pairs, or put the label number beside the country name.
Step 2: The instructor will form teams of 4 or 5
members. Members of each team will compare their
results and try to reach consensus on a common set of
connecting pairs.
Step 3: Teams or the instructor will post the results for
all to see the extent that students hold common opinions
about business people in other cultures. Class
discussion can then consider the reasons why the results
are so similar or different, as well as the implications of
these results for working in a global work environment.
53
Part 2 Individual Behavior and Processes
ANSWER TO “COMPARING CULTURAL VALUES”
EXERCISE
#
1
Country (Values) Label
Affable Humanists
Country Assigned
that Label
Brazil
2
Ancient Modernizers
China
3
Commercial Catalysts
Singapore
4
Conceptual Strategists
France
5
Efficient Manufacturers
Taiwan
6
Ethical Statesmen
Canada
7
Informal Egalitarians
New Zealand
8
Modernizing Traditionalists
United Kingdom
9
Optimistic Entrepreneurs
United States
10
Quality Perfectionists
Germany
11
Rugged Individualists
Australia
12
Serving Merchants
India
13
Tolerant Traders
Netherlands
54
Chapter 2 Individual Behavior Values, and Personality
Results of “Comparing Cultural Stereotypes” Exercise in two MBA Classes
(80 Students from Singapore and Australia)
Approx.
Percent with
Correct
Answer
(N=80)
Other Country that
Students Most
Identified with that
Label
#
Country (Values)
Label
Correct
Answer
1
Affable Humanists
Brazil
2%
New Zealand (25%)
2
Ancient Modernizers
China
30
Brazil (18%)
3
Commercial Catalysts
Singapore
15
Taiwan (14%)
4
Conceptual Strategists
France
20
United States (23%)
5
Efficient Manufacturers
Taiwan
40
China (15%)
6
Ethical Statesmen
Canada
10
United Kingdom (23%)
7
Informal Egalitarians
New Zealand
14
Netherlands (25%)
8
Modernizing Traditionalists
United Kingdom
25
China (25%)
9
Optimistic Entrepreneurs
United States
35
Taiwan (20%)
10
Quality Perfectionists
Germany
45
Singapore (25%)
11
Rugged Individualists
Australia
38
New Zealand (15%)
12
Serving Merchants
India
35
Brazil (15%)
13
Tolerant Traders
Netherlands
20
New Zealand (12%)
55
Part 2 Individual Behavior and Processes
ACTIVITY 2.4: SELF-ASSESSMENT
ETHICS CHECK
Purpose
comparison. However, class discussion will focus on
business ethics and the issue of ethical sensitivity.
This self-assessment is designed to help students to
assess their ethical response to various business and
nonbusiness situations.
Comments for Instructors
This exercise is self-explanatory. The answer key is
provided below for students to compare their own
scores
As stated in the instructions, the follow-up discussion
should focus on business ethics and the issue of ethical
sensitivity.
As with other instruments, instructors should be
sensitive to individual privacy regarding individual
scores. For example, we should be careful to avoid
having an individual reveal his or her scores
unwillingly.
Instructions
Students are asked to read each of the scenarios and
indicate the likelihood that they would respond in the
way indicated in the question in each scenario. Students
are not given a scoring key for this scale. Instead, the
instructor will present the results below based on a
small sample of accountants in the United States. (The
instructions incorrectly states that the comparison
results are from students.)
This exercise is completed alone so students assess
themselves honestly without concerns of social
Ethics Check Scores for a Small Sample of Accountants (N=51)
Percentage of Respondents
Scenario
Mean
Yes or
Probably
Yes
No or
Probably No
Uncertain
1. Copying software
F=1.90
M=2.03
F=90%
M=87
F=5%
M=0
F=5%
M=13
2. Inside information
F=3.10
M=2.74
F=45
M=55
F=15
M=13
F=40
M=32
3. Reporting child’s theft
F=2.80
M=2.13
F=45
M=26
F=0
M=0
F=55
M=74
4. Meal reimbursement
F=3.55
M=4.10
F=30
M=19
F=10
M=3
F=60
M=78
Notes:
M=Males (N=31); F=Females (N=20) Please note that this is a very small sample and is presented only for
comparison purposes.
1=least ethical response and 5= most ethical response
Source: Adapted from R. R. Radtke, “The Effects of Gender and Setting on Accountants' Ethically Sensitive Decisions,”
Journal of Business Ethics, 24 (April 2000), pp. 299-312.
56
Chapter 2 Individual Behavior Values, and Personality
ACTIVITY 2.5: SELF-ASSESSMENT
IDENTIFYING YOUR SELF-MONITORING
PERSONALITY
Purpose
of th person completing the scale. Their task is to mark
the box indicating the extent that the statement is true or
false as a characteristic of them. This exercise is
completed alone so students assess themselves honestly
without concerns of social comparison. However, class
discussion will focus on the relevance of selfmonitoring personality in organizations.
This self-assessment is designed to help students to
estimate their level of self-monitoring personality.
Overview and Instructions
The statements in this scale refer to personal
characteristics that might or might not be characteristic
Feedback for the Self-Monitoring Personality Scale
[NOTE: The following information is also provided in Appendix B and/or the Student CD.] Self-monitoring consists of
two dimensions: (a) sensitivity to expressive behaviour of others and (b) ability to modify self-presentation.
Sensitive to Expressive Behaviour
of Others
Self-monitoring Total
Self-monitoring refers to an individual’s level of
sensitivity to the expressive behaviour of others and the
ability to adapt appropriately to these situational cues.
This scale indicates the extent that you are aware of the
feelings and perceptions of others, as expressed by their
facial expressions, subtle statements, and other
behaviours
Score
Interpretation
55 to 78
High self-monitoring
Score
Interpretation
39 to 54
Moderate self-monitoring
25 to 36
High sensitivity
Below 39
Low self-monitoring
18 to 24
Moderate sensitivity
Below 18
Low sensitivity
Ability to Modify Self-presentation
This scale indicates the extent to which you are adept at
modifying your behaviour in a way that is most
appropriate for the situation or social relationship.
Score
Interpretation
30 to 42
High individualism
21 to 29
Moderate individualism
Below 21
Low individualism
57
Part 2 Individual Behavior and Processes
ACTIVITY 2.6: SELF-ASSESSMENT
IDENTIFYING YOUR DOMINANT VALUES
Purpose
unique value system tends to be stable and long lasting
because it was developed and reinforced through
socialization from parents, religious institutions, friends,
personal experiences, and the society in which we live.
The purpose of this self-assessment to help students
estimate their dominant values.
Overview and Instructions
In this questionnaire students are to ask themselves:
"What values are important to ME as guiding principles
in MY life, and what values are less important to me?"
There are two lists of values in this self-assessment.
These values come from different cultures. In the
parentheses following each value is an explanation to
help students understand its meaning.
Values are stable, evaluative beliefs that guide our
preferences for outcomes or courses of action in a
variety of situations. They are perceptions about what is
good or bad, right or wrong. Values influence our
choice of goals and the means for achieving those goals.
We arrange our personal values into a hierarchy of
preferences, called a value system. Each person’s
Feedback for Schwartz’s Dominant Values Scale
[NOTE: The following information is also provided in Appendix B and/or the Student CD.] This instrument estimates
preferences for a broad range of personal values. These values are grouped into 10 broad domains of values, described
below. Scores on each domain potentially range from -1 to +7. However, students are unlikely to have such an extreme
score on any domain because the self-assessment asked them to use the extreme responses sparingly. Instead, the results
shown here give students an estimate of their value system. They indicate their relative preference across the broad range
of values.
POWER: Social status and prestige, control or
dominance over people and resources
TRADITION: Respect, commitment, and acceptance
of the customs and ideas that traditional culture or
religion provide
ACHIEVEMENT: Personal success through
demonstrating competence according to social standards
CONFORMITY: Restraint of actions, inclinations,
and impulses likely to upset or harm others and violate
social expectations or norms
HEDONISM: Pleasure or sensuous gratification for
oneself
SECURITY: Safety, harmony, and stability of society,
of relationships, and of self
STIMULATION: Excitement, novelty, and challenge
in life
SELF-DIRECTION: Independent thought and action
-- choosing, creating, exploring
UNIVERSALISM: Understanding, appreciation,
tolerance, and protection for the welfare of all people
and for
BENEVOLENCE: Preservation and enhancement of
the welfare of people with whom one is in frequent
personal contact
58
Score
Interpretation
+5 to +7
High importance
+2 to +4
Moderate importance
-1 to +1
Low importance
Chapter 2 Individual Behavior Values, and Personality
ACTIVITY 2.7: SELF-ASSESSMENT
INDIVIDUALISM-COLLECTIVISM SCALE
Purpose
the two measured in this self-assessment: individualism
and collectivism. At one time, experts thought that these
two cross-cross-cultural values were opposites. Now,
we understand that they represent separate values that
are generally unrelated to each other.
The objective of this self-assessment is for students to
estimate their levels of individualism and collectivism.
Overview and Instructions
Students are asked to r each of the statements in this
instrument and select the response that they believe best
indicates how well these statements describe them. This
instrument has 16 statements.
Cross-cultural values have become an important part of
organizational life due to globalization and an
increasingly multicultural workforce. Organizational
behaviour researchers have studied several crosscultural values, but none has had as much attention as
Feedback for the Individualism-Collectivism Scale
[NOTE: The following information is also provided in Appendix B and/or the Student CD.] Each scale has a potential
score ranging from 8 to 40 points. Higher scores indicate that the person has a higher level of each cross-cultural value.
Individualism
Collectivism
Individualism refers to the extent that you value
independence and personal uniqueness. Highly
individualist people value personal freedom, selfsufficiency, control over their own lives, and
appreciation of their unique qualities that distinguish
them from others. The following graph shows the range
of individualism in general. However, keep in mind that
the average level of individualism is higher in some
cultures (such as Canada) than in others.
Collectivism refers to the extent that we value our duty
to groups to which we belong, and to group harmony.
Highly collectivist people define themselves by their
group membership and value harmonious relationships
within those groups. The following graph shows the
range of collectivism in general. However, keep in mind
that the average level of collectivism is lower in some
cultures (such as Canada) than in others.
Score
Interpretation
Score
Interpretation
31 to 40
High collectivism
31 to 40
High individualism
23 to 30
Moderate collectivism
23 to 30
Moderate individualism
8 to 22
Low collectivism
8 to 22
Low individualism
59
Part 2 Individual Behavior and Processes
ACTIVITY 2.8: SELF-ASSESSMENT
IDENTIFYING YOUR LOCUS OF CONTROL
Purpose
to fate/luck or powerful others have an external locus of
control.
The objective of this self-assessment is for students to
estimate their level of work locus of control.
For each statement, students are asked to select the
response that best indicates the degree to which they
agree or disagree with that statement. This instrument
has 16 statements, which concern beliefs about jobs in
general. They do not refer only to the person’s present
job.
Overview and Instructions
The Work Locus of Control Scale is designed to assess
control beliefs in the workplace. Individuals who feel
that they are very much in charge of their own destiny in
the workplace have an internal locus of control; those
who think that events in their work life are due mainly
Feedback for the Work Locus of Control Scale
[NOTE: The following information is also provided in Appendix B and/or the Student CD.]
Scores on the scale can range from 16 to 96. Higher
scores indicate that you have a higher external work
locus of control. Lower scores indicate more of an
internal work locus of control. The average score for
employees and students in Canada and the United States
is 40.
60
Score
Interpretation
70 to 96
External locus of control
43 to 69
In-between locus of control
16 to 42
Internal locus of control
Chapter 2 Individual Behavior Values, and Personality
ACTIVITY 2.9: SELF-ASSESSMENT
MATCHING HOLLAND’S CAREER TYPES
Purpose
Realistic -- Work with hands, machines, or tools; focus
on tangible results
This self-assessment is designed to help students to
understand Holland’s career types.
Investigative -- Work involves discovering, collecting,
and analyzing; solving problems
Instructions
Holland’s theory identifies six different types of work
environments and occupations in which people work.
Few jobs fit purely in one category, but all have a
dominant type. A brief description of each work
environment is described below. Students are asked to
identify the Holland type that they believe best fits each
of the 30 occupations presented in this self-assessment.
Artistic -- Work involves creation of new products or
ideas, typically in an unstructured setting
This is as much an exercise as a self-assessment. Thus,
you might want students to work in teams rather than
work alone to tackle this assignment. However, as an
individual or team activity, it makes students think
about the various Holland types and how they relate to
specific jobs.
Conventional -- Work involves systematic manipulation
of data or information
Social -- Work involves serving or helping others;
working in teams
Enterprising -- Work involves leading others; achieving
goals through others in a results-oriented setting
Feedback for Matching Holland’s Career Types
[NOTE: The following information is also provided in Appendix B and/or the Student CD.]
This self-assessment provides an estimate of the
student’s knowledge of Holland’s career types. The
scores range from 0 to 30, as indicated in the score box
on this page. The exhibit on the next page shows the
correct answers. The subsequent exhibit (two pages
over) provides a comparison of scores from two MBA
classes. As you can see, the results are much lower, with
the average person getting only half of the occupations
correctly identified to the corresponding Holland type.
The exhibit showing the correct answers (next page)
reveals that students have a much easier time identifying
the Holland type for some occupations (e.g. sculptor)
than for others (e.g. corporate trainer).
Score
Interpretation
21 to 30
High score
11 to 20
Medium score
0 to 10
Low score
List of Occupations with Correct Answer of Dominant Holland Type
* The third column shows percentage of students in two MBA classes (N=56) who answered correctly for that
occupation.
61
Part 2 Individual Behavior and Processes
Occupation
CORRECT
ANSWER
Holland Type
% with
Correct
Answer*
Actuary
Conventional
67
Archeologist
Investigative
95
Buyer
Enterprising
47
Computer operator
Conventional
56
Corporate executive
Enterprising
89
Corporate trainer
Artistic
11
Dietitian
Social
55
Economist
Investigative
49
Elementary school teacher
Social
69
Fashion model
Artistic
75
Fire fighter
Realistic
58
Foreign exchange trader
Enterprising
33
Jeweler
Realistic
40
Life insurance agent
Enterprising
33
Lobbyist
Enterprising
56
Mathematics teacher
Conventional
40
Medical illustrator
Artistic
35
Minister/Priest/Rabbi
Social
75
Pediatrician
Investigative
47
Pharmacist
Investigative
31
Pilot
Realistic
73
Production manager
Conventional
22
Professional athlete
Realistic
73
Public relations director
Artistic
20
Recreation leader
Social
55
School administrator
Social
24
Sculptor
Artistic
89
Tax auditor
Conventional
67
Veterinarian
Investigative
40
Wine maker
Realistic
29
The correct answers originate from D. H. Montross, Z. B. Leibowitz, and C. J. Shinkman, Real People, Real Jobs (Palo
Alto, CA: Davies-Black, 1995), pp. 21,43,
62
Chapter 2 Individual Behavior Values, and Personality
Norms of Correct Answers to Holland Type Self-assessment (N=56 MBA
Students)
Percentile
(% with scores at or
below this number)
Lowest score
10
20
30
40
50
Percent
Correct
60
70
80
90
Highest score
Average Score
Standard Deviation
3
11
13
14
15
15
16
17
18
21
29
15.5
3.89
SUPPLEMENTAL TEAM EXERCISE: ETHICAL
DILEMMAS IN EMPLOYMENT
Purpose
Suggested Answers
This exercise is designed to help students apply ethical
principles to real moral dilemmas that employers and
employees have faced.
There are no “right” answers to this exercise. However,
here are some possible explanations for each incident:
Illegal Application Form. This incident shows how the
utilitarian principle comes in direct conflict with the
individual rights principle. Some students feel strongly
about their rights, whereas others feel that the ends
(getting a job) justify the means (answering illegal
questions).
Questionable Objectivity. This incident clearly relates
to individual rights. However, students might soon
realize that the distributive justice principle also fits into
the discussion because this dilemma is one of balancing
the interests of the announcer against the interests of
radio listeners.
Awkward Office Affair. This is another incident that
initially directs the discussion towards individual rights,
yet later broadens to the topic of distributive justice.
Students will debate the value of preserving the rights
of the two people whose jobs are threatened against the
rights of the organisation to maintain harmonious
relations at work.
Instructions
The following incidents are adapted from real events
and require someone to make a decision with strong
moral implications. After individual decision making,
students will form small teams and compare their
decisions and justifications for each incident, and reach
agreement on the best action. The class will discuss
each incident, beginning by tallying the actions that
each student initially wrote down as well as the group
results. The subsequent discussion should look at the
ethical principle that dominated over others, as well as
the role of personal values in ethical decision making.
63
Part 2 Individual Behavior and Processes
ETHICAL DILEMMAS IN EMPLOYMENT EXERCISE
STUDENT HANDOUT
Purpose
prominent politician. There is increasing concern from
the board of directors that the radio station's perceived
objectivity would be compromised if Ms. Price remains
on air as a news commentator while her husband holds
such a public position. Some co-workers doubt that
Judy Price would publicly criticize her husband or his
party's policies, although they don't know for certain.
Ms. Price says that her job comes first and that any
attempt to remove her would represent a form of
discrimination on the basis of marital status. There are
no other on-air positions available for her at this station.
What would you do?
This exercise is designed to help you apply ethical
principles to real moral dilemmas that employers and
employees have faced.
Instructions
The following incidents are adapted from real events
and ultimately require someone to make a decision with
strong moral implications. For each incident, indicate
what you would do and identify one of the three ethical
principles described in this chapter to explain your
decision.
When everyone is done, students will form small
teams and compare their decisions and justifications for
each incident. If possible, try to reach a consensus on
the appropriate action for each incident, but leave
enough time to discuss each incident. Finally, the class
will discuss each incident, beginning by tallying the
actions that each student initially wrote down as well as
the group results. The subsequent discussion should
look at the ethical principle that dominated over others,
as well as the role of personal values in ethical decision
making.
The Case of the Awkward Office
Affair
As head of Human Resources, you have learned from
two employees that one of the office administrators,
Sandi, is having an affair with Jim, an employee in
shipping and receiving. Jim is single, but Sandi is
married and her husband also works in the company's
shipping and receiving department. You have spoken
privately to Sandi, who admits to the affair but doesn't
think that her husband knows about it. Moreover, she
retorted that the company has no right to snoop into her
private life and that she will see a lawyer if the company
does anything against her. So far, there haven't been any
signs of office disruption because the few employees
who know about the affair have not communicated it
through the grapevine. However, morale problems
could develop if the news spreads. The two employees
who initially told you about the affair believe strongly
in marriage fidelity and feel that Jim, Sandi, or both
should leave the company. Finally, there is the concern
that Sandi's husband might have an altercation with Jim,
and that the company could be liable for the
consequences. What would you do?
The Case of the Illegal Application
Form
You want to apply for a professional job at a mid-sized
manufacturing company. As part of the hiring process,
you are given an application form that asks, among
other things, about your age and marital status.
Requesting this information is a clear violation of
human rights laws. If you bring this fact to the
employer's attention, however, there is a concern that
the employer might think you won't be a loyal employee
or that you aren't a team player. If you leave those
sections blank, the employer might come to the same
conclusion or think that you have something to hide.
You don't know much about the quality of the
employer, but getting this job would be important to
your career. What would you do?
The Case of Questionable
Objectivity
You are owner of a highly rated talk radio station. The
popular radio personality on the morning phone-in
show, Judy Price, is married to John Price, an attorney
who entered politics a few years ago and is now a
64
Chapter 2 Individual Behavior Values, and Personality
SUPPLEMENTAL TEAM EXERCISE:
TASK PERFORMANCE EXERCISE
Purpose
(e.g., oriented-oriented) and their location on the
performance scale.
This exercise is designed to help students understand
how specific behaviors are associated with job
performance and how people may have different
standards or expectations about which behaviors
constitute good performance.
Comments to Instructors
Students are creating a behaviorally anchored rating
scale through this exercise. The first author has
conducted this exercise several times with the
occupations of “professor” and “bank teller”. Each time,
the exercise has been a lively and revealing analysis of
what customers (students) expect from people in
various occupations.
One of the main things to remind students is that
they focus on behaviors, not opinions. For example,
students tend to say “The teller was nice to me”,
whereas a better statement would be “The teller greeted
me with a smile”.
Putting the blank behaviorally anchored rating scale
on an overhead transparency helps each team to present
its results more quickly and clearly. Students use
markers to write their results and can quickly display
them to the rest of the class. A flip chart could also be
used if there are enough for each group in the class.
Here are some results that students have provided for
the occupation of bank teller:
Instructions
The instructor will identify a job that all students know
about, such as a bank teller or course instructor.
Students will focus on one performance dimension,
such as service skills among cafeteria cashiers, technical
skills of computer lab technicians, or lecture skills of
professors. Whichever performance dimension or job is
chosen for your team, the following steps apply:
Step 1: The instructor identifies a specific job and
students are placed into teams (preferably 4 or 5
people).
Step 2: Working alone, each student writes down five
specific examples of effective or ineffective behavior
for the selected job and performance dimension. Each
incident should clearly state the critical behavior that
made it effective or ineffective (e.g., "Instructor sat at
desk during entire lecture;" "Bank teller chewed gum
while talking to client"). The statements should describe
behaviors, not attitudes or evaluations.
6.67 -- Gave valuable information that the customer
didn’t think about asking (e.g. saving money on
transactions).
6.2 -- Commented favorably on the customer’s ability
(e.g. praised customer for completing a difficult
transaction well).
Step 3: Members of each team jointly number each
statement and delete duplicates. Each behavior
statement is read aloud to the team and, without any
discussion, each team member privately rates the
statement on a 7-point scale. When all statements have
been rated, the ratings for each statement are compared.
Discard statements about which team members
significantly disagree (such as when ratings are 2 or 3
points apart).
5.5 -- Answered questions completely without having to
consult others.
4.5 -- Greeted customer with a smile.
2.4 -- Did not bother to explain the service charge
related to the transaction.
1.8 -- Showed facial expression of impatience with the
customer.
Step 4: Teams will now average the ratings of the
remaining statements and write them at the appropriate
location along a 7-point scale on an overhead
transparency. An arrow or line should point to the exact
place on the scale where the statement's average score is
located.
1.5 -- Talked to other tellers while serving customer.
1 -- Handed money to customer without counting it first.
Step 5: Each team presents its results to the class and
describes areas of disagreement. Other class members
will discuss their agreement or disagreement with each
team's results, including the quality of the statements
65
Part 2 Individual Behavior and Processes
VIDEO SUGGESTIONS
Along with the video cases for this part of the textbook, the following videos and films generally relate to one or more
topics in this chapter. These programs may be available at your college/university or rented from the distributor. Please
contact your film librarian to determine the availability of these programs at your institution. This list was compiled from
library holdings of several universities. Due to the variety of video material, this is not a comprehensive list. Nor can we
say that all of the programs below are suitable for your class.
Business Ethics. (1997, 29 min., Films for the
Humanities). Several experts examine the moral
obligation corporations have to their employees and to
the communities where their plants exist.
Communicating Across Cultures. (1992, 30 min.,
Copeland Griggs). This program examines differences
in communication styles. It demonstrates the
misunderstandings that can result when people of
different national origin or ethnic background (or even
personality) try to communicate. It also shows how
discomfort around the subjects of race, gender and other
differences inhibits feedback and constructive
interaction.
Not for Sale: Ethics in the American Workplace.
(1997, 500 min, Live Wire Media). This video series of
10 episodes originally produced in 1991 is intended for
high school audiences, but might be appropriate for
introductory college or university classes. The episodes
relate the ethical experiences of four young people who
become employees of a fictional department store.
Business Ethics. (1997, 29 min., Films for the
Humanities). Several experts examine the moral
obligation corporations have to their employees and to
the communities where their plants exist.
66
Chapter 2 Individual Behavior Values, and Personality
NOTES
67