Original Paper
Biomedical Human Kinetics, 7, 171–176, 2015
DOI: 10.1515/bhk-2015-0025
­ re-performance routines followed by free throw shooting accuracy
P
in secondary basketball players
Ashley Phelps1, Pamela Kulinna2
1 Doctoral
Student, College of Applied Health Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, USA; 2 Arizona
State University, USA
Summary
Study aim: The purpose of the current study was to determine whether existing pre-performance routines had an effect on free
throw shooting accuracy in high school pupils as compared to shooting without a pre-performance routine.
Materials and methods: Participants were 34 freshman high school basketball players. Twenty male (n = 20) and fourteen
female (n = 14) of various ethnic backgrounds were randomly assigned to a condition and were asked to implement a preperformance routine in one condition and a non-pre-performance routine in another condition for free throw shooting. A within
subjects crossover design was used to analyse the data based on a pre-performance routine and a non-pre-performance routine
framework. The pre-performance routine conditions were considered the experimental conditions. A Missed-Made Shots table
was used to track performance (miss-made shots) for the shots in both conditions.
Results: There were differences between the experimental condition (pre-performance routine) and the comparison condition
(non-pre-performance routine) Z(22) = –4.61, p < 0.01 with the experimental condition’s median scores out-performing the
comparison condition scores; however the differences were very small.
Conclusions: These findings suggest that there were differences between the experimental condition (pre-performance routine)
and the comparison condition (non-pre-performance routine). Results suggest that there may be additional relevant factors in
addition to pre-performance routines that should be considered in helping youth develop closed motor skills (e.g., mental imagery, physical exertion, outside factors – audience).
Keywords: Pre-performance – Free throw – Routine – Non-routine – Closed-skill
Introduction
Pre-performance routines are individualized tasks
that are intended to prepare the athlete for correct execution [3]. These routines in various sports involve
formal, repetitive, and sequential behaviour. Routines
help athletes divert attention from task-irrelevant cues
to task-relevant cues [12, 27]. It has been suggested that
one method that might help athletes execute a closedskill successfully in the face of such potential distractions (e.g., thoughts about the consequences of failure,
movement in the audience and physical fatigue) is to develop a consistent set of cognitions and behaviours that
are executed before performance of the motor skill [6].
There is a widespread belief that pre-performance routines can have a positive impact on performance [15,
21]. Recent research has suggested that the utilization
Author’s address
of a pre-performance routine can assist in the establishment of an optimal physiological and psychological state
at critical times in an athlete’s performance, that is, immediately prior to the execution of a skill [4]. Cohn [6]
proposed that the inclusion of a cognitive element, utilizing skills such as relaxation, or positive self-talk, creates
the optimal psychological state, while behavioural tasks,
such as physically practicing the movement, promote
desired physiological states. Typically, when basketball
players are sent to the free-throw line after being fouled,
they demonstrate some sort of routine before attempting
their shot. More specifically, in a previous study, authors
showed a high success rate of free throw shots attempted
(284) when athletes adhered to a dominant behavioural
sequence (84%). The follow-up analyses indicated that
adding a new behaviour to one’s pre-performance routine appeared to detract from performance [18]. Similar
findings have been reported for volleyball players who
Ashley Phelps, Doctoral Student, College of Applied Health Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign,
906 S. Goodwin Ave, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
[email protected]
172
are serving the ball. After winning a rally, the server will
go behind the service line and exhibit some sort of routine – whether it be bouncing the ball a certain number of
times, spinning the ball, taking deep breaths, or assuming
their balanced position. These pre-performance routines
establish a specific duration, consistency, and rythmicity
[15, 21]. Although there is an urge for athletes to develop
a consistent pattern of cognitions and behaviours to be
executed before performance of a self-paced skill, more
research is needed in regards to the training protocols
and their effectiveness [24, 28]. In the current study, it
was hypothesized that free throw shooting accuracy will
be greater following pre-performance routines.
Purpose
Pre-performance mental and behavioural routines have
been cited in numerous publications as been important to
the execution of effective closed-skill performance [8].
The implementation of pre-performance routines can lead
to successful outcomes [10]. One limitation remains common throughout these studies: The numbers of participants
in each study were fairly small. It has also been suggested that pre-performance routines are efficiently learned
through formal instructional programs. By teaching learners the use of such techniques as a pre-performance routine, instructors can assist them in developing a plan of
action and activating appropriate physical and cognitive
processes.
From a neuroscience perspective, Travis et al. [26]
suggest that consciously performing any task regularly
over time may lead to cortical reorganization and that the
reversal of this process is difficult to achieve. However,
there could be exceptional circumstances where changing the existing behaviours are in the best interests of the
player.
Previous studies suggest that free throw shooting accuracy will be greater following pre-performance routines. Whether it be a temporal regimen, a behavioural
adjustment, imagery, positive self-talk, or relaxation preperformance routines are critical in a closed-skill execution. There were no studies that could be found on high
school students’ pre-performance routines for closed skills
(i.e., basketball free throw shots). It is essential that studies be conducted with this age group so researchers and
coaches can learn more about pre-performance routines
and their role in free throw shooting accuracy. Researchers
and coaches also need to know more about biomechanical
patterns, different types of mental imagery, and temporal
behaviour during the preparatory period of a free throw
and how these variables contribute to free throw shooting accuracy. As a result, the impact of pre-performance
routines in this group may make significant contributions
early on at the free throw line. The purpose of the current
A. Phelps, P. Kulinna
study was to determine whether existing pre-performance
routines had an effect on free throw shooting accuracy in
high school pupils as compared to shooting without a preperformance routine as well as to provide information on
temporal behavior.
Materials and methods
Setting
This study was conducted at a secondary school in the
Southwestern USA. The school was located in an upper
middle class neighbourhood in a small school district and
is comprised of approximately 1400 pupils (48% female,
79% Caucasian, 10% African American, 7% Hispanic,
4% American Indian/Alaskan Native) in grades 9–12, with
15% of the pupils eligible for a free and reduced lunch.
There were 42 full-time teachers who were employed at
the school, yielding a 33:1 student to teacher ratio. Overall,
the school performed above average on state standardized
tests in mathematics, reading, and writing. The school had
adequate facilities for a range of physical education and
physical activity opportunities, such as a multi-purpose
gymnasium, fitness room with cardiovascular and selectorized resistance training equipment, five outdoor grass
fields, four outdoor tennis courts, and a 400 meter track.
All male and female freshman basketball players were eligible for participation in this study.
Participants
The school freshman boy’s basketball team was comprised of twenty athletes (n = 20) and the girl’s freshman basketball team was comprised of fourteen athletes
(n = 14). All of the participants were between 14–15 years
of age and had played competitive basketball for more
than two years in both club and school related functions.
Each team was comprised of pupils with various ethnic
backgrounds 15% African American, 15% Hispanic, and
70% Caucasian.
Procedures
Before data collection began, all parents/guardians
were sent a letter that explained the nature and purpose
of the study, particularly the observational nature of the
study in that it did not require interactions beyond what
is expected in normal basketball practice. Parents/guardians and pupils were given the opportunity to withdraw
consent by returning a signed opt-out form (included
in the study description letter) with assurance that voluntarily withdrawing from study participation had no
negative consequences for them, or their child. The District and the University’s Institutional Review Board
approved the study methodology to assure compliance
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Pre-performance routines
Results
Research design
This study used a within subjects crossover design.
Participants were randomly assigned to a condition from
a numerical list using a random number generator. The
boy’s freshman team was split in half (Condition A = 10,
Condition B = 10). The girl’s freshman team was also split
in half (Condition A = 7, Condition B = 7). Condition A,
Time 1 was the control condition. This condition did not
implement a pre-performance routine prior to shooting
their free throws. They were simply given the basketball
and told to shoot – no pre-performance indicators allowed
(dribbling, deep breaths, spinning of the ball, etc.). Condition B, Time 1 on the other hand incorporated their normal pre-performance routine prior to shooting their free
throws. Both conditions shot a total of twenty free throws
per participant. Research personnel recorded missed and
made free throw shots. All pupils participated in both conditions in this alternating treatment. Temporary changes,
such as fatigue, were avoided by allowing 24 hours in between conditions.
Results from the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Non-Parametric Test indicated that there were differences between
the conditions – the experimental condition (used preperformance routines) and the comparison condition (did
not use pre-performance routines) Z(22) = –4.61, p < 0.01.
The experimental condition’s median scores out-performing the comparison conditions scores; however the differences were very small. The routine condition had a mean
of 10.47 (SD = 3.77 with a range of 3–18 shots made). The
non-routine condition had a mean of 10.24 (SD = 3.70 and
a range of 2–16 shots made). Please see Figure 1 for the
graph depicting the descriptive results by condition.
Instruments
The dependent variable for this study was the number
of free throws made out of twenty. The independent variables for this study were conditions (pre-performance routine vs. non-pre-performance routine).
Missed-Made Shots table
The numbers of free throws made were measured using a Missed-Made Shots table. The research team marked
a tally under whichever appropriate column the participant’s shot landed under. This form also included the participant’s number and condition.
Statistical analysis
Descriptive statistics were calculated for all variables
and visual analysis of graphs was used to identify functional relationships between the intervention condition
and non-intervention condition. A Wilcoxon Signed Ranks
non-parametric test was performed due to the ordinal nature of the data to determine if there were statistically significant differences between the two conditions (routine,
no routine). The data were paired due to the cross-over
design (i.e. non-parametric version of a paired t-test was
used). Statistical analyses were done using Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software, version
22.0 by International Business Machines (IBM) (North
Castle, New York, 2014). The convention was set at alpha
0.05. A p-value lower than alpha denoted a significant difference.
Free throws shots made
with acceptable research practices for all persons involved in the study.
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
Routine
Non-routine
4
2
0
Min
Max
Fig. 1. Total minimum and maximum made free throw shots
by condition
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to determine whether
existing pre-performance routines had a significant impact on free throw shooting accuracy in high school pupils. Based on the results, there were differences between
the experimental condition (pre-performance routine) and
the comparison condition (non-pre-performance routine).
These findings correlate with Lonsdale and Tam [18], Foster, Baines et al. [1], Collins et al. [7], Miller [19], Lidor
and Mayan [14], and Thelwell et al. [25] who reported
that pre-performance routines improved performance in
basketball, golf, water polo, volleyball, and cricket respectively.
Previous closed-skill studies at the elite level have indicated that experts efficiently attend to information that is
relevant for their actions, while leaving irrelevant and potentially distracting information unattended [20]. Focused
attention is especially necessary in self-paced and closedskill tasks [24], such as the precision sports of basketball
174
free throws, golf, and pistol shooting because the performers are more vulnerable to internal or external distractions
prior to and/or during task execution. Therefore, maintaining focus on a target and avoiding distractions from irrelevant information are the keys to success in these types
of sports. In some studies the characteristics of optimal
performance at the free throw line include a sustained and
constant investment of mental effort, such as arousal and
attention. The biomechanical breakdown of the basketball
free throw has also been observed and noted to the contribution of free throw outcomes as part of pre-performance
routines.
For example, in a biomechanical study conducted by
Schmidt [23], special characteristics of the basketball
free throw movement were identified. It is a full body
movement, a precision shooting task and a closed-skill.
Obviously, the ‘ready-to-shoot-position’ – a movement
phase, where the ball lies in the shooting hand, while
the shooter holds it in front of or above the forehead
and aims at the basket – is especially significant for the
performance outcome of the free throw action. In a biomechanical investigation of the basketball free-throw action, looking at ten players of the German national team,
the ‘ready-to-shoot-position’ was identified as the checkpoint of the whole motion sequence. The basketball free
throw was scientifically identified as a two-cycle movement, where the flexion and extension of the shooting
arm happen first, followed by the flexion and extension
of the knees. The point of return movement between the
two cycles is, in fact, the ‘ready-to-shoot-position’. The
‘ready to shoot position’ was emphasized as the necessity of carefully coordinating several force impulses for
a successful outcome.
In a golf study conducted by Collins et al., results suggested that participants who planned well while developing their pre-performance routines, using specific psychological skills emerged with a robust strategy to deal
with unexpected events, distracters, stress, and tension.
The implementation of pre-planned pre-performance
routines that includes situational specific and enduring
psychological skills, coupled with a deliberate allocation
of attention to reduce the tendency for the unexpected
to affect performance is clearly desirable, and possibly
crucial for mastery of stressful situations associated with
this level of golf performance. Routines may also be
most effective when they are built upon the personality,
coping resources, and situational appraisals of each individual performer. This approach would recognize the
individuality of the golfer, avoiding a one-size-fits-all
approach. Routines should be built around the enduring
psychological skills that the golfer is likely to employ
regardless of the situation [7].
Similar to the golf study conducted by Collins et al. [7],
water polo players used relaxation techniques, concentration
A. Phelps, P. Kulinna
cues, and imagery in their pre-performance routines (e.g.,
participants would imagine the perfect shot and take a deep
breath prior to execution). The steps the water polo players
implemented suggested that their pre-performance routines
were related to their skill proficiency.
In another study, video recordings of pre-performance
routines were analysed. The behavioural meanings behind these routines were established (to see if the players
were aware of their actions during these practice patterns).
There was also a developing focus and function for each
behavioural component that was addressed and a routine
construction and agreement was set in place – this sought
to explore what the players were seeking to achieve in the
preparation period. And lastly, the athletes practiced their
pre-performance routine.
A volleyball study examined the importance of motor
and cognitive components of two pre-performance routines on achievement in serving in volleyball among sixty
female beginning learners (mean age = 16.5 years). The
motor pre-performance learners were taught to implement
a consistent routine of motor behaviours each time before
they served the ball. The cognitive pre-performance learners were instructed to: Stand in a ready position on the
serving line, imagine themselves successfully performing
the serving task, focus attention on an external cue related
to the task or learning environment, such as the upper edge
of the net; and then execute the serve. The main finding
revealed in study two was that learners who were taught
a motor-emphasized pre-performance routine were more
accurate in the retention trials than both learners who
were instructed to use a cognitive-emphasized routine and
learners who were provided with only technical information [14].
Free throw shooting accuracy. Although previous research studies have suggested that free throw shooting accuracy is greater followed by pre-performance routines,
the previous studies [1, 7, 14, 18, 19, 25] have focused
solely on athletes at the elite level. Similarly, studies that
have been done on pre-performance routines at the free
throw line [1, 18] have had similar results in that preperformance routines do indeed have a positive impact on
free throw shooting accuracy, however, the impact was not
statistically significant.
According to Lonsdale and Tam [18], it is possible that
the adoption of a new behaviour could evoke cognitions
that distract the shooter, thus making it more likely that
he or she invokes conscious processing during the shot, or
prevents the initiation of the correct schema. Perhaps having the participants implement a different type of pre-performance behavioural pattern aside from their dominant
one could have yielded different results. Taking away the
participants routine and having them simply shoot from
the free throw line could have allowed them to develop
some sort of rhythm.
Pre-performance routines
There are numerous factors that may have contributed
to the findings, including the sample size as well as the
age of the participants. The small sample size and specific population of basketball players is a limitation of this
study that limits the generalizability of the findings. Future
research suggests broadening the subject base and varying
the skill levels in different research to be more insightful.
An example of this would be beginner studies, intermediate studies, and elite athlete studies.
Conclusion
The results of this study support the conclusion that
when participants implemented their pre-performance
routine at the free throw line, they experienced more success; however, that success was not significantly different
compared to their non-routine trials. The results from this
study appear to be different from professional and collegiate athletes where clear improvements were seen with
the use of pre-performance routines. Further studies are
needed to learn more about pre-performance routines
across sports and athlete experience levels as well as with
motor emphasis, cognitive emphasis, and instructions.
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Received 06.07.2015
Accepted 01.12.2015
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